Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

The use of green waste to overcome the difficulty in small-scale

composting of organic household waste
Maciej Neugebauer*, Piotr Sołowiej
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Faculty of Technical Science, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: An attempt was made in the study to determine whether organic household waste containing food
Received 29 July 2016 remnants (citrus fruit and vegetable peels, fat, dairy products, etc.) can be composted in home gardens.
Received in revised form Kitchen waste was mixed with garden waste (bulking agent) at different proportions. Biodegradable
13 April 2017
waste was composted in two systems: in a pit dug in the ground and in a container. Fresh waste was
Accepted 14 April 2017
supplied to the compost pile each week. The experiment was conducted from May to August 2014. The
Available online 18 April 2017
temperature inside the compost pile, ammonia emissions and moisture content were monitored
throughout the experiment. The objective of this study was to determine the optimal kitchen waste to
Keywords:
Composting
garden waste mixing ratio with regard to ammonia emissions and the temperature inside the compost
Accumulated temperature pile. The C/N ratio or the porosity of composted material were not modified. The highest temperature
Ammonia emission was achieved in piles composed of 40% kitchen waste and 50% garden waste. The highest cumulative
Small-scale composting ammonia emissions were noted in pit and bin piles containing 0% bulking agent. The lowest cumulative
Organic household waste ammonia emissions were observed in pit and bin piles containing 100% bulking agent and in bin piles
containing 60% bulking agent, which helped reduce the odor of composting, thus contributing to a
cleaner production process. The first phase of the composting process was completed in all piles after 8
weeks of the experiment. Ammonia emissions and accumulated temperature were calculated to compare
the results obtained in each pile. The chemical composition of compost met the Polish quality standards
for organic fertilizers.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction tomatoes fertilized with mineral fertilizers and compost revealed

Composting is a process during which organic waste is
decomposed by microorganisms under aerobic conditions. In na-
ture, organic matter with favorable moisture content is degraded
when sufficient amounts of oxygen are available. The composting
process can be described by the following equation (1):
Organic waste þ microorganisms þ O2 /H2 O þ CO2
þ compost þ heat
The purpose of small-scale composting of household waste is to
produce fertilizer. Numerous research studies have demonstrated
that composted organic waste constitutes high-quality fertilizer. An
experiment conducted on greenhouse-grown and field-grown
* Corresponding author. University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Ocza-
powskiego 2, 10-719, Olsztyn, Poland.
E-mail address: mak@uwm.edu.pl (M. Neugebauer).
no differences in yield and demonstrated that compost can be
effectively used as fertilizer in tomato production (Martínez-Blanco
et al., 2011). By contrast, industrial composting involves the
disposal of troublesome waste immediately after production to
inhibit colonization by pathogens which proliferate until the tem-
perature inside the compost pile reaches around 55  C (Raj and
Antil, 2011). Industrial compost can also be used as fertilizer. The
fertilizing properties of leachate obtained from industrial com-
posting were found to be superior to those of commercial fertilizers
(1) (Romero et al., 2013). In Italy, 34% of produced compost is sold as
humus in garden centers, 62% is used in agriculture as a substitute
for mineral fertilizers, and the remaining 4% is used for soil reme-
diation (Rigamonti et al., 2010).
There are two approaches to managing organic household
waste. A study describing organic waste management practices in
the United States and France revealed that the choice of the optimal
disposal method is determined by the local perspective and the
needs of the local community, businesses and the environment

