CHAPTER1: CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS MEASUREMENT

Making observation is fundamental to all science.

Science A quantitative measurement (observation) consisting of 2 parts.
Science is a process for understanding nature and its changes. Part 1 – number,
Chemistry Part 2 – scale (unit)
The branch of science concerned with the composition, properties, and Eg: 20 grams, 5 liter
reactions of substances.
Chemistry is around you all the time. International System of measurement
Chemists around the world have agreed to a single system of scales that
SCIENTIFIC METHOD allows their work to be compared. This is called International System or SI.
This is based on metric system.
Scientific method is a framework for gaining and organizing knowledge. The
general method that applies for most sciences is given below.
The Fundamental SI Units
Steps in the scientific method
1. Observations Physical Quantity Name Abbreviation
Observations (collecting data) are two type: Mass kilogram kg
- Qualitative: Description, not a measurement. Length meter m
(Example: color, strength, etc) Time second s
- Quantitative: Measurement Temperature kelvin K
(Example: weight) Electric current Ampere A
Amount of solute Mole Mol
2. Formulating hypotheses Luminous intensity Candela cd
- Possible explanation (make a guess) for the observation.
3. Performing experiments to test the hypothesis. The prefixes used in SI system
- Gathering new information to decide whether the hypothesis is
valid. The SI units are not always convenient. So, prefix is used to change the size
of the unit.
A set of hypothesis (confirmed by experiments) that gives an explanation of
some natural phenomenon is called theory. Example.
If the theory can be applied to many different systems, it is called natural law. Mass of small gold earring = 0.000001 kg

Using too many zero is not convenient. So, we can use a prefix.
A law summarizes what happens.
0.000001 kg = 1 milligram (milli is the prefix)
A theory (model) is an attempt to explain why it happens.
(1 kilogram = 1000 g; 1 gram = 1000milligram)

General Chemistry – Handout by Dr. R. Saravanan (Page: 1)

Commonly used prefixes in SI system Precision and accuracy

Exponential Accuracy: Agreement of a particular value with the true value.

Prefix Meaning
Notion
giga 1,000,000,000 109 Precision: Degree of agreement among several measurements of the same
mega 1,000,000 106 quality. It reflects the reproducibility of a given type of measurement.
Kilo 1,000 103
Hector 100 102
Deka 10 101 Types of error in measurement
- 1 100
Deci 0.1 10-1 Random Error (Indeterminate Error) - measurement has an equal probability
Centi 0.01 10-2 of being high or low.
Milli 0.001 10-3
Systematic Error (Determinate Error) - Occurs in the same direction each
Micro 0.000001 10-6
nano 0.000000001 10-9 time (high or low), often resulting from poor technique or the equipment.

Random error in Systemic error in

Uncertainty in measurement Exact weight
measurement measurement
Measurement always has some degree of uncertainty. 98 gram 110 gram
100 gram 99.8 gram 108 gram
Certain digits: Digits which are same during repeated measurements.
102 gram 111 gram
Uncertain digits: Digit which is changing during repeated measurements.

Measurements are represented as

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
“Certain digits + First uncertain digit”
Significant figures refer to the digits in a number that you believe are
significant or relatively certain.

Example. Rules for Counting Significant Figures

Result of the measurement of volume (in 1. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
buret) may be Eg. 3456 has 4 significant figures.

20.15 or 20.16 or 20.17 2. Zeros

- Leading zeros DO NOT count as significant figures.
20.1 is certain digits
0.05, 0.06, 0.07 are uncertain digits Example: 0.0486 has only 3 significant figures.
- Captive zeros always count as significant figures.
We can write it as 20.16 ± 0.01
Example: 16.07 has 4 sig figs.
± 0.01 is called as uncertainty

General Chemistry – Handout by Dr. R. Saravanan (Page: 2)

 - Trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS
DECIMAL point (Be careful- this may be confusing!).
Multiplication and Division: Number of significant figures in the result
Example: 20354000 has 5 sig figs.
equals the number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation
20354000. has 8 sig figs. (the one with smallest number of significance).
.002035400 has 7 sig figs. Exercise 1.
6.38 X 2.0
3. Exact numbers. Exact numbers never limit the number of significant
figures. (6.38 = 3 sig figs; 2.0 = 2 sig figs.
So, the result should be 2 sig figs)
Example: Counting numbers (Example. 5 experiments, 6 cigarettes)
Exact constants (Example. 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly) 6.38 X 2.0 = 12.76
= 13 (2 sig figs)
Exercise 1.
Exercise 2.
How many significant figures in 103.351 X 102?
23 / 275.15
103.351 X 102 = 5 significant figures
(23 = 2 sig figs; 275.15 is 5 sig figs.
(X102 do not count as significant figure)
So the result should be 2 sig figs)

Round off 23 / 275.15 = 0.0835908

In most of the calculations we need to round numbers to obtain the correct = 0.084 (2 sig fig)
number of significant figures.
Rules: Addition and Subtraction: Number of decimals in the result equals the
1. First do the full calculation (to get final result) and then round off. number of decimal places in the least precise measurement.
2. If the digit to be removed Exercise1.
- Is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same. 6.8 + 11.934
Eg. 1.33 round to 1.3
(6.8 has 1 decimal, 11.934 has 3 decimal
So the result should have only 1 decimal)
- Is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit is increased by
one (+1). 6.8 + 11.934 = 18.734 = 18.7 (1 decimal)
Eg. 1.36 round to 1.4
Exercise 2.

