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Drake - AISC 360-Training PDF
Drake - AISC 360-Training PDF
Drake - AISC 360-Training PDF
DIMENSIONAL PROPERTIES
Dimensional properties such as moment of inertia, section modulus, and area are
summarized in the AISC Steel Construction Manual.
W-SHAPES
Manual Page 1-26. Table 1-1. W- Manual Page 1-27. Table 1-1. W-
Shapes, Dimensions Shapes, Dimensions
Most tables span two facing pages to include all of the measured and
calculated cross-sectional properties.
The table include a sketch that shows key dimensions of the member cross-
section, including d, tw, bf, and tf.
Some of the key dimensions are given both as numbers to three significant
figures and as fractions.
W12x26
You will find this near the bottom of Manual Pages 1-26 and 1-27.
Ix 202 in 4
Sx 33.1in 3 {33.4 in3 in table}
c 12.2 in
2
Ix 202 in 4
rx 5.17 in {5.17" in table}
A 7.57 in 2
C-SHAPES
Manual Page 1-38. Table 1-5. C- Manual Page 1-39. Table 1-5. C-
Shapes - Dimensions. Shapes - Dimensions.
C8x11.5
8.00 in 0.390 in
I x 1.76 in 2
2
22.26 in 0.390 in
3
0.220 in 8.00 in 20.390 in
3
2 12 12
Ix 32.4 in 4
Sx 8.10 in 3 {8.14 in3 in table}
c 8.00 in
2
Ix 32.4 in 4
rx 3.11in {3.11” in table}
A 3.35 in 2
WT-SHAPES
Manual Page 1-70. Table 1-8. WT- Manual Page 1-71. Table 1-8. WT-
Shapes - Dimensions. Shapes - Dimensions.
WT6x13
If you make a longitudinal cut at mid-depth along the web of the W-Shape,
you will make two WT-shapes.
STRUCTURAL STEELS
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
Tensile Tests
Different grades of steel will yield test results with some similarities, and many
differences. Values obtained from tensile strength test are summarized in ASTM
specifications and used in AISC design equations.
Let’s describe the four typical ranges of material behavior during the
tension test.
Elastic Range
The slope of the stress-strain curve in elastic range is constant for lower
grades of steel to proportional limit/yield point.
PL
L L
AE
P EA
Material in the elastic Range is obeying Hooke’s Law where stresses are
proportional to strain.
If the test specimen is unloaded in elastic range, it will return to its original
dimensions.
Plastic Range
If the test specimen is unloaded in plastic range, it will not return to its
original shape; it is permanently deformed.
Strain-Hardening Range
At the end of the plastic range plateau, an increase in applied load will again be
required to further strain the test specimen.
Shortly afterwards, the cross-section has fractured and can carry no load
(failure)
Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to do useful work beyond the elastic range.
One measure of ductility is:
fracture
yield
Common Material
Material Properties
Strength parameters (Fy and Fu) are usually specified as minimum tested
values.
Manual Pages 2-48 and 2-49. Table 2-4. Applicable ASTM Specifications
For Various Structural Shapes
MATERIAL TOUGHNESS
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Fracture Toughness is a measure of the energy required to cause an item to
fracture and fail when subject to tensile stresses.
Fracture toughness is not related to steel strength. Most structural steels can
fracture either in a brittle or ductile manner.
Brittle Fractures
When brittle fractures are viewed on a fine scale, they are characterized
by a smooth mirror like appearance.
Ductile Fractures
When ductile fractures are viewed on a fine scale, they are characterized
by a rough fibrous appearance.
ASTM E23-18 – Standard Test Methods For Notched Bar Impact Testing Of
Metallic Materials
These tests show that metals can be classified as being either brittle or
ductile. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy when impact
tested, a tough ductile metal a large amount of energy.
These tests are qualitative, the results can only be compared with each
other or with a requirement in a specification; they cannot be used to
calculate the fracture toughness of a weld or parent metal.
Usually, three specimens are tested at any one temperature and the
results averaged.
Carbon and low alloy steels exhibit a change in fracture behavior as the
temperature falls with the failure mode changing from ductile to brittle.
Austenitic stainless steels, nickel and aluminum alloys do not show this
change in fracture behavior, the fracture remaining ductile even to very
low temperatures. This is one reason why these types of alloys are used
in cryogenic applications.
Quality Control
Although most codes and specifications were developed using more complex
and expensive fracture toughness tests, the CVN test is usually specified for
material purchase and quality control.
BRITTLE FRACTURE
INTRODUCTION TO FRACTURE MECHANICS1
Fracture mechanics is based on a tensile stress analysis in the vicinity of a notch
or crack. The fundamental concept is that stress field ahead of a notch or crack
(flaw) can be characterized in terms of a single parameter, the stress intensity
factor (K1) with units of ksi inch . When the value of K1 reaches a critical value
(K1c), unstable crack growth and fracture occurs.
K1 < K1c
Experimental testing has resulted in loose correlations between K1c values and
CVN values.
1
Barsom, John M. and Rolfe, Stanley T, Fracture And Fatigue Control In Structures, 3rd Edition,
1999.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Lower temperatures do not have an adverse impact on material yield
strength; but they do have an adverse impact on material ductility.
The fracture of carbon and low alloy steels changes from being ductile on
the upper shelf to brittle on the lower shelf as the temperature falls,
passing through a transition region where the fracture will be mixed.
Structural steel standards will allow the use of steels that exhibit a
minimum energy absorption capability at a predetermined temperature.
Material close to a free surface can deform laterally because there can be
no stresses normal to the free surface. The stress state under these
conditions tends to be biaxial.
Plane Strain
Material away from the free surfaces of a relatively thick component is not
free to deform laterally as it is constrained by the surrounding material.
The stress state under these conditions tends to be triaxial.
Materials behave essentially elastic until the fracture stress is reached and
then rapid brittle fracture occurs.
The unwelded part of the base metal can act as a notch or initiation crack,
increasing the probability of weld or base metal fracture.
EFFECT OF THICKNESS
Critical Fracture Toughness
For very thin specimens, the size of the plastic zone is limited to the
thickness of the material, and pure plane-stress behavior dominates.
