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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 930780

Optimisation of Catalytic Converter Gas

Flow Distribution by CFD Prediction

Herman Weltens, Harald Bressler, Frank Terres,

Hubert Neumaier, and Detlev Rammoser
Heinrich Gillet GmbH & Co. KG

Reprinted from: U.S. and European

Automotive Emissions Technology
(SP-957)

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March 1-5,1993

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Optimisation of Catalytic Converter Gas
Flow Distribution by CFD Prediction
Herman Weltens, Harald Bressler, Frank Terres,
Hubert Neumaier, and Detlev Rammoser
ABSTRACT
Performance improvements, of catalytic con-
verters, and longer service life can be achieved by
improving the flow distribution of exhaust gases.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is an excellent
and relatively inexpensive technique for rapid and
efficient optimization of the flow. Studies indicate
that a 3D representation is necessary because 2D is
insufficient. The computations are confirmed by
measurements of steady flow. A number of design
parameters are systematically investigated and their
effects on an index of flow uniformity established.
The parameters include the geometry of the inlet
tube and inlet cone, the geometry and placement of
the monoliths, and the shape of the exit cone. The
difficult flow conditions in close coupled converters
are examined. The flow path is improved and the
best location of the HEGO-sensor found.
INTRODUCTION
A number of factors have contributed to an
intensification of activities to optimize the design of
catalytic converters. These are: more stringent emis-
sion limits (particularly in the USA), efforts to
increase the service life of exhaust components
(USA: 100,000 miles or 10 years for exhaust
emission related components), and the market
pressure to reduce costs. Experiments conducted
more than 20 years ago, on catalytic converters for
passenger vehicles having ceramic monoliths as
substrate, showed that a uniform distribution of the
exhaust gases, at the inlet cross-section of the first
monolith, permits a substantial improvement of the
conversion [9, 10]. The uniform flow distribution
enables a consistent space velocity with lower local
maxima and smaller temperature gradients in the
930780
Heinrich Gillet GmbH & Co. KG
catalytic converter. This also has a positive influence
on the aging of the catalytic converter.
The deposition rate is directly proportional to the
local gas velocity. Deposits cause a progressive
deactivation of the catalytic converter. Howitt [10]
demonstrated that a better distribution of the flow
results in a substantially more uniform deposition in
the inlet region of the first monolith. Thus the
catalytically active centers, at the surface of the
quadratic cells in the monolith, are less covered. The
slower aging of the catalytic converter has benefits,
considering the presently valid and future emission
limits. Either a longer life for a given catalytic con-
verter volume or the same life for a reduced catalytic
converter volume becomes possible. The latter is a
better utilization of the catalytic converter and
enables a reduction in cost and mass.
The distribution of the exhaust gas flow veloc-
ity, at inlet to the first monolith, is influenced not
only by the geometry of the inlet cone to the catalyt-
ic converter. It is also affected by the routing, the
bends, the diameter and the conjunction of the
exhaust tubes upstream of the catalytic converter,
the shape of the cross-section and also the flow
resistance of the monoliths. Depending on the
design, the uniformity decreases more or less rapidly
with increasing Reynolds number.
An exclusively experimental optimization of
these designs parameters is extremely time con-
suming and expensive. A multitude of prototypes
with different design must be manufactured and
tested. The geometry of the models must be abso-
lutely exact because the flow is very sensitive to
geometric deviations. Sheet steel prototypes require
expensive tools and careful workmanship. The
stereo-lithographic manufacture of plastic models,
directly from CAD-data, has proved to be an exact
method for the experimental flow investigation in
catalytic converters. The time required and the
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model costs are however relatively high. Hence, a
mainly computational optimization of the converter
geometry is desirable, particularly in the concept
phase. This theoretical investigation, using math-
ematical modelling of multi-dimensional flow pro-
cesses, is known as CFD (Computational Fluid
Dynamics).
CFD investigations are routinely performed in
the automobile industry both for internal and external
flows. External flow studies aim at reducing the
aerodynamic drag of automobiles. Examples of
internal flow studies are: design of inlet manifolds,
cylinder heads, cabin air conditioning and also the
design of catalytic converters. Hucho [11] summar-
izes numerical applications in automobile design.
If necessary, the computational pre-optimization
can be supplemented with experimental investiga-
tions. A CFD study of the flow in catalytic con-
verters is non-intrusive and supplies detailed predic-
tions. These could be obtained experimentally only
by using complex techniques such as Laser Doppler
Anemometry (LDA). Predictions are required for
example on how the HEGO-sensor, at its envisaged
position, is exposed to the exhaust gases from the
individual cylinders.
CFD PROGRAM AND COMPUTATIONAL BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
The majority of the computations reported in
this paper were performed with the CFD code CD-
STAR. Some flow computations were done using the
code FIDAP [12]. Both CFD programs have been
found useful for flow calculations in automobile
catalytic converters.