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.095
0959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
866 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875
(Mourad, 2016). Modern cities are one of the key contributors to
global warming (Uyarra and Gee, 2013). Greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions can be effectively reduced through the implementation
of sustainable development policies, appropriate management of
water and energy resources, transport and waste in urban areas. A
robust example of sustainable waste management practices can be
found in Manchester where landfilling has been replaced with a
comprehensive system of waste recycling, collective composting
and sustainable energy use (Uyarra and Gee, 2013).
One approach to sustainable waste management postulates that
all waste should be collected and managed industrially and that
biological waste generated in households and home gardens should
be composted in centralized systems to produce compost or biogas
in biogas plants (anaerobic digestion). The rationale behind the
above approach is that composting produces greenhouse gases and
odorous ammonia, and that household residents may be unable to
discriminate between wastes that are and are not suitable for
composting. Only 3% of food wastes are recycled in the United
States (Saer et al., 2013). Food wastes constitute the largest category
of municipal solid wastes that are landfilled or incinerated. A study
analyzing various waste management scenarios demonstrated that
up to 27% of waste can be effectively composted (Tan et al., 2014).
However, the cited research did not indicate whether the analyzed
practices took place in dispersed (household) or centralized com-
posting systems.
According to Slater and Frederickson (2001), the main advan-
tage of the discussed approach is that the composition of com-
posted material can be carefully selected and that various additives
can be used in the composting process to minimize its environ-
mental impacts. Luo et al. (2014) observed that ammonia emissions
from mature compost can be minimized by composting biological
waste in closed containers. However, this solution is feasible only in
large industrial plants where the composting tank is filled only
once during the entire composting process. Pagans et al. (2006)
demonstrated that the amount of released ammonia is deter-
mined by the temperature inside the pile and that ammonia
emissions can be reduced by lowering composting temperature.
Yang et al. (2013) found that composting time can be shortened to
around 30e60 days, depending on the composition and volume of
the composted material, and that ammonia emissions can be
lowered under optimal aeration conditions. In industrial com-
posting plants, excess heat can be removed from the compost pile
(Neugebauer et al., 2014). For the composting process to be effec-
tive, household waste has to be correctly sorted by residents, which
could pose a massive organizational challenge in many countries.
Residents also need to be educated and motivated to sort their
waste. According to official data, the city of Shanghai with a pop-
ulation of 20 million produces 20,000 tons of unsorted household
waste every day, of which 51% is landfilled, 23% is incinerated and
only 16% is recycled or composted (Dai et al., 2016). By contrast, San
Francisco has achieved the highest landfill diversion rate in the
United States by reusing, recycling and composting 77% of all waste
generated in the city. This success has been achieved through the
implementation of mandatory recycling and composting laws,
cooperation with like-minded companies in the process of
launching waste processing programs, and by raising the local
residents' awareness about the importance of waste sorting and
recycling (Song et al., 2015). Awareness rising campaigns often pose
a challenge, but research has demonstrated that the “neighbor ef-
fect” plays an important role in this process e residents whose
neighbors sort waste feel more motivated to sort their own waste
and need less convincing to do so (Crociata et al., 2016).
Life cycle assessments (LCA) of food waste indicate that collec-
tive composting is one of the worst solutions in terms of its envi-
ronmental impacts (Saer et al., 2013). The cited study analyzed four
waste management scenarios, and composting had the most
negative impact on the environment, which can be largely attrib-
uted to the fact that waste collection and transportation costs were
not taken into account. It should be noted, however, that landfilled
food wastes are also naturally decomposed, which leads to GHG
emission (Saer et al., 2013). A study evaluating various methods for
biological waste management based on 12 coefficients revealed
that composting was the second most effective method of waste
processing after incineration with heat recovery (Cristo
bal et al.,
2016).
Recycling and composting are the main waste management
methods in Adelaide, Australia (Zaman, 2014). In 2009, around 54%
of municipal waste in the city was recycled and composted. Ac-
cording to estimates, the percentage of composted waste will in-
crease by 12% in 2015e2020. The Japanese food processing industry
generates 9.5 million tons of organic waste annually, of which 25%
is composted or used as intermediate material for the production of
animal feed, 25% is dried, 5% is used for energy generation, and 40%
is incinerated or landfilled (Liu et al., 2016). To reduce the genera-
tion of household waste, the Japanese city of Nagoya launched the
“3 Dont's” campaign e do not buy too much food, do not cook too
much food, and do not throw away too much food. In Nagoya, food
wastes are collected and composted with financial support from
the government (Zheng et al., 2016).
In Olsztyn, a city in north-eastern Poland, sorted waste is
collected from single-family homes at no charge to encourage