For very thick specimens, the size of the fracture is much less than the
material thickness and pure plane-strain behavior dominates. The stress-
intensity factor at failure (K1c) is smaller for thick plates compared with
thinner plates of the same materials.
The increase in yield stress increases the demand on the member or connection.
The decrease in fracture toughness decreases the fracture capacity of the
member. The result is poorer cyclic behavior.
Heavy sections in the seismic force resisting system (SFRS) must meet
more stringent requirements than those prescribed in AISC 360-16.
AISC 341 refers to AWS D1.8 which prescribes CVN requirements for
demand critical welds.
Members used in the SFRS must be made with filler metals that have a
CVN toughness of 20 ft-lb at 0 0 F.
In addition, demand critical welds must be made with filler metals that
have a CVN toughness of 40 ft-lb at 70 0 F.
REQUIRED:
(a) Identify on the plot the transition temperature.
(b) Identify on the plot the acceptance criteria for rolled heavy shapes. Is the
material acceptable for nonseismic applications?
(c) Identify on the plot the acceptance criteria for welds in the Seismic Load
Resisting System. Is the material acceptable for seismic applications?
(d) Identify on the plot the acceptance criteria for demand critical welds in the
Seismic Load Resisting System. Is the material acceptable for seismic
applications?
SOLUTION:
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
KEY TERMINOLOGY
The following terms are used throughout the AISC Specification.
Allowable Strength =
Nominal Strength
Allowable Strength
Pn
Allowable axial strength, kips
Mn
Allowable flexural strength, in-K or ft-K
Acceptance Criteria
Demand ≤ Capacity
Ω
Allowable Strength Design is covered in AISC 360.
Load
Stress
Section Pr operty
P
fa axial stress
A
Mc M
fb bending stress
I S
Allowable Stress
Limiting allowable stresses are usually expressed in terms of the material's yield
stress Fy or tensile strength Fu , divided by a factor of safety.
F failure Fy or Fu
Fallowable
F .S . F .S .
Acceptance Relationships
f F
f a Fa
f b Fb
Required Strength (Ru) is the member internal force or moment that must be
safely maintained, the result of a structural analysis, calculated using LRFD load
combinations (factored loads).
Pu = Required axial strength, kips
Mu = Required flexural strength, in-K or ft-K
Nominal Strength
Nominal Strength (Rn) is the strength at which the member ceases to be useful
because it has reached a “Limit state” such as Yielding, Fracture, Buckling, and
Deformation.
Pn = Nominal axial strength, kips
Mn = Nominal flexural strength, in-K or ft-K
Design Strength
Acceptance Criteria
Demand ≤ Capacity
Ru ≤ ΦRn
This means that for a building with 1000 structural steel members, only 3
members are expected to be overloaded during the building’s 50 year
design life.
This does not mean that the building will collapse, just that some part of
the building will experience noticeable distress, usually yielding or
buckling.
∑ ∅
Where:
i Load factor, unitless
Qi = Load effect, kips or ft-kips
Load factors and resistance factors (Φ) are mathematically derived to give
the desired reliability for each load combination and building element, in such a
way that 99.7% reliability is achieved.
Load combinations are to be taken from the Applicable Building Code, the
International Building Code (IBC). In the absence of a building code,
loads shall be taken from ASCE 7.
Load factors are materially independent and are based strictly on load statistics.
Load factors are incorporated into load combinations.
Equation 16-1 accounts for the statistically maximum Dead Load alone.
Equation 16-2 accounts for the statistically maximum Live Load, with the
simultaneous probable value for the other service loads. The OR in this
load combination is a matter of using the highest roof gravity load (Roof
Live Load, Snow load, or Rain Load).
Equation 16-3 accounts for the statistically maximum roof load with the
simultaneous probable value for the other service loads. The OR in the
last term means use either 0.5L or 0.5W, whichever is more critical. This
is really two separate load combinations.
RESISTANCE FACTORS
Cross-sectional properties indicated in the AISC Construction Manual are
nominal values. The steel mills have tolerances (+ or -) for thicknesses and
widths of flanges and webs, as defined in ASTM A6. Similarly, material strengths
such as Fy and Fu are nominal values, usually specified minimums. To account
for these uncertainties, resistance factors (Φ) are used.
The resistance factor is always less than equal or to 1.0 because there is always
some probability that the actual resistance is less than the nominal strength Rn .
The primary resistance factors are:
NOMINAL STRENGTH
Nominal strengths are given in the AISC Specification for the various limit states.
Rn
For ASD: Q i
Rn
Ra
Ra
1 .0
Rn
Where:
Qi service load effect, kips or ft-kips
Rn general form of nominal strength, replaced by Pn , M n ,Vn , etc.
depending on the member being designed.
Ra general form of required strength, replaced by Pa , M a ,Va , etc.
depending on the member being designed.
SAFETY FACTORS
ASD safety factors are always greater than or equal to 1.0. They account for
uncertainties in material strengths and service loads. The primary safety factors
are:
AISC SPECIFICATION
General Comments
Terms that are used in the Specification are defined in the glossary
including: Required Strength, Nominal Strength, Available Strength,
Design Strength and Allowable Strength.
Steel producers
Steel fabricators
Design firms
Universities
Several specifications and codes are bound in this section of the Manual.
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 2
GROSS CROSS-SECTION AREA .................................................................. 2
NET CROSS-SECTION AREA ........................................................................ 3
INTRODUCTION
GROSS CROSS-SECTION AREA
Consider a tension member spanning from wall to wall, bolted to gusset plates at
each wall.
Section a-a is taken perpendicular to the load away from the ends of the
tension member. The full gross area is available to resist tension loads.
The average stress is equal to:
P
f avg
Agross
The gross area Ag is the total cross-sectional area of a tensile member
taken perpendicular to the load, where no holes are provided.
Section b-b is taken perpendicular to the load at the location where bolts
transfer the load from the tension member to the gusset plate. The bolt
holes reduce the cross-sectional area and increases the stress. The
reduced net area is available to resist tension loads. The average stress
is equal to:
P P
f avg
Anet Agross
For bolt diameters 7/8” and smaller, standard bolt holes are punched or
drilled 1/16” larger than the bolt diameter (d).