The monoliths studied consist of oval and round
cylindrical ceramic supports with a large number of
longitudinal quadratic cells. The ceramic monoliths
investigated had 62 cells/cm2 (400 cells/in2). The
exhaust gas flows through the monolith longitudinal-
ly. The walls of these cells are wash-coated and
impermeable to exhaust gas. The exhaust gas is
cleaned by chemical processes. These processes are
promoted by the actual catalyst which is on the
surface of the wash coat in the longitudinal cells.
The monolith is modeled as a porous medium.
The flow through this medium is exclusively longi-
tudinal. There is no radial mass transfer in the porous
medium. The porous medium is represented by the
definition of a pressure loss per unit length depend-
ing on the local velocity. The flow in the cells is
assumed to be purely laminar. The results reported
in this paper do not account for chemical reactions.
Will [5] has proved that this simplification is permiss-
ible. The catalytic converter is idealized as iso-
thermal. The velocities calculated, without chemical
reaction, are thoroughly representative of the actual
conditions. The velocity discrepancy, compared to
actual values with chemical reaction, is usually less
than 10%.
The surface geometry of the exhaust gas sys-
tem, containing the gas flow, is obtained from the
pertinent CAD model. Thus the CAD and CFD models
are coupled. The boundary conditions to the CFD
calculations are obtained from the engine charge
exchange computation program PROMO [1 ]. PROMO
enables the simulation of the nonsteady gas dynamic
processes in exhaust gas systems.
Figure 1 shows a superposition of the velocity
profile at inlet to the exhaust manifold of a 4-cylinder
in-line engine, at full load. The pertinent discharge
process is marked by a high velocity peak and a peak
of lower velocity. The first peak results from the
expansion of the cylinder exhaust gas at opening of
the exhaust valve. The second discharge peak
results from the piston displacement. The catalytic
converter is sequentially and individually exposed to
these peaks. The maximum gas velocity occurring
will however depend on the location of the catalytic
converter. Maximum velocities are substantially
lower in catalytic converters located under the floor
of the vehicle than those close to the engine.
The mass flows from the individual cylinders
only slightly overlap in time. Thus, the exhaust gas
from individual cylinders flow through the catalytic
converter essentially separated from each other.
Hence it can be assumed that the exhaust gas from
the individual cylinders does not mix or hardly mix
unless special measures are implemented for mixing.
The storage of gaseous components in, e.g. oxygen,
the catalytic converter equalizes the differences in
the air-fuel ratios of the individual cylinders. How-
ever, this only applies to single-flow catalytic con-
verters with one inlet tube. More complex converter
arrangements require special design measures at the
inlet to the converter system. This would be the case
for single-flow converter systems with two inlet
tubes, a common arrangement in racetrack catalytic
converters, or double-flow converter systems,
usually employed in European automobiles having
engines larger than 2.5 liters [7]. The design
measures, to improve the exhaust gas
homogenization, include mixing tubes or chambers
and exhaust gas distributors [3, 4, 7].
Figure 1 also shows that the gas velocity in the
catalytic converter is time dependent. The maximum
space velocity is a particularly critical parameter for
the conversion of gaseous pollutants. A coupling of
the PROMO and CFD programs would basically
permit the calculation of the dynamic flow processes
in the catalytic converter, e.g. the time dependent
flow in the monoliths.
Considerable CPU time is required for the 3D
computation under nonsteady conditions. Hence, it
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was decided to perform the computational
optimization of the catalytic converter geometry
under steady-state conditions i.e. at constant Rey-
nolds number. Therefore the maximum gas velocity
at inlet to the catalytic converter was the basis for
the calculation of the flow velocity distribution at the
monolith cross-section. This assumption is particular-
ly appropriate for converters placed under the
vehicle. This procedure has been verified by Farsch
[4].
Benchmark tests were performed, for different
converter geometries, to verify and optimize the
mathematical model for flow predictions in automo-
bile catalytic converters. These benchmark tests
compared the predicted gas velocities with those
experimentally measured in a flow test rig. After
adapting the CFD model, the results of these inves-
tigations show a good correlation between CFD-
predictions and measurements. The discrepancy was
maximal 15%. These comparative investigations will
be discussed in more detail in a later section. The
accuracy attained is sufficient for engineering and
design purposes. Such a CFD program has proved to
be a rapid and cost-effective method to optimize the
geometry of automobile catalytic converters.
INDEX FOR UNIFORMITY OF FLOW VELOCITY
An index is useful to evaluate the uniformity of
flow velocity at the cross-section of a monolith.
These indices shall characterize the complex
through-flow pattern. Ideal inflow in the catalytic
converter is obtained when the average velocity
prevails in each cross-sectional element. Equation 1
defines the average velocity at the cross-section of
the monolith.