recycling. According to the Olsztyn City Hall, the collection of
organic waste has increased more than three-fold since the intro-
duction of a bag collection scheme, and at present, more than 72%
of households hand their biological waste over to the municipal
waste collection company. There are no data to indicate whether
the disposed waste consists of kitchen discards only, but according
to City Hall employees, garden wastes account for a large part of the
collected material. Bags of organic waste from a Polish household
are shown in Fig. 1. According to an unpublished survey conducted
by the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn in 2013e2014,
biological waste, including garden waste, is easiest to manage, but
many residents find it difficult to distinguish between waste that is
and is not suitable for composting.
According to the second approach to sustainable waste man-
agement, the waste stream from households should be minimized
by encouraging waste sorting, recycling and reducing waste pro-
duction at the source. The achievement of this target would lower
the adverse environmental impact of waste transport, and it would
reduce GHG emissions. Cherubini et al. (2008) claims that land-
filling is the worst waste management strategy on a global scale
Fig. 1. Bags of organic waste from a Polish household.
 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875
(Fig. 2). Before the onset of large-scale farming, biological wastes
from agricultural production were managed in their entirety
directly at the source. The popularity of such solutions has been
revived in the farming sector, but the developed systems are much
more advanced, and they involve rain water collection and post-
composting of biological waste (Han et al., 2016).
Further research is needed to determine whether organic waste
composting poses an environmental hazard by contributing to
greenhouse gas emissions, odor emissions and heavy metal
contamination. According to Andersen et al. (2011), ammonia
emissions from backyard composting do not exceed those from
large systems. Andersen et al. (2010) also found that GHG emissions
from small-scale and large composting systems are generally
similar. Matsumura et al. (2010) reported that the addition of lard to
composted material reduced emissions of ammonia and other
gases, thus minimizing unpleasant odors associated with com-
posting. Lard improved the C:N ratio which may be disrupted in
piles containing difficult to compost wastes.
In a Norwegian study, the main drawbacks of composting
household waste included problems with obtaining stable mature
compost and unpleasant odor from the composter (Bergersen et al.,
2009). The above problems can be resolved through the use of
bulking agents such as grass and other garden wastes (Bergersen
et al., 2009; Rangarirayi et al., 2013). Kitchen discards can be
easily composted with the addition of straw (30e50%) to minimize
the amount of nitrogen lost with ammonia emissions in the com-
posting process. Temperature is an important parameter, and ac-
cording to Sundberg (2005), ammonia emissions were highest
when the temperature inside the pile reached 67  C, but the
decomposition process was most rapid at a temperature of 55  C. A
study conducted in Guadeloupe (Faverial and Sierra, 2014) in 60
households composting their organic wastes revealed that the
produced compost was free of harmful bacteria (E. coli) and that the
chemical composition of compost was superior to that obtained
from large industrial plants. The above can be attributed to lower
temperature inside garden compost piles which are much smaller
than industrial compost tanks. Lower temperature slowed down
the decomposition of organic matter and stabilized the content of
organic compounds such as lignins. In the cited study, household
composting was a problem-free process in 68% of cases, and in the
remaining 32% of cases, the encountered issues were easy to solve
(Faverial and Sierra, 2014).
The size of the pile is also an important consideration (Malwana
et al., 2013). An appropriate shape of the pile and an appropriate
ratio of pile surface area to pile volume improve natural aeration by
wind and create favorable conditions for composting, thus
increasing the rate at which organic matter is degraded and
Fig. 2. The waste management hierarchy (Cherubini et al., 2008).
867
shortening the composting process. Humus, the end product of
composting, is an excellent fertilizer (Rishell, 2013). However, an-
imal manure should not be composted in the yard because the
resulting humus cannot be safely used as fertilizer (Chaifetz et al.,
2015). Humus has a unique chemical composition (Martínez-
Blanco et al., 2010), and household-produced humus contributes
to environmental protection by reducing primary energy con-
sumption and GHG emissions (Andersen et al., 2010; Ermolaev,
2015). A study analyzing various scenarios for managing munic-
ipal waste and their environmental impacts (GHG emissions in
terms of CO2 equivalents) in Sao Paulo, Brazil, revealed that com-
bined recycling and composting can reduce CO2 emissions by up to
78.8% (Deus et al., 2016). In the literature, two opposing views can
be found regarding GHG emissions during composting. Some re-
searchers argue that composting reduces total GHG emissions
(Deus et al., 2016), whereas others claim that composting increases
the overall GHG load and has a negative impact on the environment
(Arafat et al., 2015; Saer et al., 2013).
According to Rosik-Dulewska (2010), Dickson et al. (2010) and
the recommendations of Polish manufacturers of garden compost
bins (www.prosperplast.pl), the following kitchen wastes should
not be composted in the backyard:
 waste from tropical fruits, including citrus fruit and bananas,
 spoiled food, in particular meat,
 rotten seeds,
 dairy products, fat, etc.
Biological waste from a Polish household is presented in Fig. 3.
According to Rishell (2013) and Lleo