For bolt diameters 1” and larger, standard bolt holes are punched or drilled
1/8” larger than the bolt diameter (d).
The net area is the gross area minus something for the holes.
For bolt diameters 7/8” and smaller, the bolt hole net area reduction is
equal to the bolt diameter (d) plus 1/16” for the standard hole plus another
1/16” for damage incurred making the hole.
For bolt diameters 1” and larger, the bolt hole net area reduction is equal
to the bolt diameter (d) plus 1/8” for the standard hole plus another 1/16”
for damage incurred making the hole.
Where:
An member net area, in2
2
Ag member gross area, in
n number of bolt holes in cross-section taken perpendicular to the load
d bolt diameter, inch
t material thickness, inch
Note that stresses tend to concentrate at bolt holes and are usually much higher
than predicted by the average stresses. The material doesn’t rupture because of
its material ductility.
P
f t
An
TENSILE STRENGTH
TENSION YIELDING IN THE GROSS SECTION
P
yield Fy
Agross
The nominal strength to limit yield at the gross section can be expressed as:
Pn F y Agross
P
rupture Fu
Anet
The nominal strength to limit rupture at the net section can be expressed as:
Pn Fu Anet
The Specification includes shaded User Notes that consist of helpful information.
These notes are not part of the Specification; they have no legal standing.
See Section B3.11 for members subject to fatigue, i.e., repeated cyclic
loads.
See Section J4.3 for block shear rupture strength at end connections.
For LRFD: Pu t Pn
Where:
Pu required axial strength, Kips
t Pn design axial strength, Kips
We must consider two limit states, tension yielding in the gross section
and tension rupture in the net section. The lower value will govern.
Where:
F y specified minimum yield stress, ksi
2
Ag gross area of member, in
Note that the nominal strength equation includes a material property (Fy)
and a cross-section property (Ag).
Where:
Fu specified minimum tensile strength, ksi
Ae effective net area, in2
Note that the nominal strength equation includes a material property (Fu)
and a cross-section property (Ae).
For now, consider the effective net area (Ae) to be equal to or less than
the net area (An).
Notice that the Φ values are different for the two limit states.
Pn F y Ag 36 ksi 2.50 in 2 90 .0 K {Eq. D2-1}
W21x93 Dimensions
Ag 9.12 in 2 {Manual 1-40}
Net Area
Bolt diameter is 1” and larger
3 3
16 16
9.12 2 1 0.370 2 1 0.700
EFFECTIVE AREA
ELEMENTS
A structural shape consists of rectangular elements that make up its shape.
An L-Shape (angle) consists of two elements, one element for each leg.
When some but not all of the cross-section elements are used to transfer tension
forces between a member and a connection, not all of the net area is effective for
tensile rupture.
P
f max f avg
Anet
The shear lag factor occurs in both bolted and welded connections.
If the distance to transfer the tension load between two members is short,
the internal shear forces cannot be efficiently distributed from the entire
cross-section (all of the elements) to the reduced cross-section (some of
the elements) at the connection.
This shear lag is accounted for by reducing the net area to an effective net
area.
Ae AnU
Where:
Ae effective net area, in2
U shear lag factor, unitless
An net area, in2
Testing indicates that shear lag is a function of both the length of the
_
connection (L) and the eccentricity x of the axial force between the
member and the connection.
Shear lag factors are based on empirical testing and are summarized in
Specification Table D3.1.
Manual Page 16.1-30. Table D3.1. Shear Lag Factors For Connections To
Tension Members.
Case 1: All tension members where the tension load is transmitted directly
to each of the cross-sectional elements by fasteners or welds (except as in
Cases 4, 5 and 6).
U 1 .0
Case 2: All tension members, except HSS, where the tension load is
transmitted to some but not all of the cross-sectional elements by
fasteners or by longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds.
Alternatively, Case 7 is permitted for W, M, S and HP shapes. (For angles,
Case 8 is permitted to be used.)
_
x
U 1
L
Where:
_ There are special design rule for
x connection eccentricity, applying case 2 to w-shapes.
inch
L connection length in the For W-Shape flange, determine
direction of loading, inch _
the X from the WT-Shape cut
from the W-Shape,
Pn Fy Ag 50 ksi 13.1in 2 655 K {Eq. D2-1}
2 0.575 8.05
0.71
13.1
Ae AnU 11.1in 2 0.81 8.99 in 2 {Eq. D3-1}
.
0.985 {Manual 1-69}
.
1 1 0.688 {Table D3.1, Case 4}
0.605 12.0
0.761
9.54
9.54 0.761 7.26 {Eq. D3-1}
65 7.26 472 {Eq. D2-2}
t 0.75 {resistance factor from spec.}
∅ 0.75 472 354 {Design Strength}
BLOCK SHEAR
Block shear is a combined shear and tension failure where a “block” of material
can separate from a member or connecting element. One of the User Notes at
the beginning of Specification Chapter D indicates that block shear is treated is a
connection limit state covered in Specification Chapter J.
GENERAL
Forces On Angle
Where:
Rn nominal shear rupture strength, Kips
resistance factor, unitless
Fu specified minimal tensile strength, ksi
F y specified minimum yield stress, ksi
Anv member net shear area, in2, to be defined in class example
Ant member net tension area, in2, to be defined in class example
Agv member gross shear area, in2, to be defined in class example
U bs block shear reduction coefficient, unitless
Anv Agv
Ant Agt
Pn Fy Ag 36 ksi 4.00 in 2 144.0 K {Eq. D2-1}
Block Shear
3
Agv in 10 in 3.75 in 2
8
3 1
Anv in 10 in 2.51in in 2.70 in 2
8 8
3 1
Ant in 3 in 0.51in in 0.91in 2
8 8
U bs 1.0
Rn 0.6 Fu Anv U bs Fu Ant 0.6 Fy Agv U bs Fu Ant {Eq. J4-5}
0.658 ksi 2.70 in 2 1.058 ksi 0.91in 2
0.636 ksi 3.75 in 1.058 ksi 0.91in
2 2
Summary
∅ 129.6
∅ 137.5
Rn block shear 100.3 K lowest limit state
REQUIRED: Determine if the gusset plate is adequate for block shear. Do not
check any other limit states.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
225 {given}
Block Shear
1
Agv in 22.0 in 11.0 in 2
2
1 7 1
Anv in 22.0 in 7 in in 7.50 in 2
2 8 8
1 7 1
Ant in 6.0 in 1. in in 2.50 in 2
2 8 8
U bs 1.0
0.658 ksi 7.50 in 2 1.058 ksi 2.50 in 2
0.636 ksi 11.0 in 1.058 ksi 2.50 in
2 2
Dimensions that fit into the structure with reasonable relation to the
dimensions of other members.