In reality, the flow conditions at inlet to the mono-
lith, result in local flow velocities i which are not
equal to the average velocity. A local non-uniformity
index i, for the gas flow, can be derived from it.
The non-uniformity index i of the flow passing
through a control surface is defined by equation 3.
A uniformity index can be defined (equation 4). It
has values between 0 (worst case) and 1 (ideal). The
uniformity index describes how efficiently the flow
passes through a control surface.
For example = 0.5 indicates that half off the con-
trol surface has a flow velocity of 0 (no through-
flow), while the remaining half experiences double
the average velocity. A fully developed tube flow,
with a Reynolds number Re = 60,000, has a uni-
formity index = 0.94. Considering the pressure
loss in a monolith, the values are to some extent
better represented than in the undisturbed tube flow.
The uniformity index is dependent on the
Reynolds number. The index decreases with increas-
ing Reynolds numbers. This decrease is relatively
small in flow-optimized catalytic converters (Fig. 2).
The figure shows the relatively strong dependence of
a converter, with conventional straight centered inlet
cone, to an increase in flow velocity. This implies
that the uniformity of the flow clearly deteriorates
with increasing gas velocity. In contrast, the sensitiv-
ity to flow velocity is substantially lower for a
converter having optimized oblique inflow (cone
angle 60° to center-line). Practice has shown that
the index is a reliable and accurate parameter for
evaluating the uniformity of the axial flow velocity in
the cross-section of a catalytic converter.
MEASUREMENTS IN STEADY FLOW
The comparative flow measurements, referred to
in this paper, were obtained in a flow test rig using
air at room temperature. The construction of the rig
is assumed to be generally known and is not
described. The extrapolation from air at room tem-
perature to hot exhaust gases is performed via the
Reynolds number Re. It has been proved reasonable
to set up individually and sequentially, steady flow of
the exhaust gas from the pertinent cylinder to the
monolith. Thus, a comprehensive picture is obtained
of the distribution of the exhaust gas from each
individual cylinder. This procedure is appropriate
because each cylinder of a spark ignition engine
operates at slightly different air-fuel ratios. Hence, it
is desirable that the flow from an individual cylinder
always uniformly flows through the entire monolith
cross-section. Generally, the flow state at full load
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and maximum speed is simulated. This causes the
worst possible flow distribution at inlet to the first
monolith. Further, the operating conditions at full
load are decisive for the aging of the catalytic
converter.
The measurement of the flow, in a multi-block
catalytic converter, is performed by measuring the
flow velocity downstream of the pertinent monolith.
If the second monolith is more than 15 mm behind
the first monolith, it is permissible to measure down-
stream of the first monolith with cutted off second
monolith. This procedure substantially simplifies the
measurements. Lemme [9], too, has substantiated
the correctness of this procedure. When the gap
between the monoliths is less than 10 mm, then the
influence of the subsequent monolith must be
considered in the measurements. Hence, the mea-
surement of the flow velocity, behind the first
monolith, is only possible in a closed housing.
The correctness of the measurements is verified
using the law of mass conservation. The mass flow
downstream of the monolith is calculated by inte-
grating the local flow velocities.
A Pitot tube of approximately 6 mm diameter,
the conical hot-film probe, and the multi-flow
Schmidt sensor are suitable for measuring the gas
velocity behind the monoliths.
Flow sensors with lowest possible cross-sec-
tional dimensions are advantageous for measure-
ments in the gap between the monoliths, to avoid
distorting the flow. The Schmidt sensor and the hot-
film probe are particularly successful.
PREDICTIONS COMPARED TO MEASUREMENTS
A comparison between calculation and meas-
urement was performed to verify the boundary
conditions of the CFD calculation and the mathemat-
ical modelling. These comparisons were done for
several catalytic converters of different geometries.
Among others, a double-bed catalytic converter with
racetrack monoliths was compared at Reynolds
numbers representative of part-load engine power.
The gas inlet was via a 90° tube elbow. The center
line of the elbow is situated in the plane of the major
axis of the monoliths. Further, the inlet tube was
eccentric to the minor axis. This is a very complex
geometry in regard to the expected flow patterns.
Fig. 3 shows the results of a 3D computation. The
flow patterns and the velocity distribution are illus-
trated in the symmetry plane of the major axis.
It is seen that in the inlet cone, flow separation
in the plane of the longitudinal axis, forms a core
flow and 2 vortices. These vortices envelop the core
flow. Less separation occurs in the plane of the
minor axis of the monolith. The core flow hits the
inlet surface in the region of the minor monolith axis
in a compact form. This core jet penetrates, mainly
axially concentrated, a small cross-sectional area of
the first monolith. Because the space velocity is
locally very high, it may be expected that the con-
version is not optimal. Further, it can be anticipated
that accelerated aging of the catalytic converter
occurs due to the high local temperatures and
temperature gradients resulting from the concentra-
tion of the mass flow on a small part of the mono-
lith. The core jet is also partially deflected radially at
the inlet surface. This flow component is fed to the
upper part of the monoliths and to the vortices. The
velocity distribution in the first monolith is illustrated
in Fig. 4.