Exercise 1. Round off 0.00034159 to 3 digits 0.355 + 105.1 - 100.5820

(0.355 has 3 decimal, 105.1 has 1 decimal, 100.5820 has 4 decimals
3.42 X 10-4
Exercise 2. Round off 0.00034159 to 3 significant figures So the result should have only 1 decimal places)

0.000342 0.355 + 105.1 - 100.5820 = 4.8730 = 4.9 (1 decimal)

General Chemistry – Handout by Dr. R. Saravanan (Page: 3)

Combination of addition/subtraction and multiplication/division
1. Perform full calculation (use calculator) to get the result. CONVERTING FROM ONE UNIT TO ANOTHER
2. Round-off in the intermediate steps to decide the correct number of
Proper use of “unit factors” leads to proper units in your answer.
significant figures.
3. Express the result in correct number of significance.
Dimensional analysis
There are different scales for dimension such as meter, Km, yard and mile.
Exercise 1. (24.6681 X 2.38) + 332.58
 Calculation Exercise 1. Convert 10 km to miles
(24.6681 X 2.38) + 332.58 = 391.29007
(1 km = 1000 m; 1m = 1.094 yards; 1760 yards= 1 mile)
 Deciding correct number of significant figures: Convert km → m → yard → mile
(24.6681 X 2.38) + 332.58 = 58.7 + 33.58 10 km X (1000 m / 1 km) X (1.094 yards / 1 m) X (1 mile/ 1760 yard)
– Answer should have only one decimal. = 6.22 miles
 Answer = 391.3
Exercise 2. Convert the gas mileage 15 km/L to miles/gallon

Exercise 2. (85.3 - 21.489) / 332.58 (1 km = 1000 m; 1m = 1.094 yards; 1760 yards= 1 mile
1 L = 1.06 qt; 4 qt = 1 gal)
 Calculation
(85.3 - 21.489) / 332.58 = 10815.423 First Convert km → m → yard → mile, and then convert L → qt → gal

 Deciding correct number of significant figures: 15 km/L X (1000 m / 1 km) X (1.094 yards / 1 m) X (1 mile/ 1760 yard) X
(85.3 - 21.489) / 332.58 = 63.8 / 0.0059 (1 L/1.06 qt) X (4 qt/1 gal)

– Answer should have 2 significant figures. = 35 miles/gallon

 Answer = 1.1 x 104

Temperature Analysis

Exercise 3. [(28.7 x 105) / 48.533] + 144.99 There are three major temperature scales

 Calculation 1) Celsius scale = °C

[(28.7 x 105) / 48.533] + 144.99 = 592800 2) Kelvin scale = K
3) Fahrenheit scale = °F
 Deciding correct number of significant figures: Conversion of temperature
[(28.7 x 105) / 48.533] + 144.99 = (2870000 / 48.533) + 144.99
TK = TC + 273.15
= (5.91 x 104) + 144.99
TC = TK - 273.15
– Answer should have only 2 decimals.
TF = TC X (9/5) + 32
 Answer = 5.93 x 104
TC = (TF – 32) X (5/9)
General Chemistry – Handout by Dr. R. Saravanan (Page: 4)
Where, TK = Temperature in Kelvin scale Three States of Matter (based on physical form)
TC = Temperature in Celsius scale 1) Solid: Rigid - fixed volume and shape.
2) Liquid: Definite volume but assumes the shape of its container.
TF = Temperature in Fahrenheit scale
3) Gas: No fixed volume or shape - assumes the shape of its container.

Exercise 1. A second way to classify matter is based on its composition.

Boiling point of water is 100 °C. Convert it to Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales.
TC = 100 °C
TK = TC + 273.15 = 100 + 273.15 = 373.15 °C
TF = TC X (9/5) + 32 = 100 X (9/5) + 32 = 180 + 32 = 212 °F
Exercise 2.
Normal body temperature is 98.6 F. Convert it to Celsius and Kelvin scales.
TF = 98.6 °F
TC = (TF – 32) X (5/9) = (98.6 – 32) X (5/9) = 66 X (5/9) = 37 °C
TK = TC + 273.15 = 37 + 273.15 = 310.15 = 310.2 K
DENSITY
Density is the mass of substance per unit volume of the substance.
Density = Mass/volume
Most matter around is a Mixture of pure substances.
Mixture can be divided into 2 groups
1) Homogenous mixture: It is very hard to distinguish the individual
parts (eg. Solutions).
2) Homogenous mixture: it has visibly distinguishable parts.
A mixture can be separated into individual pure substances. There are
various physical methods that can be used to separate mixtures. These
include distillation, filtration, and chromatography. This separation is a
physical change (NOT a chemical change).
A pure substance is one with constant composition. It may be an element or
a compound.
Compound is composed of different elements, and may be broke down into
elements by chemical methods.
Elements cannot be decomposed to simpler compounds by either physical
or chemical processes, and can only be broken down by nuclear interactions.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter
Matter: Anything occupying space and having mass.
Various composition?
Yes No
Physical
Mixers methods Pure substances

Visibly distinguishable? Various atoms?