{Eq. D2-1}
.
Where:
t 0.90 tension resistance factor
Fy specified minimum yield strength, ksi
Ag member gross area, in2
Where:
t 0.75 tension resistance factor
Fu specified minimum tensile strength, ksi
The Specification says that there is no slenderness limit (L/r) for tension
members.
L
300
r
The User Note is not part of the specification, and therefore, is not a legal
requirement.
The User Note “preferably” limits the slenderness ratio, and would be hard
to enforce in a court of law.
Required strength
Pu 1.4 D 1.4100 K 140K
Pu 1.2 D 1.6 L 1.2100 K 1.6150 K 360 K governs
Try W12x35
The W12x35 is a trial section. We don’t know if it is acceptable until we check
the rupture on the net section limit state.
.
1.30 {Manual 1-71}
_
x 1.30 in
U 1 1 0.84 {Table D3.1, Case 2}
L 8 in
2 0.520 6.56
0.66
10.3
Ae UAn 0.84 8.48 in 2 7.12 in 2 {Eq. D3-1}
Pn Fu Ae 65 ksi 7.12 in 2 462.8 K {Eq. D2-2}
ΦtPn = (0.75)(462.8 K) = 347 K < 360 K = Pu ng
Pn Fu Ae 65 ksi 8.51in 2 553.2 K {Eq. D2-2}
ΦtPn = (0.75)(553.2 K) = 415 K > 360 K = Pu ok
Use W12x40
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION
There are several common types of compression members including
building columns, top chords of roof trusses, and bracing members.
P
fa
A
where:
f a average stress across cross-section, ksi
Eccentricities
Loads are transferred to a building column from the columns above and from
beams framing into it. If the center of gravity of the loads coincides with the
center of gravity of the column, the column is considered to be concentrically
loaded. In practice, columns are seldom concentrically loaded.
material imperfections
If e is small and member is short, the lateral deflection due to flexure is small
and the flexural stress is insignificant.
Pn tension F y Ag
Pn compression Fy Ag
The tendency for compression members to fail before the material yield stress is
usually measured by the slenderness ratio.
L
Slenderness Ratio =
r
Columns that are part of rigid frames will have both axial loads and bending
moments. These are called beam-columns and will be addressed in Text
Chapter 6.
Columns that are part of rigid frames will require more detailed analyses to
determine their Required Strengths Pu , M ux , M uy .
COLUMN THEORY
CRITICAL BUCKLING LOADS
Long Columns
If the axial load (P) is gradually applied, the column will eventually buckle into
the deflected shape shown by the dotted line.
AISC calls this limit state flexural buckling. The deflected shape is the
bending of a beam.
The axial load (P) that forces the buckled shape is called the critical buckling
load (Pcr).
It will take a larger axial load (P) to reach the critical buckling load (Pcr).
Elastic Buckling
The critical buckling load (Pcr) can be derived using differential equations.
When subject to an axial load, the column buckles before the axial stress level
reaches the material yield stress. The column is entirely elastic, and is a function
of its flexural stiffness (EI).
There are several buckling modes. Normally we are only interested in the
first buckling mode.
2 EI
Pcr
L2
Dividing both sides of the equation by the column cross-sectional area (A), yields
the Elastic Buckling Stress (Fe):
Pe 2 EI
Fe 2
A LA
I I
r and A 2
A r
2 EI 2E
As used by AISC : Fe
I L
2
L2 2
r r
Test results indicate that short stocky columns tend to fail before Elastic Flexural
Buckling can be achieved.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
The tangent modulus Et is attributed to residual stresses from the rolling
process. Residual stresses are the stresses that remain in a member after it has
been formed into a finished product.
The thicker flanges cool more slowly than the thinner webs.
Flange tips have greater exposure to air and cool more quickly.
Tension residual stresses occur in the regions that cool the slowest.
Column Stubs
The stiffness of the column will be reduced and become a function of the
part of the column cross-section that is still elastic.
The column must have an applied load sufficient to reach the inelastic
range.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
The concept of effective length is simply a mathematical method of replacing a
given column with an equivalent pinned-end column braced against sidesway. In
other words, the Elastic Flexural Buckling length is equal to KL .
Where:
K effective length factor, unitless
L column length between supports, inch
Column effective lengths for other support conditions can also be derived by
repeating the Euler critical buckling load differential equation derivation with
different boundary conditions.
The effective length factor K is used to adjust the Flexural Buckling stress for
different end conditions:
2E
Fe 2
KL
r
Case (a): fixed at base, fixed at top, no sidesway, derived graphically in class
theoretical K 0.5 design K 0.65
Case (b): fixed at base, pinned at top, no sidesway, derived using differential
equations in Text
theoretical K 0.7 design K 0.80
Case (c): fixed at base, sidesway but no rotation at top, like some rigid frames
theoretical K 1.0 design K 1.2
Case (d): pinned at base, pinned at top, no sidesway, elastic flexural buckling,
derived using differential equations in Text, derived graphically in class
theoretical K 1.0 design K 1.0
Case (e): fixed at base, free to sidesway and rotate at top, a cantilevered column
theoretical K 2.0 design K 2.1
Case (f): pinned at base, sidesway but no rotation at top, like some rigid frames
theoretical K 2.0 design K 2.0
AISC REQUIREMENTS
FLEXURAL BUCKLING
Test results indicate that many columns tend to fail before elastic flexural
buckling can be achieved.