The lower part of the catalytic converter does
not receive much flow and contributes only partially
to the conversion of the pollutants. The noble metals
in this region are ineffectively utilized.
The flow reforms in the gap between the mono-
liths, which in this case is 25 mm wide. This causes
an equalization of the velocities. Thus the velocity
distribution is substantially more uniform in the sec-
ond monolith. Nevertheless, the velocity distribution
should also be uniform in the first monolith. Only
then, a sustained and effective conversion of the
emissions is guaranteed.
The good agreement, between computation and
measurement is shown in Fig. 5. It plots the velocity
profile along a line parallel to the major axis of the
racetrack, at a distance of 20 mm from the center
line, for a Reynolds number Re = 57,000. The com-
putations were performed with hot exhaust gas
whereas the measurements on the test rig were with
cold air. Comparison is facilitated by a normalized
representation of the velocity at the inlet tube of the
converter.
The other benchmark tests, too, show good
agreement between computation and measurement.
The accuracy demanded for engineering practice is
adequately attained. A computational pre-
optimization of the converter geometry is essentially
possible using CFD.
Practice shows that the generation of a 3D
mesh is extremely time-consuming, particularly for
complex geometries. An automatic mesh generator
is not yet available. Hence, an attempt was made to
perform the preliminary investigations using a 2D
representation. The 3D representation was applied to
complete the theoretical investigations and detailed
optimization of the preferred design variant. The
objective was a substantial reduction of the compu-
tational cost and effort by simplifying the model
simulations.
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COMPARISON OF 3D AND 2D COMPUTATIONS
Three cases were investigated and compared for
different models of a round catalytic converter. They
had a long rotation-symmetric inlet cone and cen-
tered inlet of a straight inflow tube. The diameter
ratio D/d was 2 and the conical angle 10°. These are
optimum conditions to obtain a uniform flow distribu-
tion. The three cases investigated were:
- Purely 2D model (disc section)
- Cyclic 3D model (pie section)
- Full 3D model (real geometry)
Even for this simplified converter geometry, the
results of the theoretical investigations reveal an
unsatisfactory difference between the 2D and 3D
models (Fig. 6). The figure illustrates that there are
significant discrepancies regarding the point at which
the flow separates, on the inlet cone, and also the
velocity profile. Almost no flow separation occurs in
the 2D model of the inlet cone. However, there is a
distinct flow separation in the 3D model.
Figure 7 shows the velocity profile in the mid-
plane. The results of measurements are also shown
besides the 2D and 3D computations. Here, too,
there is a good agreement between the 3D computa-
tion and the measurements. The velocities are signifi-
cantly higher in the 2D representation. This is
because the continuity conditions of a 2D represen-
tation are different from those for 3D. Hence, other
velocity states occur at changes in cross-section.
The higher velocities in the 2D computation also
provoke a greater flow resistance in the monoliths.
The differences between 2D and 3D computations
are even more pronounced for complex converter
geometries, than for the simple symmetric
geometries shown. It was therefore decided to
perform all future predictions exclusively with 3D
models.
The scope of the theoretical studies included a
systematical investigation of the influence of the
converters' geometric parameters on the flow
patterns. In particular, the flow distribution at inlet to
the first monolith was computed. The key parame-
ters are the geometry of the inlet tube, the design of
the inlet cone, and the arrangement of the monoliths.
Computations were performed for underfloor catalyt-
ic converters and for close coupled converters.
INFLUENCE OF THE INLET TUBE GEOMETRY
The benchmark tests had already indicated the
big influence of the geometry of the inlet tube on the
uniformity of the gas flow. A sudden deflection of
the gas flow, e.g. through a sharp tube elbow,
immediately prior to catalytic converter inlet, should
be avoided. The mass inertia of the gas causes a
pronounced unequal distribution. The controlled
retardation of gases is extremely difficult. In prac-
tice, space constrains often only permit a partial
optimization of the inlet tube geometry. Significant
parameters are: engine configuration with V or in-line
cylinders, lateral or longitudinal arrangement of the
engine, the exhaust manifold and the location of the
catalytic converter. Further, the diameter of the inlet
tube, particularly at inlet to the cone, is very import-
ant. The larger the tube diameter, the more uniform
the flow at inlet cross-section.
