NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

AND
NUCLEAR ENERGY

EMIL L. ESCALANTE
CAMS/COECSA/IS-SHS
 OBJECTIVES
• describe cosmic rays; its influence to
Earth and the Earth’s atmosphere
• write, balance and interpret equations
for simpler nuclear reactions
• differentiate between chemical reactions
and nuclear reactions
• distinguish among various modes of
nuclear decay: -decay; -decay; positron
emission; and e- capture
 OBJECTIVES
• describe nuclear fission, nuclear
fusion and transmutation; their
potential energy sources as well as the
cons and prons of the technology
• describe some of applications of
nuclear chemistry as well as issues and
concerns in various industries (food,
healthcare, etc)
The Sun
 Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating
 Cosmic rays – subatomic particles traveling at
high speeds that constantly bombard the Earth

 originate from solar flares on

the sun, which can accelerate
highly charged cations until
they approach the speed of light
 majority are atomic nuclei
> 87% hydrogen nuclei
> 12% helium nuclei
> the rest are heavier
nuclei (of C, N, O, Ne,
Mg, Si and Fe)
 Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating
 Cosmic rays – subatomic particles traveling at
high speeds that constantly bombard the Earth
 cosmic rays’ energies are
much higher
> chemical energies, kJ /mol
> cosmic ray energies, eV
1 eV = 96.5853 kJ/mol
 upon entering the Earth’s
atmosphere, cosmic rays collide
with gas molecules and induce
nuclear reaction
 Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating
 Cosmic rays collide with gas molecules and
induce nuclear reaction
 radioactive 14C formation
14
7 N + 01n 
 146 C + 11p
 free neutron is absorbed by a N
nucleus, a proton is emitted and 14C is
produced

 12C (98.9%) and 13C

(1.11%) – terrestrial C; both
are stable
 Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating
 Cosmic rays collide with gas molecules and
induce nuclear reaction
 radioactive 14C formation
14
7 N + 01n 
 146 C + 11p

 14C is unstable and undergoes

spontaneous radioactive decay; 
particles and antineutrino are
ejected from the nucleus, then N
atom is formed with
14
6  N +  + 
C  14
7
0
-1
 t1/2= 5730 yr
 14C Dating: a Radioactive Decay
 14C dating involves radioactive decay technique
that can detect the age of the Earth’s remains
 all organic living matter
contains a fixed fraction of 14C
(from atmospherically generated
biochemical paths)
 after death, 14C no longer
accumulates, and decay as
14
6  147 N + -10 + 
C 
t1/2= 5730 y
 thus, by analyzing the
remaining 14C in the sample , one
can dated back the existence of
specimen
 Radiocarbon Dating
 Half-life, t1/2, the time required for half the t  0.693
1
sample to disintegrate or fall apart 2 k
 all organic living matter
contains a fixed 14C/ 12C ratio
over time
 after death, 14C no longer
accumulates, and its activity
decreases over time
 age of Earth’s remains is
determined by measuring its
14C/ 12C ratio; then comparing it

to the 14C/ 12C ratio of living

organisms
 Sample Problem
The half-life of Carbon-14, used in
radiocarbon dating, is 5730 years. What is
the decay constant for Carbon-14?
Answer: k = 3971 years
 Sample Problem 1.2
A piece of cloth is discovered in a burial pit in Tabon cave.
A tiny sample of the cloth is burned to form CO2, which
is then analyzed. The 14C/12C ratio is 0.250 times the
ratio in today’s atmosphere. How old is the cloth?
Answer: age = _____ years
Radiocarbon Dating

0.693
t1 
2 k

 Long lived
isotopes such as
U-235 amd U-238
can be used to date
minerals and
geological
formations
Chemical Reactions vs Nuclear Reactions
 Atomic Structure and Radioactive Decay
Nuclear reactions are written in a format similar to chemical
reactions; reactants and products are atoms of subatomic
particles (instead of molecules)
Atomic number (Z) = no. of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + no. of neutrons
Mass Number A
Atomic Number ZX Element Symbol

proton neutron electron positron  particle

-1e or -1 +1 e or +1  2He or 2
1p 1H 1n 0 0  0 0  4 4 
1 or 1 0

A 1 1 0 0 4

Z 1 0 -1 +1 2
 Radioactive Decay: Brief Account

> A thin sheet of Al, blocks  rays but not 

rays.
> In a magnetic field,  and  particles are
deflected in different directions, while 
rays are undeflected.
 Balancing Nuclear Reactions
1. Conserve mass number (A).
The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal the
sum of protons plus neutrons in the reactants.
235 138 96
92 U + 10n 55 Cs + 37 Rb + 2 10n