et al. (2013), difficult to
compost wastes can be safely and effectively degraded only by
vermicomposting. A combination of both methods may also be
applied, where wastes are composted at the beginning of the pro-
cess and are subsequently degraded by vermicomposting. The
combined process reduces GHG emissions (Lim et al., 2016), and the
same outcome can be achieved through interrupted aeration dur-
ing composting.
The effectiveness of composting organic household waste is
determined by two critical parameters:
- aeration,
- C/N ratio of composted material.
The influence of aeration on the composting process has been
investigated by Guo et al. (2012), Border (2002) and Ekinci et al.
Fig. 3. Biological waste from a Polish household.
868 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875
(2006).
The C/N ratio of composted material is a critical parameter
because it determines the ability of microorganisms to degrade
organic matter. Nitrogen is a building block, and carbon is a source
of energy for microorganisms. The most favorable C/N ratio of
composted material ranges from 25 to 30 (Kumar et al., 2010; Jiang
et al., 2011). Excessive nitrogen content raises the temperature in-
side the pile, speeds up the composting process, but also increases
ammonia and carbon dioxide emissions, promotes nitrogen loss
and deteriorates the fertilizing properties of the resulting humus.
Organic matter deficient in nitrogen will be composted at a slower
rate (Quiro
s et al., 2014; Bong et al., 2017).
The energy-generating potential of composted material was
explored by the authors in a previous study (Neugebauer et al.,
2014). Composted organic matter releases heat. Thermophilic mi-
croorganisms which degrade composted material are most active
in a temperature range of 55e60  C. Higher temperatures inside the
pile slow down or completely inhibit the proliferation of thermo-
philic bacteria. In the cited study, excess heat was evacuated from
the pile and used to heat water. In the present experiment, heat was
extracted from compost piles with water-filled pipe coils. Water
flow through the pipe coil was controlled with a pump with
adjustable capacity, which enabled to control the amount of heat
recovered from the pile. This solution supported the achievement
of a stable and optimal temperature inside the compost pile. The
energy yield from 1 kg of composted material reached up to 5 MJ
(Neugebauer et al., 2014).
2. Materials and methods
The research hypothesis was that difficult to compost organic
household waste can be effectively composted without vermi-
composting in small piles with sufficient oxygen supply without
generating unpleasant odor (at the place of generation). The
objective of the study was to determine the optimal kitchen waste
to garden waste mixing ratio with regard to ammonia emissions
and the temperature inside the compost pile.
The research hypothesis was verified in an experiment with the
following design:
 Organic matter with the following proportions of kitchen wastes
(including waste from citrus fruits e orange and lemon peel e
and cheese) and garden wastes (green waste was not shredded),
composted in six home gardens in a housing estate in Olsztyn,
was analyzed:
o 0% kitchen waste and 100% garden waste (marked as 100% in
diagrams),
o 20% kitchen waste and 80% garden waste (marked as 80% in
diagrams),
o 40% kitchen waste and 60% garden waste (marked as 60% in
diagrams),
Fig. 4. A diagram of two composting systems used in the experiment: a) a composting pit, and b) a composting bin.
o 60% kitchen waste and 40% garden waste (marked as 40% in
diagrams),
o 80% kitchen waste and 20% garden waste (marked as 20% in
diagrams),
o 100% kitchen waste and 0% garden waste (marked as 0% in
diagrams).
 Compost piles were passively aerated (without a forced aeration
system).
 In each case, wastes were composted in two systems:
o a pit dug in the ground (marked as “pit” in Figs. 5e16,
measuring 0.5  0.5 m, with a depth of 0.5 m e Fig. 4 a). The
walls of the pit were reinforced with plastic panels. In order to
improve aeration, the composted material was turned once a
week,
o in a container (with wood lattice walls to enable air flow),
measuring 0.5  0.5  0.5 m e Fig. 4b, without a top lid,
positioned on the ground (marked as “bin” in Figs. 5e16).
The diagrams of both composting systems are presented in
Fig. 4.
 A total of 12 treatments (2 treatments per garden) were
analyzed.
 The C/N ratio of the pile was not modified to determine whether
organic waste with suboptimal chemical composition could be
effectively composted at the smallest possible effort made by
the owner.
 At the beginning of the experiment, 2 kg of compost was placed
at the bottom of each pit and container to promote the growth of
microorganisms and higher organisms such as earthworms.
 Each week, every treatment was supplied with 3 kg of biological
material with different proportions of kitchen and garden
wastes (as described above), including 10% of dairy waste and
15% of waste from citrus fruits.
 In each case, the total mass of substrate was 57 kg (at the end of
August).
 The experiment was conducted over a period of 4 months be-
tween May and August 2014.
 The following parameters were monitored, daily at 6 p.m.:
o temperature (at the bottom of the compost pile e at the level
of the first load) twice per week e with the ETI 810-930 digital
thermometer with a probe,
o moisture content ewith the SM150 soil moisture sensor,
o ammonia emissions e with the Multigas III electrochemical
gas sensor.
 Piles were to be watered if their moisture content decreased
below 55% - which did not happen during the experiment.
 Total precipitation and ambient temperature were measured
with the AOK-5056 weather station.
 The chemical composition of humus was compared with the
relevant standards for organic fertilizers (Journal of Laws,
 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875 869