Figure 8 shows results representing a step-by-
step computational optimization of the inlet tube
geometry for a racetrack catalytic converter of a 4-
cylinder engine. The two left figures correspond to
the geometry of the initial design, which was
obtained by CAD placement. Gas flowing through
the left tube (connected cylinder 1 and 4) flows as
a compact jet and spreads out only after hitting the
inlet cross-section of the first monolith. Inflow from
the right tube (cylinders 2 and 3) causes similarly
undesirable flow. These unfavorable flow patterns
make it impossible to optimally place the HEGO-
sensor in the inlet cone. There is no position at
which flow from both inlet tubes is uniformly sensed.
The design was completely changed to optimize
the flow conditions. The conjunction of the inlet
tubes was advanced. The geometry of the Y-junction
was optimized. The tube routing before entering in
the converter was changed, too. This results in a
short pre-chamber and a diameter that is large
relative to the individual tubes. Thus the gas flow is
earlier decontracted. The HEGO-sensor is touched by
the main flow. The uniformity of the velocity in the
first monolith was improved, as seen in Fig. 8 (right).
Figure 9 shows the gas velocity distribution in
the first monolith. The optimization of the inlet tube
substantially equalizes the gas velocity. The flow
through the inlet cross-section of the first monolith
is more uniform. The average space velocity
decreases at the given Reynolds number. Hence the
emission conversion will be better, especially at high
mileage.
Additional design changes, where the inlet tubes
merge immediately before entry into the catalytic
converter, had a pronounced influence on the flow
distribution.
Fig. 10 shows the results of an experimental
investigation on a racetrack catalytic converter. The
influence of deflectors, nozzles, and mixing tubes
were investigated for the velocity distribution in the
first monolith. Deflectors (3) or nozzles (4) in the
transition between inlet tube and inlet cone are very
effective. Best of all, is a long mixing tube (5), which
however often cannot be implemented because of
the engine performance characteristics. The nozzle
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can basically be integrated also into the inlet cone,
too. Pelters [8] mentions series production of a sym-
metrical oblique flow diffuser.
INFLUENCE OF THE INLET CONE
The cross-section of the inlet tube is much
smaller than the cross-section of the monolith. An
expansion of the flow occurs. Flow separation
happens at the cone angles normally used. Vortices
are formed, as already mentioned. The flow distribu-
tion depends on the form of the cross-section of the
monolith. Depending on the geometry of the mono-
lith and the inlet cone, there are sometimes large
velocity differences at entry to the first monolith.
The racetrack monolith is the most frequent
application as catalyst support. The velocity distribu-
tion in the racetrack converter is particularly non-uni-
form for a single inlet tube in the major axis of the
oval cross section, even with a straight central inlet.
Attempts were made, already in the 1970s, to
equalize the flow through such a catalytic converter,
by placing cones and discs [9, 10] in the inlet cone.
Even then the aim was to prolong service life by
reducing both the thermal stresses and the local
concentration of deposits. Such deflectors are
however undesirable because of their limited mech-
anical endurance. It is difficult to mount them durab-
ly. Further, the rapid light-off of the catalytic con-
verter is affected by their thermal inertia. Indenta-
tions in the inlet cone were also applied to equalize
the flow in the first monolith [15].
Such measures unfortunately worsen the back
pressure. Hence, other design changes were investi-
gated theoretically and experimentally. All results
show that, for a straight inlet to the catalytic con-
verter, only a very long inlet cone with an angle of 6-
10° can ensure uniform flow distribution (Fig. 11).
Space limitations do not permit such long cones.
An oblique inflow to the first monolith can
insure an optimal flow distribution in spite of the
compact geometry. The principle is to project the
cross-section of the inlet tube onto the entry cross-
section of the first monolith. The flow is deflected at
entry into the first monolith. A reduction in the
pressure loss can be anticipated because of the
improved flow distribution. This design arrangement
is well known for turbo-charger inter-coolers. Practi-
cal application to exhaust catalytic converters has
only recently happened [6].
Figure 12 illustrates the successive steps in the
computational optimization of the geometry of an
inlet cone. The catalytic converter for a 4-cylinder in-
line engine had circular monoliths. To optimize the
performance characteristics, the equally long inlet
tubes of the tubular manifold were only merged just
before the inlet cone immediately after a bow and
have a clover-leaf form. The cone is relatively short.
Hence, straight inflow (figure 12 above) has an
above unfavorable flow distribution. The figure
shows the flow patterns by through-flow from tube
1. A 60° oblique inflow to the first monolith pro-
duces a substantially better flow distribution, figure
in the middle.
A further optimization is possible, even though
the core jet has been considerably reduced and the
area of weak flow decreased. The figure below
shows the results of optimizing the conical shape by
a particular design of the cone that forms a deflector
in the lower half of the cone. The table, Fig. 12,
shows the uniformity index of the flow for different
conical geometries that were theoretically inves-
tigated. The flow distribution is mostly better at 60°
inflow. A deterioration however occurs by through-
flow from tube 2, but could be avoided by a further
optimization of the inlet cone.