Test results agree with neither yield stress theory nor Euler formula
SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
Manual Page 16.1-33. Chapter E. Compression members
We have already discussed the effective length factor (K) using a chart
found in the Commentary to Chapter C.
The User Note is not part of the specification, and therefore, is not a legal
requirement.
Manual Page 16.1-35 & 36. Section E3. Flexural Buckling Of Members
Without Slender Elements.
For now, accept that most common column sections are nonslender.
Which of the two equations that applies is not based on the largest of the
two or the smallest of the two.
Note that at high slenderness ratios, the design column strength is based
on Euler buckling, and is independent of the material yield strength.
AISC recognized that only certain shapes are efficiently used as columns, and
has tabulated values for 200 for the most common values of Fy.
Manual Page 4-228. Table 4-14. Available Critical Stress For Compression
Members
slenderness ratio ( )
This table doesn’t provide values for 200 because AISC prefers that
you do not use slenderness ratios larger than 200.
Boundary conditions
K x K y 1.0 for pinned-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
L x L y 15 ft
For W-shapes, ry rx
For W-shapes, if K x Lx K y L y , the y-axis will have the greater KL/r, and will
buckle first.
Specification equations
Ag 17.9 in 2 {Manual 1-24}
1.0 15 12
73.5
2.45
53.0 {Eq. E3-4}
.
4.71 4.71 113.4 73.5 use Eq. E3-2
0.658 0.658 . 50 33.69 {Eq. E3-2}
1.0 15 12
73.5
2.45
For Fy = 50 ksi, by interpolation: ΦcFcr = 30.35 ksi {Manual 4-230}
2
ΦcPn = (ΦcFcr)Ag = (30.35 ksi)(17.9 in ) = 543 K
Commentary
Now let’s see what happens when we make the column longer.
Boundary conditions
K x K y 1.0 for pinned-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
Lx = Ly = 24 ft
For W-shapes, ry rx
For W-shapes, if K x Lx K y L y , the y-axis will have the greater KL/r, and will
buckle first.
Specification equations
Ag 17.9 in 2 {Manual 1-24}
1.0 24 12
117.6
2.45
20.7 {Eq. E3-4}
.
4.71 4.71 113.4 117.6 use Eq. E3-3
1.0 24 12
117.6
2.45
For Fy = 50 ksi, by interpolation: ΦcFcr = 16.35 ksi {Manual 4-231}
ΦcPn = (ΦcFcr)Ag = (16.35 ksi)(17.9 in2) = 293 K
Commentary
Now let’s see what happens when we make the column longer.
LOCAL STABILITY
The individual elements of a column
cross-section may buckle locally at a
lower stress than the stress that would
cause the overall column to experience
flexural buckling.
The section plate elements can be separated into two types, based on their
boundary conditions:
Stiffened elements.
Unstiffened elements.
b
There is no need to calculate
t
h
and for W-shapes because they
tw
are tabulated in Manual Part 1.
SLENDER ELEMENTS
Manual Page 16.1-33. Chapter E. Compression Members
The total cross-section effective area (Ae) is the summation of the effective
areas of each of the cross-section elements.
The critical stress is based on Section E4 for torsional buckling and flexural-
torsional buckling of sections that that are not double-symmetric cross
sections such as double-angles and WT shapes.
The reduced area for each slender element should be subtracted for the
gross cross section (Ag), as suggested in the User Note.
E 29000 ksi
r 0.56 0.56 13.5 {Manual 16.1-17, Case 1}
Fy 50 ksi
r flange is nonslender
E 29000 ksi
r 1.49 1.49 35.9 {Manual 16.1-17, Case 5}
Fy 50 ksi
r web is slender
Additional Comments
E 29000 ksi
r 0.56 0.56 13.5 {Manual 16.1-17, Case 1}
Fy 50 ksi
r flange is nonslender
1.49 1.49 35.9 {Manual 16.1-17, Case 5}
r web is slender
1.0 5 12
53.6
1.12
99.6 {Eq. E3-4}
.
4.71 4.71 113.4 53.6 use Eq. E3-2
0.658 0.658 . 50 40.52 {Eq. E3-2}
50
35.9 39.9
40.52
HP-Shape, Fy = 50 ksi
WT-Shapes, Fy = 50 ksi
Tables are limited to 200 because AISC prefers that you not exceed this.
Tables assume that weak-axis buckling will govern the column design and are
calculated based on Lcy in feet. If Lcy is not the same for both axes, the table may
still be used to determine the design strength, covered later in this lecture.
Table values are correct for all sections of Chapter E, including Section E3
(nonslender) and Section E7 (slender).
Manual Page 6-79. Table 6-2. Available Strength For Member Subject To
Axial, Shear, Flexural, And Combined Forces.
Additional Comments
Use the Manual Tab 4 tables for all columns because these tables include all
sections normally used for columns.
Local Stability
Check need not be made when using the Column Load Tables. We are
confident that AISC developed the design strengths in accordance with
the proper sections of Specification Chapter E.
Boundary Conditions
K 1.0 for pinned-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
(KL)y = (KL)max = 1.0(15 ft) = 15 ft
Required Strength
Pu 1.2200 K 1.6200 K 560 K
Local Stability
Check need not be made when using the Column Load Tables. We are
confident that AISC developed the design strengths in accordance with
the proper sections of Specification Chapter E.
Boundary Conditions
K = 0.80 for fixed-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
KL = 0.8(30 ft) = 24 ft
DESIGN
If we have 5 things we are ready to select a size for a compression member.
GIVEN:
Required Strength Pu
SOLUTION:
Enter column load tables with Lcy and select a section such that Pu <
ΦcPn.
Calculate .
.
REQUIRED: Select lightest W14 column using the available strength in axial
compression tables (column load tables)
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu = 1.4(600 K) = 840 K
Pu = 1.2(600 K) + 1.6(400 K) = 1360 K governs
Boundary Conditions
Kx = Ky = 1.0 for pinned-pinned column {Manual 16.1-570}
(KL)y = (KL)max = 1.0(13 ft) = 13 ft
SELECT W14X99
REQUIRED: Select lightest W-shape column using the available strength in axial
compression tables (column load tables)
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu = 1.4(550 K) = 770 K governs
Pu = 1.2(550 K) + 1.6(50 K) = 740 K
Boundary Conditions
Kx = Ky = 0.65 for fixed-fixed column {Manual 16.1-570}
(KL)y = (KL)max = 0.65(20 ft) = 13 ft
SELECT W10X77
The figures below show the two orthogonal elevation views of this column.