Fig. 5. Changes in the moisture content of organic wastes composted in pits.

Fig. 6. Changes in the moisture content of organic wastes composted in bins.

Fig. 7. Total rainfall during the experiment.

2008.119.765) and the findings of other authors (Boruszko,
2011).
At the end of the experiment, compost was left to mature in the
analyzed treatments for 9 months (until May 2015).
3. Results and discussion
The measured parameters are presented in diagrams. The pre-
sented data are marked with the following symbols and abbrevi-
ations: % - percentage of garden waste (bulking agent) in
composted material (0% denotes kitchen waste only), pit e wastes
composted below ground in a pit, bin e wastes composted above
ground in a composting bin.
Changes in moisture content are shown in Fig. 5 for wastes
composted in pits and in Fig. 6 for wastes composted in bins. Pre-
cipitation considerably influenced the moisture content of the
analyzed compost piles. Pits and bins were not covered, therefore,
rain water had free access to the composted material. During heavy
rainfall, not all water running down pit piles was directed to the
sides, and some water was retained inside the pit, thus increasing
the moisture content of wastes composted below ground. For this
reason, the moisture content of identical loads is generally higher in
Fig. 5 than in Fig. 6. It should also be noted that July 2014 was a dry
870 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875

Fig. 8. Changes in the temperature of organic wastes composted in pits.

Fig. 9. Changes in the temperature of organic wastes composted in bins.