No Yes No Yes
Homogenous Heterogenous Element Complex
mixures mixures Chemical
Solid Liquid Gas methods
Atoms
General Chemistry – Handout by Dr. R. Saravanan (Page: 5)
 CHAPTER 1: MODEL QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Note: The correct answer was indicated by underline
1) How many significant figures in 0.003840?
a) 7 b) 4 c) 3
Calculate the significant figures for the following numbers.
4) Calculate (0.102 X 0.0821 X 243)/1.01 and express the result to the
correct number of significant figures.
(0.102 X 0.0821 X 243) / 1.01 = 2.0147827 = 2.01 (3 sig figs)
5) Calculate 2.01 x 102 + 3.014 x 103 and express the result to the correct
d) 6 number of significant figures.
2.01 x 102 + 3.014 x 103 (Answer should have only 2 decimal)

Number Sig figs. Number Sig figs. = 201 + 3014 = 3215 = 3.22 x 103
6.07 × 10-15 3 3.0 × 102 2 Also Perform the following calculations.
17.00 4 301 3 Calculation Result Answer with correct
8 X 10 8
1 300 1 significant figures

463.8052 7 300. 3 212.2 + 26.7 + 402.09 640.99 641.0 (1 decimal)

1.0028 + 0.221 + 0.10337 1.32717 1.327 (3 decimal)
2) Round off 17.9915 to 5 digits. 52.331 + 26.01 – 0.9981 77.3429 77.34 (2 decimal)
a) 17.992 b) 17.9 c) 18.0 d) 17.991 7.255 - 6.8350 0.4200 0.420 (3 decimal)

Round off each of the following numbers to the indicated digits. 6) Calculate (512 / 986.7) + 5.44 and express the result to the correct
Round off the following numbers Answer number of significant figures.

0.084 to 2 digits 8.4 X 10-2 Step 1: Calculation

0.00034159 to 3 digits 3.42 X 10-4 (512 / 986.7) + 5.44 = 5.9589013

103.351 X 102 to 4 digits 1.034 X 104 Step 2: Deciding correct number of significant figures:
3.365 X 105 to 3 digits 3.37 X 105 (512 / 986.7) + 5.44 = 0.519 + 5.44
– Answer should have only 2 decimals.
3) Round off 17.9915 to five significant figures. Step 3: Answer = 5.96
17.992 Also perform the following calculations.
Round off each of the following numbers to the indicated significant figures.
Calculation Result Answer
Round off the following numbers Answer (2.526/3.1) + (0.470/0.623) + 188.12727 188.1 (1 decimal)
0.000341591 to 3 significant figures 3.42 X 10 -4 (80.705/0.4326)

0.0746 to 4 significant figures 0.07460 (6.404X2.91) / (18.7-17.1) 11.647275 12 (2 Sig fig)

3065 to 2 significant figures 3.1 X 103 (9.5 + 4.1 + 2.8 + 3.175) / 4 4.89375 5 (1 Sig fig)

General Chemistry – Handout by Dr. R. Saravanan (Page: 6)

7) Convert the gas mileage 10 km/L to miles/gallon
(1 km = 1000 m; 1m = 1.094 yards; 1760 yards= 1 mile; 1 L = 1.06 qt;
4 qt = 1 gal)
10 km/L X (1000 m / 1 km) X (1.094 yards / 1 m) X (1 mile/ 1760 yard) X
(1 L/1.06 qt) X (4 qt/1 gal)
= 23.5 miles/gallon

8) Calculate the number of minutes in a month: 24 hours per day, 60

minutes per hour, 7 days per week, and 4 weeks per month.
Convert: month → week → days → hours → minutes
1 month X (4 weeks/month) X (7 days/week) X (24 hrs/day) X (60 min/hr)
1 month = 40320 mins

9) Convert -25° C temperature to Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales.

TC = -25° C
TK = TC + 273.15 = -25 + 273.15 = 248.15
TF = TC X (9/5) + 32 = -25 X (9/5) + 32 = -45 + 32 = -13 °F

10) Which one of the following has fixed volume and variable shape?
a) Gas b) Liquid c) Solid d) All the above

General Chemistry – Handout by Dr. R. Saravanan (Page: 7)