The columns are oriented so the major axis bending is over two stories
and the weak-axis bending is over one story.
Note that the column is treated at each beam level when the beam is
considered to be “pinned-ended”; it is free to rotate but restrained from
translation.
The AISC compression member tables are calculated assuming that Lcy
governs.
Values are presented for specific column shapes and grades of steel and
are tabulated by Lcy values.
Lcy = Lcx
Every column will buckle about the axis represented by the larger of Lcy or
Lcy(equiv).
Enter the Available Strength In Axial Compression Tables with the larger
of Lcy or Lcy(equiv) and select the precalculated value for ΦcPn.
REQUIRED: Determine the design strength using the available strength in axial
compression tables (column load tables)
SOLUTION:
REQUIRED: Select lightest W-shape column using the available strength in axial
compression tables (column load tables)
SOLUTION:
Required strength
Pu 1.4240 K 336 K governs
Pu 1.2240 K 1.620 K 320 K
Boundary conditions
K = 1.0 for pinned-pinned columns {Manual 16.1-570}
Lcy = (KL)y = 1.0(15.0 ft) = 15.0 ft
1.0 30 30
Select sections
Fy = 50 ksi
We will use a different approach than the Text approach, which depends on a
“magic assumption” for the ratio.
With the Trial Design member, we can now perform an exact solution
Using the size from the Trial Design, compare Lcy and Lcy(equiv) to identify
which is the longer column length.
Using the longer column length in yellow), select the Exact Design from
the Column Load Tables.
SELECT W8X58
Table C-A-7.1 provides approximate values for the effective length factor K
based on a sidesway buckling analysis with idealized boundary conditions.
These approximate values for K are reasonable to use for preliminary design
when column and beam sizes are not known.
Cases (a), (b), and (d) represent columns laterally supported by braced
frame or shear wall systems that do not sidesway.
K 1 .0
Cases (c), (e), and (f) represent columns in moment frame systems that
sidesway.
K 1 .0
ALIGNMENT CHARTS
Alignment charts provide a more precise way to determine the effective length
factor than the approximate values previously used when the columns are
connected to the beams with rigid or moment-resisting connections.
Alignment charts evaluate the flexural rigidity of the joints at each end of a
column segment.
∑ ∑
∑ ∑
Manual Page 16.1-571. Figure C-A- Manual Page 16.1-572. Figure C-A-
7.1. Alignment Chart – Sidesway 7.2. Alignment Chart – Sidesway
Inhibited (Braced Frame) Uninhibited (Moment Frame)
K values are required for each column segment, bounded by joints “A” and
“B”
This difference in stiffness can be accounted for by the stiffness reduction factor
(τb). For design:
Fcr inelastic
b
Fcr elastic
If 4.71 , inelastic
column buckling is expected,
and τb is provided.
Additional Comments
REQUIRED: Determine the effective length factor of the upper segment of the
column on Grid 2. Consider the stiffness reduction factor.
SOLUTION:
Elastic factors
597
∑ 39.8
15
1.75
301 510 10.0 12.8
∑ 30 40
597 597
∑ 79.6
15 15
3.49
301 510 10.0 12.8
∑ 30 40
Kx = 1.7 {Manual 16.1-572}
29000
4.71 4.71 113.4
50
. /
57.6 113.4 inelastic behavior
.
597
∑ 35.6 .
15
.
301 510 10.0 12.8
∑ 30 40
597 597
∑ 79.6 .
15 15
.
301 510 10.0 12.8
∑ 30 40
Kx = 1.65 {Manual 16.1-572}
Elastic factors
662
∑ 2 132.4
10
2.23
2370 59.25
∑ 40
Gb = 10 for pinned base
Kx = 0.92 {Manual 16.1-571}
29000
4.71 4.71 113.4
50
. /
36.2 113.4 inelastic behavior
.
662
∑ 2 132.4 0.416
10
0.93
2370 59.25
∑ 40
Gb = 10 for pinned base
The solid lines represent the unbuckled elevation and midheight cross-
section of the column.
The dotted lines represent the buckled elevation and midheight cross-
section of the column.
Flexural buckling is caused by bending about the axis with the largest
slenderness ratio. It needs to be considered for all shapes.
Subsection (a) defines the critical buckling stress for double symmetric
members, such as W-shapes.
Subsection (b) defines the critical buckling stress for singly symmetric
members, such as WT-shapes and Double-Angle shapes.
Terms used in Equations E4-2, E4-3, and E4-4 are defined in Section E4.
Where:
G = shear modulus of elasticity = 11,200 ksi
Cross-Sectional Properties
Elastic Buckling Stresses About The Major (x), Minor (y), And Longitudinal (z)
Axes
Reminder
There are over 200 pages of “Column Load Tables” in Manual Sections 4
for every rolled shape conceivable used as a column.
BUILT-UP MEMBERS
Manual Page 16.1-39. Section E6. Built-Up Members
Reminder
There are over 200 pages of “Column Load Tables” in Manual Sections 4
for every rolled shape conceivable used as a column.
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 3
TYPES OF BEAMS ......................................................................................... 3
SECTIONS USED AS BEAMS ........................................................................ 4
AISC SPECIFICATION .................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF BEAMS
A structural member is a beam if it is loaded transverse to its longitudinal axis,
causing bending.
Girders are beams spaced at the largest interval in a floor or roof system.
General
Ru ≤ ΦRn
Flexure
Specification Chapter F
M u ≤ Φ bM n
Shear
Specification Chapter G
Vu vVn
Deflection
∆ ≤ ∆allow
Other Sections
W-shapes in combination with concrete floor slabs are usually used for building
floors.