Fig. 10. Ammonia emissions from wastes composted in pits.

month without any rainfall, which additionally contributed to the
observed decrease in moisture content between late June and late
July e Fig. 7.
Changes in temperature are shown in Fig. 8 for wastes com-
posted in pits and in Fig. 9 for wastes composted in bins. An analysis
of temperature curves indicates that the temperature inside piles
rose with an increase in the weight of composted material and
exceeded 40  C after 6 weeks (when the total mass of successive
loads exceeded 20 kg in each treatment). The temperature inside
pit piles was higher than the temperature in bin piles for all loads
with identical composition. The above can probably be attributed to
better aeration in piles composted above ground in bins, which can
lead to higher heat loss. In both pits and bins, the highest tem-
peratures were noted in compost containing roughly equal
amounts of kitchen and garden wastes. Those results can probably
be explained by a more favorable C:N ratio and higher porosity of
piles where garden waste was used as a bulking agent. In all piles,
the first composting phase (thermophilic) was completed after 16
weeks, as demonstrated by a decrease in temperature at the bottom
of the pile. The thermophilic phase was followed by the compost
 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875 871

Fig. 11. Ammonia emissions from wastes composted in bins.

Fig. 12. Coefficients of correlation between accumulated temperature and ammonia emissions for wastes composted in pits.

Fig. 13. Coefficients of correlation between accumulated temperature and ammonia emissions for wastes composted in bins.

maturation phase which ended in May 2015.
Ammonia emissions during the composting process are pre-
sented in Fig. 10 for wastes composted in pits and in Fig. 11 for
wastes composted in bins.
Ammonia emissions are responsible for the characteristic and
unpleasant (pungent) odor which is produced when the composted
pile is not adequately managed. The odor detection threshold for
ammonia in air is 5 ppm (Amoore and Hautala, 1983; Safety Topic
Ammonia, 2015), and below this limit, ammonia cannot be detec-
ted by humans. According to some authors, the odor detection
threshold for ammonia can be as low as 2.6 ppm, which is probably
associated with individual differences in human olfactory abilities
(Smeets et al., 2007). The 5 ppm threshold is marked with a black
line in the diagrams. The obtained results suggest that ammonia
emissions are higher when organic wastes are composted without
the addition of a bulking agent (garden waste). The addition of 40%
of garden waste decreased ammonia emissions to threshold values,
and in piles containing a higher percentage of this bulking agent,
ammonia emissions did not exceed the detection threshold
throughout the entire composting process. Ammonia emissions
were also influenced by the temperature inside the compost pile.
The coefficients of correlation (Pearson's r) between ammonia
emissions and accumulated temperature were calculated for every
treatment at a significance level of 0.05. The results are presented in
Fig. 12 for wastes composted in pits and in Fig. 13 for wastes
composted in bins.
The data presented in Figs. 12 and 13 indicate the correlation
between ammonia emissions and temperature inside the pile is
872 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875

Fig. 14. Distribution of daily DH values for the analyzed treatments.

Fig. 15. Accumulated temperatures for all analyzed treatments.

attenuated with an increase in the content of the bulking agent in from pile temperature to account for the actual change in tem-
composted material. Interestingly, a minor increase in the value of perature inside the pile. The value of DH was calculated with the
the correlation coefficient was noted in wastes composed in bins use of formula (2) for one-day intervals (separately for each day).
with the addition of 80% and 100% of the bulking agent. These
findings could be attributed to intense microbial activity resulting
from better aeration in bins or to higher nitrogen content of garden Zt
wastes, including nitrogen from artificial fertilizers. DH ¼ ðTi  To Þdt (2)
The end of the composting process in garden piles can be 0
determined by measuring the temperature inside the pile. Chaifetz
et al. (2015) suggested that every compost pile should be equipped where:
with a thermometer. However, temperature measurements alone
may not suffice to determine the progress and quality of the DH e degree hour temperature [ C h d1];
composting process. The degree hour temperature (DH) is a t e composting time [h];
parameter linked to temperature that describes the rate of the Ti e temperature inside the compost pile [ C];
composting process more effectively (C
aceres et al., 2015). The To e ambient temperature [ C].
value of DH was calculated in view of the modification proposed by
Czekała et al. (2016), whereby ambient temperature is subtracted A different approach was adopted by Czekała et al. (2016) and