A mass produced racetrack converter with 60°
oblique inflow is reported [4]. It had considerably
less deterioration of conversion, after the same
mileage, compared to a racetrack converter with
straight inflow.
INFLUENCE OF GEOMETRY AND PLACEMENT OF
THE MONOLITHS
The flow distribution at the entry to the first
monolith is considerably dependent on the cross-sec-
tional form of the monolith and the pressure loss in
the substrate. The racetrack converter has character-
istics unfavorable to a uniform distribution. In recent
years monoliths with compact cross-sections are
being used particularly for double-flow converter sys-
tems [3, 6]. These compact monoliths have different
cross-section shapes e.g. round and triangle. The
pressure loss of a catalytic converter, with ceramic
monoliths, depends on the Reynolds number and on
the physical characteristics of the substrates. These
include the cross-section, cell density, the wall
thickness, the thickness and distribution of the wash
coat layer and, in particular the length of the mono-
lith.
When the length of an individual monolith
exceeds 12 to 15 cm, it is usually partitioned into 2
or 3 monoliths. This partitioning reduces the thermal
and mechanical stresses in the monolith. Further, a
homogenization of the exhaust gas and equalization
of the local flow velocities occur, in the gap between
the monoliths. In addition, a turbulent flow is gener-
ated at inlet of the second monolith. This has a
positive effect on the mass transfer in the monolith
cells and thus improves conversion in the catalytic
converter.
There are different opinions on how the total
length of the catalytic converter should be parti-
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tioned. Some designs have a very short first mono-
lith, compared to the second monolith, with the
intention of improving the starting response. Other
multi-block designs have the longer catalytic con-
verter in the first position, or have equally long
monoliths. A considerable number of simulation
calculations were performed to clarify the circum-
stances and to establish an optimum design for
uniform gas flow. Both the optimum partitioning of
the total length and the ideal gap between the
monoliths were investigated.
Figure 13 shows the results of a computer simu-
lation of a round dual-block catalytic converter with
axial and centric inflow. The gap between the
monoliths was 10 mm. The monolith lengths were
100 mm and 40 mm. The upper picture, with the
shorter monolith in front, shows a very unequal
distribution of the flow velocities over the cross
section of the first monolith. The core jet persists at
inlet to the first monolith. High local space velocities
occur. These are associated with high temperatures
and large temperature gradients. The concentration
of the physical and chemical processes causes a
rapid aging of the catalytic converter in the region of
the core jet. An equalization of the different veloc-
ities occurs in the gap, so that the second monolith
has a more uniform through-flow.
The lower Fig. 13 shows the velocity distribu-
tion for the arrangement with the longer monolith in
front. Owing to the higher flow resistance of the first
monolith, the exhaust gas diffuses already before
entry into the first catalytic converter. Because of
the constant gas temperature and the incompressible
flow prediction, the velocity profile at outlet corre-
sponds to the velocity profile at the inlet of the first
monolith. The better flow distribution significantly
retards aging. This is substantiated by extended
experimental investigations of catalytic conversion in
engines [6, 10].
The design of dual-block catalytic converters
should, from a fluid dynamic standpoint, therefore
make the first monolith as long as possible. However
a maximum length of about 12 to 15 cm should not
be exceeded. The reasonable minimum length of the
shorter second monolith is constrained by the techni-
cal possibilities of canning. Manufacturing considera-
tions require a minimum length of about 5 to 6 cm.
Figure 14 shows the influence of the gap,
between the monoliths of a 2-bed catalytic con-
verter, on the flow velocity distribution. The uniform-
ity index , of the flow downstream of the second
monolith, is plotted as a function of the gap. The
results were obtained on an experimental test rig.
The curve show that no further change is obtained
when the gap between the monoliths is more than
15 mm. So the inter-monolith gap should not exceed
15 mm. Gaps less than 5 mm have an exceptionally
positive influence on the equalization of the flow
velocities in the first monolith. From fluid dynamic
considerations, the gap between the monoliths
should be as small as possible.
INFLUENCE OF THE EXIT CONE
Several authors have investigated the influence
of the exit cone on the flow patterns. This was done
in connection with attempts to simplify the measure-
ments of flow distribution over the cross-section of
a catalytic converter. Lemme [9] has proved by
measurements on different catalytic converters, with
ceramic monoliths as catalyst substrates, that the
exit cone only slightly influences the volume flow.
Hence, the experiments were simplified by measuring
all exit velocity profiles without exit cone.
Wendland [14], too, experimentally investigated
the influence of the exit cone using water flowing
through acrylic glass models of catalytic converters.
He demonstrated that the flow in the exit cone
always remains attached.