AISC SPECIFICATION
Specification Page 16.1-44. Chapter F. Design Of Members For Flexure
Maximum tension stress is at the bottom fiber; most tension force is in the
bottom flange
The equal and opposite tension and compression flange forces form a
couple. An internal moment is developed by the couple force times the
distance between them.
Mx = fbx(max)Sx
f bx max Fy
M yx Fy S x
Where:
Myx = yield moment = bending moment about X-axis when extreme fiber
has reached the yield stress, in-K
The Yield Moment is the maximum internal moment that the cross-section
can sustain and remain elastic.
Any further internal moment will result in plastic behavior and permanent
deformation.
ELASTIC-PLASTIC BEHAVIOR
After the material yield stress (Fy) is reached, the beam still acts as an ideal
truss, with the top flange in compression and the bottom flange in tension.
After the extreme fiber has reached the yield stress, any additional
external loading will cause more strain, but no more stress.
The additional loading will cause the adjacent fibers to increase their strain
and stress until they reach the yield stress.
As loading increases, eventually all of the fibers can reach the yield stress,
although at different strain levels.
fbx(max) = Fy
Mx > Myx
PLASTIC BEHAVIOR
Stage (D) – Entirely Plastic Stresses
Any further external load would cause the entire cross-section to progress
much further on the stress-strain curve, forming a “plastic hinge” and an
unstable structure.
The Plastic Moment is the maximum internal moment that the cross-
section is permitted to sustain by the AISC Specification.
When half of the section has reached yield in compression and the other
half reaches yield in tension, the section can resist an external load that
causes the internal moment (Mp).
f bx max F y
M px Fy Z x
Where:
M px plastic moment about the X-axis, in-K
Z Ad
The part of the section that reached yield in compression develops an internal
compression force:
C Ac Fyc
The part of the section that reached yield in tension develops an internal tension
force:
T At Fyt
C T
Ac Fyc At Fyt
If the same materials are in tension and
compression:
Fyc Fyt
Ac At
Plastic Moment
The plastic moment M p is equal to the couple force C T times some moment
arm. In practice, it is easier to decompose the compression and tension areas
into shapes for which we can easily find the area and centroid.
M p C1d1 C 2 d 2 T3 d 3 T4 d 4
M p A1 Fy d1 A2 Fy d 2 A3 Fy d 3 A4 Fy d 4
M p AdFy Ad Fy ZF y
Z Ad
SOLUTION:
h 8.84 in
4.42 in
2 2
y
1
2
d tf
1
10.2 in 0.680 in 4.76 in
2
d 10.2 in
c 5.10 in
2 2
0.420 in 8.84 in 3 311 1 24 336 in 4
12
I x 341in 4 {Manual 1-29}
I x 336 in 4
Sx 65.9 in 3
c 5.10 in
M yx S x Fy
65.9 in 50 ksi 275 ft K
3
12 in / ft
We will solve for the plastic moment (Mp) in a general manner useful for all
shapes, symmetrical or not.
Section is symmetric, PNA is at middepth
4.42 in
Z x Ad 210.1in 0.680 in 4.76 in 20.420 in 4.42 in
2
65.4 8.2 73.6 in 3
M px Z x Fy
73.6 in 50 ksi 307 ft K
3
12 in / ft
Observation
The plastic moment is about 11% greater than the yield moment.
STABILITY
A beam that is stable can reach its plastic moment capacity.
Mnx = Mpb
If the compression flange were a pure rectangular column, simply supported for
both axes, it would buckle in its weakest direction.
Therefore, at higher flexural compression loads, the flange would tend to buckle
in its strongest direction, in the horizontal plane, twisting the beam.
The internal moment (Mnx) that will cause the compression flange to buckle
laterally depends on the unbraced length of the compression flange (Lb).
If you can add another lateral brace point at the midspan of the beam, the
unbraced length of the compression flange (Lb) is reduced and internal moment
(Mnx) that will cause the compression flange to buckle will increase.
The lateral bracing of the compression flange has no effect on the beams
behavior in the vertical plane. The internal shears, internal moments and
vertical beam deflections are not affected.
Lateral Support
The convention is to draw an “x” on the beam at the compression flange brace
locations.
General
For sections with compact flanges and compact webs, the nominal
moment strength (Mnx) will be the lower of the yielding (Y) and lateral
torsional buckling (LTB) limit states.
For sections with compact webs and noncompact or slender flanges, the
nominal moment strength (Mnx) will be the lower of the flange local
buckling (FLB) and lateral torsional buckling (LTB) limit states.
CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPES
Manual Page 16.1-16. Section B4.1. Classification Of Sections For Local
Buckling
The entire cross-section can reach the yield stress without local buckling.
Part of the cross-section reaches the yield stress before local buckling.
None of the cross-section reaches the yield stress before local buckling.
Width-Thickness Parameters
Note that for columns, compact and noncompact sections were lumped
together and called non-slender.
Flanges - flexure
bf
9.92 {Manual 1-27}
2t f
E 29000 ksi
p 0.38 0.38 9.15 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 50 ksi
E 29000 ksi
r 1.0 1.0 24.1 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 50 ksi
p r noncompact
Web - flexure
h
24.9 {Manual 1-27}
tw
E 29000 ksi
p 3.76 3.76 90.3 {Table B4.1b, Case 15}
Fy 50 ksi
E 29000 ksi
r 5.70 5.70 137 {Table B4.1b, Case 15}
Fy 50 ksi
p compact
Footnote “f” indicates that flange exceeds the compact section limit, for
flexure, for Fy = 50 ksi.
b E
0.38 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
2t f Fy
And
h E
1 .0 {Table B4.1b, Case 15}
tw Fy
Sections with compact flanges and compact webs can reach the plastic
moment (Mp) and become fully plastic, unless lateral torsional buckling
(LTB) occurs first.
Flange Local Buckling (FLB) will not occur before Yielding (Y) because
flange is compact.
Web Local Buckling (WLB) will not occur before Yielding (Y) because
web is compact.
The User Note lists all ten (10) of the W-shapes that do not have compact
flanges if Fy ≤ 50 ksi, including the W12x65 shape that we just examined.
The User Note says that all W, S, M, C, and MC shapes have compact
webs if Fy ≤ 65 ksi.