ceres et al. (2015) who calculated the temperature inside the pile
Ca
 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875
Fig. 16. Accumulated ammonia emissions.
as the average of measurements conducted in three layers every
5 min for each 4-h interval. In this experiment, temperature inside
the pile was measured every few days and in one layer only. The
calculation method was the same, but it was applied to 24-h in-
tervals, and on days when temperature was not measured, it was
determined by interpolation. The applied method was less accu-
rate, but the obtained results are useful for determining the rate of
composting. The DH parameter, combined with ambient temper-
ature measurements, provides information about the quality of the
composting process. For instance, in bins with 0% garden waste, DH
approximated zero until 12 June, which implies that the com-
posting process began only after 12 June (Fig. 14). This information
cannot be derived by analyzing changes in compost temperature.
The distribution of DH values for the analyzed treatments is pre-
sented in Fig. 14.
Accumulated temperature is yet another parameter illustrating
the rate of the composting process (Tongbin et al., 2002; Ca
ceres
et al., 2015). Accumulated temperature is a summation of DH
values. It was calculated with the use of formula (2), but in this case,
the limit of integration was the time of composting. Similarly to DH,
accumulated temperature provides additional information about
the composting process and the amount of generated energy. The
higher the accumulated temperature, the more heat is released
during composting. The relevant information cannot be derived
based only on an analysis of changes in temperature inside the pile.
Changes in the accumulated temperature of all treatments are
presented in Fig. 15.
The results presented in Fig. 14 indicate that the composting
process had not been completed in any of the analyzed treatments
at the end of the 4-month experiment, and the mesophilic phase
(compost maturation) lasted until May 2015. At the end of com-
posting, DH normally drops to zero, which was not the case in any
examined treatment. Based on the analyzed data, the experimental
treatments can be divided into two groups. The first group includes
pit and bin composts with 40% and 60% garden waste content
where the final DH was estimated at 400  C h day1. The second
group covers the remaining compost piles with final DH of around
100  C h day1. The above data indicate that by the end of the
experiment, the thermophilic phase of composting had not ended
in the first group, whereas the maturation phase had already begun
in the second group. These conclusions were formulated based on
873
final DH values, and they cannot be derived from the data pre-
sented in the temperature curves in Figs. 8 and 9.
The energy-generating potential of every treatment is presented
in Fig. 15. In accordance with the heat recovery concept proposed
by Neugebauer et al. (2014), heat generated during the composting
process can be used for various purposes. In this experiment, pit
compost containing 60% garden waste was characterized by the
highest energy-generating potential. Similar, but somewhat lower
results were noted for bin compost containing 60% garden waste.
Cumulative ammonia emissions are shown in Fig. 16. The
highest cumulative emissions were noted in pit and bin composts
containing 0% garden waste, whereas the lowest cumulative
emissions were determined in pit and bin composts composed of
100% garden waste and in bin composts containing 60% garden
waste. These results indicate that for energy generation purposes,
the optimal kitchen waste to garden waste mixing ratio is 40%e50%.
This mixing variant was characterized by the most dynamic com-
posting process with the highest accumulated temperature and low
ammonia emissions. As already mentioned, excess heat recovered
from the composting process can be used for other purposes, such
as greenhouse heating (which will be tested in another experi-
ment). Thus, the optimal composition of compost mixtures, sup-
porting high energy recovery, is an important consideration. Due to
low ammonia emissions, the above composting variant has no
adverse environmental effects and organic waste can be composted
at any location in the yard. When heat is transferred from a
compost pile to cold frames through convection (a dedicated test
stand is currently being designed), CO2 emitted during composting
can be assimilated by plants grown in cold frames turned into
hotbeds.
After the experiment, compost was left to mature for 9 months
(until May 2015) in pits and containers without the addition of new
biomass. Mature compost is shown in Fig. 17. The produced humus
met Polish standards for organic fertilizers. Its chemical composi-
tion was determined at 1.2% N, 0.43% P and 0.95% K with pH 6.4. The