Altogether it can be safely assumed that the exit
cone, of practically employed geometries, does not
have an essential influence on the flow distribution
in the monoliths. An exception is an extreme
geometry such as a nearly right-angled exit cone.
CATALYTIC CONVERTER NEAR THE ENGINE
(CLOSE COUPLED CATALYST)
The catalytic converter light-off is very decisive
for the emissions. Almost 80% of emissions, from
vehicles equipped with a catalytic converter, occur
within the first three minutes after cold start in the
FTP-75 test. Hence, increasing efforts are now being
made to improve the initial response. A number of
measures facilitate early attainment of the tempera-
ture level required for the reaction of the exhaust
emission components. They are: reduction of the
thermal inertia between engine and catalytic con-
verter using air-gap insulated tubes, exhaust mani-
folds of steel tube or pressed sheet metal, and main
catalytic converter placed close to the engine.
Particularly Japanese automobile manufacturers are
mass producing "Closed Coupled Catalyst" (CCC).
For high performance engines, however, special care
must be taken to prevent premature thermal aging of
catalytic converters.
CCC are usually directly connected to the
exhaust manifold. Because of the very tight space
limitations the flow path to the catalytic converter is
extremely unfavorable. Further, the inlet cone of the
catalytic converter is very short. Usually the tubes of
the exhaust manifold connect to a "dome" which is
immediately before the first monolith. This dome
shall homogeneously mix the exhaust gases from the
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Monday, August 20, 2018
individual cylinders and uniformly distribute them
over the cross-section (Fig. 15). It is very difficult to
obtain a good mixing of the exhaust gases, from the
individual cylinders, and a good flow distribution
under these conditions.
The primary aim, with a view to a good utiliz-
ation of the catalytic converter volume, is a good
flow distribution at the inlet cross-section of the first
monolith. Depending on how well the air-fuel mixture
is prepared, the air-fuel ratio is more or less different
in the individual cylinders. Hence, a good
homogenization of the exhaust gases is imperative
for high efficiency of the catalytic converter, particu-
larly when there is non-uniformity in the exhaust
gases from individual cylinders. These optimum
conditions are particularly difficult to achieve
because of the placement constrains of the CCC.
Further, the HEGO-sensor must be located in the
dome such that it is exposed to the exhaust gas
from every cylinder. Only then is it possible to sense
a representative average combustion air-fuel ratio.
Fig. 16 shows that central location of the HEGO-
sensor and normal insertion depth (Plane 1), the
sensor does not sample the exhaust gas from the
second cylinder. Only in Plane 2, which however is
too deep for the HEGO-sensor, does it measure the
exhaust gas from the second cylinder (Fig. 17).
Similar flow conditions also occur by discharge from
cylinder 3.
These examples clearly illustrates the advantage
of a computer simulation. A non-intrusive measure-
ment of the flow conditions in the inlet space is only
possible with complex measurement techniques such
as Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA). A simulation
calculation easily permits the geometry of the CCC
to be varied e.g. the tube routing of the exhaust
manifold and the design of the dome. A representa-
tive design evaluation is relatively quickly possible
without building prototypes.
The flow velocity distribution in the cross-
section of the first monolith is shown in Fig. 18. It
confirms the non-uniform through-flow to be
expected from the flow distribution seen in Fig. 17.
The tubes 1 and 4 enter relatively flat into the dome.
The flow is then deflected downwards from the
opposite side. The result is a one-sided crescent
shaped concentration of the flow at inlet into the
first monolith (Fig. 18 above). The catalytic con-
verter volume is insufficiently utilized. The local
velocities are exceptionally high. The effective
conversion volume is considerably reduced. Similar
conditions prevail for cylinder 4 because of the
symmetry of the exhaust manifold.
Exhaust tube 2 is angled downwards. Thus a
large region of the cross-section of the first monolith
is exposed to the core flow (Fig. 18 below). Never-
theless, the velocity distribution is very uneven. This
is also indicated by the uniformity index 0.87 which
is worse correlated to the low Reynolds number and
a monolith length of 4 " . Exhaust tube 3 behaves like
exhaust tube 2. The agreement between compu-
tation and measurement is relatively good even for
catalytic converters located close to the engine.
Here, too, the boundary conditions for the experi-
mental and theoretical investigations were taken
from the PROMO calculations.
The figures clearly illustrate that the exhaust
gases from the individual cylinders do not mix before
entry into the catalytic converter. Further, there is no
overlapping of the regions in the cross-section of the
catalytic converter that are exposed to the flow from
individual cylinders (e.g. cylinder 1 and 4) or
through-flow (e.g. cylinder 2 and 3). Hence in this
case, storage capacity of the catalytic converter
cannot balance out the effect of the different air-fuel
ratios from the individual cylinders. Altogether, an
optimum efficiency of the catalytic converter cannot
be expected for this design. Hence, further
optimization of the constructive design was
attempted.