235 + 1 = 138 + 96 + 2x1

2. Conserve atomic number (Z) or nuclear charge.

The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the sum of
nuclear charges in the reactants.
235 138 96
92 U + 10n 55 Cs + 37 Rb + 2 10n
92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0
 Sample Problem
212Po decays by alpha emission. Write the balanced
nuclear equation for the decay of 212Po.
alpha particle - 42He or 42
212
84Po  He  E
4
2
A
Z
212
84Po 24He  208
82 Pb

212 = 4 + A
A = 212 – 4 = 208
208
84 = 2 + Z
82E
Z = 84 – 2 = 82
 Alpha,  decay
Alpha particles,  the more massive and positively
charged particles; the He nuclei
4
2  during -decay, an  particle is
emitted from the nucleus; hence
4 mass no. decreases by 4; and atomic
2 He no. decreases by 2

1)  decay of U-238 2)  decay of 261Rf

PARENT DAUGHTER
(reactant’s nucleus (product’s nucleus
 Beta,  decay
Beta particles,  are lighter and negatively charged
particles; electrons emitted from the
1
0
 0
1 e nucleus
 during -decay, a  particle and an antineutrino, v is
emitted from the nucleus
 a neutron decays into a proton, a  particle and an
antineutrino, v . The proton remains in the nucleus.
1
0 n p   v
1
1
0
1

3)  decay of C-14
14
6C   v0
1
14
6C N    v
14
7
0
1
 Beta,  decay
0
 0
e
1
0 n11p 10  v
1 1
 during -decay, a  particle and an antineutrino, v is
emitted from the nucleus
 a neutron decays into a proton, a  particle and an
antineutrino, v . The proton remains in the nucleus.

4)  decay
of 210Po
210
84 Po   v0
1
210
84 Po At    v
210
85
0
1

5)  decay
of 233U
233
92 U   v
0
1
233
92Po Np   v
233
93
0
1
 Gamma,  decay
Gamma rays,  unaffected by the magnetic field
0
0  during -decay, high-energy
photons emitted, accompanied
wavelength  10-12 m
frequency  31020 s-1
by other types of radioactive E = 108 kJ/mol
decay
> -decay, does not change the atomic no. or mass no. of a
nucleus, and generally accompanies -decay
6)  decay of C-14 14
6 C  N  
14
7  v  
0
1
0
0

7)  decay of 233U
U Np    v  
233 233 0 0
92 93 1 0
 Electron capture or  capture
electrons, e the reverse of  emission or  decay
0
1 e 0
1  the nucleus captures an electron, converting a
proton to a neutron; decreases the nuclear

p  1 0 n
charge by 1 1 0 1
1

8)  capture of O   N
15O 15 0 15
8 1 7

9)  capture of S-35 35
16 S   P
0
1
35
15

10) e- capture of Es-255 255

99 Es    Cf
0
1
255
98
 Positron emission or decay
positron during positron decay, proton decays into a
neutron, a positron and a neutrino, v; nuclear
0
1 e 0
1  charge decreases by 1
p  n   v
1 1 0
1 0 1

11) positron decay of 234U

U
234
92 Pa    v
234
91
0
1

12) positron decay of 261Lr 261

103 Lr  No   v
261
102
0
1

13) positron decay of Rn-211 86Rn  At    v

211 211
85
0
1
Positron emission or decay
• when positron and electron collide,
they are annihilated and their mass is
converted into energy

• formation of matter-antimatter
pairs; identical in mass and spin, but
opposite in charge