chemical composition of the obtained humus was similar to that
determined by other authors, with similar content of nitrogen and
potassium and somewhat lower content of phosphorus. Heavy
metal concentrations were not analyzed in the obtained humus. It
was assumed that safe levels were not exceeded in the composted
materials e food is checked for heavy metal contamination, and in
874 M. Neugebauer, P. Sołowiej / Journal of Cleaner Production 156 (2017) 865e875
Fig. 17. Mature compost.
garden wastes, heavy metal concentrations are generally far below
the permissible limit. The results of other studies indicate that the
heavy metal content of composted garden and kitchen wastes is
below the legal limit (Brinton, 2000).
Composted matter containing more than 60% of difficult to
compost wastes is characterized by variations in temperature,
moisture content and odor emissions. Leachate was not produced.
The moisture content of the pile was maintained at 70e80%
throughout the experiment. In pits, excess rainwater was absorbed
by composted material and soil. In containers, rainwater was
absorbed by compost, and excess water was retained at the bottom
of the bin. On 27 July, the moisture content of compost decreased to
around 65% in pits and below 60% in bins due to prolonged drought.
Despite the above, compost was not watered because the experi-
ment aimed to simulate real-life composting practices in Polish
households.
Tropical wastes take longer to decompose (around 2 months) e
in mid-September 2014, all piles were inspected from the outside
and inside, and some tropical wastes (citrus fruit peel) were still
visible in the mixture. Citrus wastes were not found in November
2014.
The mature humus was used in May and June of the following
year as organic fertilizer in the experimental households. Its in-
fluence on soil quality and organic carbon content was not
examined.
4. Conclusions
The results of the study indicate that biological waste from
Polish households can be effectively composted in the yard without
the risk of odor emissions if the following conditions are met:
 the composting system should allow for at least passive aeration
e above-ground composting bins with openwork walls offer an
effective solution;
 kitchen waste should be composted with at least 40% of bulking
agent for the best results. Garden wastes, including mowed
grass, dead leaves and weeds (without seeds), are good bulking
agents;
 the highest cumulative ammonia emissions were noted in pit
and bin piles containing 0% bulking agent;
 the lowest cumulative ammonia emissions were observed in pit
and bin piles containing 100% bulking agent and in bin piles
containing 60% bulking agents, which helped reduce the odor of
composting, thus contributing to a cleaner production process.
The first phase of the composting process was completed in all
piles after 8 weeks of the experiment;
 for energy generation purposes, the optimal kitchen waste to
garden waste mixing ratio is 40%e50% e this mixing variant was
characterized by the most dynamic composting process with
the highest accumulated temperature and low ammonia
emissions;
 in all experimental households, which also recycled other types
of waste (paper, glass, plastics), the amount of waste collected
by municipal service providers decreased by 50e60%. This im-
plies that composting could lead to a two-fold decrease in the
frequency of waste collection;
 household wastes can be effectively composted in other Central
European countries, including Germany, southern Sweden and
Lithuania, which have similar climates and eating habits.
Small-scale composting of biological waste does not require
special treatment and is harmless to the environment, unlike col-
lective composting schemes where waste has to be transported
across considerable distances. Backyard composting decreases the
residential waste stream and reduces energy consumption associ-
ated with the transport and disposal of household wastes.
Composted residential waste also constitutes high-quality fer-
tilizer for gardening purposes. In this study, compost was mixed
with soil and spread over garden beds. Phytotoxicity tests were not
performed, but no adverse effects due to compost application were
observed in plants.
At the next stage of the study, compost phytotoxicity will be
determined and the impact of compost, used as organic fertilizer,
on crop yields will be evaluated. The use of heat generated during
composting for heating plants in early spring will be tested on a
microscale e heat will be transferred through convection from a
compost pile to the growing area in home gardens.
Funding
This work was financially supported by the Polish Ministry of
Science and Higher Education [grant number N N313 700740].
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.095.
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