Figure 19 show the results of optimization
efforts on some CCC. The experimentally obtained
uniformity index is illustrated for different CCC
(Version 1 -3). Also shown for comparison are under-
floor converters, version 4 and 5. The grey bars
represent uniformity index y for the pertinent cylin-
ders 1 to 4. These are values for the initial design.
The corresponding values for the optimized version
are shown by black bars. The figure shows that a
good uniformity index y can be attained by suitable
design of the CCC. The maximum values for the flow
optimized CCC lie between 0.85 and 0.9. The
difference in Reynolds numbers should be considered
as well. The uniformity index decreases with increas-
ing Reynolds number.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Experiments with catalytic converters for pas-
senger cars have shown that a significant improve-
ment, of the conversion rate and service life, can be
attained by a more uniform distribution of the
exhaust gases at the inlet to the first monolith. Thus,
the volume of the catalyst can be reduced with
unchanged service life. This also means a reduction
of cost and mass of the converter. A uniform
through-flow of the monolith can be achieved by
suitable design of the converter. The important
design parameters are routing and merging of the
inlet tubes, cross-section, placement and length of
the monoliths, as well as the geometry of the inlet
cone.
An exclusively experimental optimization of
these design parameters is time-consuming, and
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Monday, August 20, 2018
expensive. Therefore a computational optimization of
the converter design, using appropriate CFD pro-
grams, w a s undertaken already during the concept-
ual phase. The CFD calculations were performed for
steady f l o w . The boundary conditions, for the CFD
calculations, were established by a program to com-
pute the gas exchange process in an I.C. engine. The
geometrical data w a s obtained from CAD programs.
A comparison was made between prediction and
measurement. A special index was derived to char-
acterize and evaluate the f l o w distribution at the
monolith cross section.
The most important results of the theoretical
and experimental investigations of various con-
verters, located either under-floor or close to the
engine, can be summarized as follows:
- The CFD programs facilitate a relatively rapid
and inexpensive evaluation of different design vari-
ants. Further, the information content of the theoreti-
cal investigations is higher than experimental results.
- The results of the CFD codes employed, CD-
STAR and FIDAP, are sufficiently precise for practical
design and engineering purposes.
- Even in simple, symmetrical converters, the
2D simulations differ a lot f r o m the reality. Hence,
only CFD computations of 3D models are appropri-
ate.
- The defined uniformity index permits a reli-
able statement of the efficiency of the f l o w through
the control-surface. Turbulent tube f l o w has an uni-
f o r m i t y index = 0 . 9 4 at Reynolds number 6 0 , 0 0 0 .
This value is matched by monoliths in uniform f l o w .
Non-uniform through-flow in monoliths has an index
of about 0 . 6 .
- The uniformity of f l o w distribution of a f l o w
optimized converter detonates w i t h increasing
Reynolds-Number less than the f l o w uniformity of an
unfavourable design.
- A n uniform f l o w at the inlet of the first
monolith is decisive. In multi-block systems, the gas
f l o w is equalized in the gap between the monoliths.
The second monolith thereafter still has a more
uniform through-flow.
- To ensure a good f l o w distribution, the inlet
tube should not have any bends before the inlet
cone. The geometry of the tube connections also
affects the f l o w distribution. A n early merging, and
consequently a long mixing tube, improves the f l o w
distribution. A big aperture ratio, between inlet tube
and monolith cross-section, also ameliorates the
distribution of the in-flowing gas.
- The exhaust gas, from each individual cylin-
der, should f l o w through the same region of the
monolith. Otherwise, a good homogenization of the
exhaust gases, before entry into the catalytic con-
verter, is necessary to ensure a good conversion.
Design measures to intensify the mixing are difficult
to implement practically.
- Principally, a straight inlet cone leads to an
unfavorable f l o w distribution at the entry of the first
monolith. A 5 0 ° - 7 0 ° oblique inlet has proven to be
optimal to equalize the f l o w distribution in the first
monolith. Uniform f l o w can even reduce the back
pressure.
- From a fluid dynamic standpoint, a gap
smaller than 10 m m is desirable between the mono-
liths. This has a positive influence on the f l o w uni-
formity of the first monolith.
- In double-block converters, w i t h monoliths
of different lengths, the f l o w distribution improves
when the longer catalytic converter is placed in
front. The slightly higher f l o w resistance of the
longer first monolith benefits the uniform distribu-
tion.
- A good mixing and distribution, of the
exhaust gases of the individual cylinders, is very
difficult to attain in converters placed close to the
engine or directly connected w i t h the exhaust
manifold. The conversion rate and the service life
can thus suffer. Further, it is difficult to find a
representative location for the HEGO-sensor, to
correctly measure an-fuel ratio representiv for all
cylinders.
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