• positron-electron collisions
produced two 511 keV of gamma-
ray photons, travelling in opposite
directions
 Exercise on Radioactive Decay
Complete the nuclear equations below and identify the
mode of radioactive decay. [R  3]
15
8 O N  (1.)
15
7
230
90 Th  (4.)   4
2
40
19 K  (2.)    v
0
-1 234
Th  234
Pa  (5.)
90 91
40
19 K  (3.)  18
40
Ar  v
Formulate the balance nuclear reaction for the stated
radioactive decay below. [R  10]
(6.)  decay of Po-208

(7.)  capture of Pu-238

 Categories of Nuclear Reactions

FISSION a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei

FUSION light nuclei merged into a heavier

nucleus

TRANSMUTATION
one nucleus changes into another,
either by natural radioactive decay or
in response to some outside intervention
 TRANSMUTATION REACTION
TRANSMUTATION one nucleus changed to another
nucleus via natural decay or in
7 N  2   8 O1 p response thru outside intervention
14 4 17 1

27
13 Al  24 15
30
P 01n during transmutation, unstable
intermediate nucleus called the
N 11p11  2
14 4
7 6 C compound nucleus formed

 transmutation of B-10
10
5 B  01n 115B * 115Li 24He
the compound nucleus decays almost instantly ,
emitting particles and energy to produce more stable
nucleus
 FISSION REACTION
FISSION a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei
 nuclei that undergo fission are fissile
or fissionable; some are spontaneous

Bombarding
enriched Uranium
with neutrons
induces fission of
U-235 and each
decay produces
additional
neutrons for
further induced
fission.
 FISSION REACTION
FISSION a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei
 CHAIN REACTIONS occur when there are enough
fissile atoms to ensure the produced neutrons can
induced fission before escaping the sample
 depending on the critical mass, controlled fission
can be used to generate electricity
UO3 rod NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR PLANT
BATAAN NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
 FUSION REACTION
FUSION light nuclei merged into a heavier
nucleus
 In the sun, 4 H nuclei combine to form He
nucleus, releasing energy in the process
4 H  He 2   2v  energy
1
1
4
2
0


 In a nuclear reactor, 2H and 3H can be fused to

produce 4He. 2 H  3H  4He 1n
1 1 2 0
 does not produce high-level radioactive waste;
risk may be minimized by careful choices of
engineering materials due to reactions initiated at
106 K ( 106 C)
 Interaction of Radiation and Matter
There are 3 factors that govern the effects of radiation
on matter.

1) The amount of radiation to which

matter is exposed

2) Penetrating power of the radiation

3) Ionizing power of the radiation

If radiation energy > ionization energies for atoms,

radiation can induce ionization in material
encountered
 Classes of Radiation
Radiation (on matter) is classified as
IONIZING and NONIONIZING.

NONIONIZING photon energies < ionization energies

i.e. visible light, radio waves and microwaves

IONIZING photon energies >> ionization energies

i.e.  rays,  rays,  rays and x-rays
Non-ionizing and Ionizing Radiation
 Ionizing and Penetrating Power of Radiation

Penetrating power is how far a radioactive particle

penetrates into matter before its energy is absorbed;
hence it must be taken into account:
 ionization radiation caused significant damaged to
living tissues, by forming free radicals
  and  particles caused skin burns, the least to
skin cancer, the most
  particles pass entirely through the body and
cause significant damaged to vital internal organs
 cancer of the blood (leukaemia) is the most
common disease associated to prolong exposure to
radiation
 Ionizing and Penetrating Power of Radiation

Penetrating power is how far a radioactive particle

penetrates into matter before its energy is absorbed;
hence it must be taken into account:
 ionization radiation caused significant catastrophic
failure to engineering and technological materials
 “production of ions” by ionizing radiation can
cause malfunctioning of space-bound electronic
devices, computer chips, and other solid-state
devices
 electronics in satellites should be protected
against cosmic rays by enclosing them in
“hardened” materials
 Methods of Detecting Radiation

Cosmic rays and other natural radioactive isotopes in

soil, water, and air – are sources of background
radiation, that need to be monitored and take into
account.

Scintillation counter uses fluorescent screen to detect

radiation; photon strikes a “phosphor” (from ZnO
phosphor) that releases electrons and gives electronic
current pulse and signals
 A film-badge dosimeter used by people who works
with radioactive isotopes; darkened badge provides a
warming mechanism if safety levels are exceeded
 Methods of Detecting Radiation
 The Geiger counter is the portable detector used to
measure radioactivity

In the Geiger-Mueller tube radioactive particles passes

through a thin window into a gas-filled tube and
ionize the gas atoms releasing more electrons to the
anode; when an avalanche of electrons reaches the
anode a pulse of electric current is recorded
 Food Irradiation: Good or Bad??
Absorbed dose amount of any type of radiation
absorbed in any kind of material
Radiation absorbed dose (rad)
J
1 rad  0.00001 100rad  1 Gray(Gy)
g
Equivalent dose relates the absorbed dose to the
damaged produced by the different types of radiation
Roentgen equivalent for man (rem)
1 rem 1rad  Q
Q, =1 =1
Quality  =20
factor
 Food Irradiation and their Effects

DOSAGE EFFECT
Low dose > inhibits sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlic
(up to 100 krad) > inactivates trichinae in pork
> kills or prevents insects from reproducing in
grains, fruits and vegetables after harvest
Medium dose > delays spoilage of meat by killing spoilage-
(101 – 1000 krad) causing microorganisms
> reduces salmonella and other food-borne
pathogens in fresh meat
> extends shelf-life by delaying growth on
berries and other fruits
High dose > sterilizes meat, poultry, fish and other foods
(1001 – 10000 krad) > kills microorganisms and insects in herbs,
spices and seasoning
Reference: Chemical and Engineering News, May 5, 1986
 Radioisotopes and Imaging Technology

 have countless applications in modern hospitals,

healthcare practices, and non-invasive medications
 Radioisotopes and Imaging Technology

 have countless applications in modern hospitals,

healthcare practices, and non-invasive medications
Thyroid images
with 125I-labeled
compound

normal enlarged
131
53I  Xe    
131
54
0
1
0
0
t 1  8d
2
Bone Scan with
99mTc

99m
43 Tc9943
m
Tc 00 t 1  6h
2
 Radioisotopes and Imaging Technology

 have countless applications in modern hospitals,

healthcare practices, and non-invasive medications

X-ray device-Radiography
 Radioisotopes and Imaging Technology

 have countless applications in modern hospitals,

healthcare practices, and non-invasive medications
Fluoroscopic C-arm CT Scanner
X-ray device (a X-ray device)
 Radioisotopes and Imaging Technology

 have countless applications in modern hospitals,

healthcare practices, and non-invasive medications
MRI machine
Ultrasound machine
 Radioisotopes and Imaging Technology

 have countless applications in modern hospitals,

healthcare practices, and non-invasive medications

UV lamps
LASER source
 Risk Management of Radiation
 Risk = Hazard  Exposure
1. Lessen exposure by practicing TDS

Reduce
Time
 Risk Management of Radiation
 Risk = Hazard  Exposure
1. Lessen exposure by practicing TDS

Increase
distance
 Risk Management of Radiation
 Risk = Hazard  Exposure
1. Lessen exposure by practicing TDS

Use
shielding
 Risk Management of Radiation
 Risk = Hazard  Exposure
SHIELDING OF IONIZING RADIATION
 particles - paper
 particles - plastic
X and  rays - lead, concrete
n0 - boron compounds (borated PET)
appropriate (PPEs) such as gloves,
goggles and laboratory coat/
gowns made up of vinyl (that may
contain Lead, Pb)
 Risk Management of Radiation
 Risk = Hazard  Exposure
2. be protected with the principles of radiation
protection as set by the INTERNATIONAL
COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION (ICRP)
JUSTIFICATION
OPTIMIZATION
INDIVIDUAL DOSE OF
LIMITATION & CONTROL OF
RISK
 Radiation Safety in the Philippines
Safety, Handling, Management, most
recent studies and researchers of
radiation in the Philippines rely with:
Philippine Nuclear Research Institute,
Department of Science and Technology

Center for Device Regulation, Radiation

Health and Research,
Food and Drugs Administration;
Department of Health