There are two limit states to consider for compact W-shapes bent about
their X-axis:
Yielding (Y)
Lp is determined based on a
combination of theory and
laboratory testing.
Sx, ho, J, and rts are cross-section properties, tabulated in Manual Part 1.
1 - 0.3Fy = 0.7Fy.
Mr = 0.7FySx.
ZX TABLE
Manual Page 3-25. Table 3-2. W-Shapes Selections By Zx.
Yielding (Y)
Mux ≤ ΦbMpx
The lightest section that works is the first bold faced member that is above the
Mux value, in this case, W21x55.
Cb adjusts the LTB equations upwards for the beam moment gradients.
“When both ends of the unsupported segment are braced” means that Cb
is evaluated for a beam segment bounded by adjacent lateral support
points of the beam compression flange.
This is similar to a piece of steel used as a column which may extend for
two stories, but is treated as two column segments for analysis purposes.
Note that for a constant moment diagram, Cb = 1.0. For all other cases
shown, the moment diagram is not constant, and Cb > 1.0.
For convenience, both AISC tabulate certain common values for Cb. The
small “x” is the industry convention to indicate lateral support of the
compression flange.
Manual Page 3-18. Table 3-1. Values For Cb For Simply Supported Beams.
In the example with two point loads and no uniform load, the moment
diagram between the point loads is constant.
Cb = 1.0
Required Strength
wux = 1.4(1.29 k/ft) = 1.81 k/ft
wux = 1.2(1.29 K/ft) + 1.6(2 K/ft) = 4.75 K/ft governs
4.75 / 40
950
8 8
Compactness Check
Section is ASTM A992 steel, Fy = 50 ksi. Therefore, footnote "f" for flexure is
applicable.
There is no footnote "f" for this section. Therefore, the section is classified as
compact for flexure.
Specification Section F2 applies. Consider Yielding and Lateral Torsional
Buckling limit states.
b M nx b M px b Fy Z x
0.9050 ksi 283 in 3 1061 ft K {Eq. F2-1}
12 in / ft
ΦbMnx = ΦbMpx = 1060 ft-K {Manual 3-24}
Lb = 0 ft < Lp: conclude that Yielding (Y) limit state will govern
950 ft-K = Mux ≤ ΦbMnx = 1061 ft-K ok
W30X90 IS ACCEPTABLE
Required Strength
wux 1.21.068 K / ft 1.62 K / ft 4.48 K / ft
4.48 K / ft 32 ft
2
M ux 573 ft K
8
Compactness Check
Section is ASTM A992 steel, Fy = 50 ksi. Therefore, footnote "f" for flexure is
applicable.
There is no footnote "f" for this section. Therefore, the section is classified as
compact for flexure.
Specification Section F2 applies. Consider Yielding and Lateral Torsional
Buckling limit states.
ΦbMpx = 600 ft-K {Manual 3-24}
Lb = 16 ft
Lp = 6.36 ft {Manual 3-24}
Lb > Lp; conclude that Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB) must be considered
M nx Cb M px M px 0.7 Fy S x LLb LL p M px {Eq. F2-2}
r p
Multiply each term by b
Lb L p
b M nx Cb b M px b M px b M rx b M px
Lr L p
16 ft 6.36 ft
1.30 600 ft K 600 ft K 368 ft K 600 ft K
18 . 7 ft 6 . 36 ft
544 ft K 600 ft K
544 ft K
M ux 573 ft K 544 ft K b M nx ng
BEAM IS INADEQUATE
E bf E
For noncompact flanges: 0.38 1.0 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 2t f Fy
bf E
For slender flanges: 1.0 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
2t f Fy
h E
For compact webs: 3.76 {Table B4.1b, Case 15}
tw Fy
Sections with noncompact or slender webs will fail in Web Local Buckling
(WLB) before they can reach the Plastic Moment (Mp).
The User Note lists all ten (10) of the W-shapes that have noncompact
flanges if Fy = 50 ksi.
There are two limit states to consider for noncompact W-shapes bent
about their X-axis:
The nominal moment strength (Mn) of the member is less than the plastic
moment (Mp) because Compression Flange Local Buckling will occur first.
Lateral torsional buckling (LTB) is the same for both compact and
noncompact shapes.
Required Strength
wux 1.21.0 K / ft 1.61.5 K / ft 3.60 K / ft
3.60 K / ft 28 ft
2
M ux 353 ft K
8
E 29000 ksi
p 0.38 0.38 9.15 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 50 ksi
E 29000 ksi
r 1.0 1.0 24.1 {Table B4.1b, Case 10}
Fy 50 ksi
L r 35 .1 ft {Manual 3-25}
C b 1.30 for each segment {Manual 3-18}
M nx Cb M px M px 0.7 Fy S x LLb LL p M px {Eq. F2-2}
r p
Multiply each term by b .
Lb L p
b M nx Cb b M px b M px b M rx b M px
Lr L p
14 ft 10.7 ft
1.30363 ft K 363 ft K 231 ft K 363 ft K
35.1 ft 10.7 ft
448 ft K 363 ft K
363 ft K
b M px b Fy Z x
0.9050 ksi 96.8 in 3
363 ft K {must calculate this}
12 in / ft
b M rx 231 ft K {Manual 3-25}
pf
M nx M px M px 0.7 Fy S x
rf pf
{Eq. F3-1}
Multiply each term by b .
pf
b M nx b M px b M px b M rx
rf pf
9.92 9.15
363 363 231 356 ft K
24.1 9.15
b M px 356 ft K {Manual 3-25}
Summary
ΦbMnx = 356 ft-K governed by compression flange local buckling
353 ft-K = Mux ≤ ΦbMnx = 356 ft-K ok
BEAM IS ACCEPTABLE
Comment
Observe that for this noncompact shape, the tabulated value for ΦbMpx is
actually the value of ΦbMnx for Flange Local Buckling
SHEAR STRENGTH
When considering shear, we deal with forces:
Ru ≤ ΦRn
Vu ≤ ΦvVn
Where:
fv = shearing stress at point of interest, ksi
V = vertical shear force, Kips
Q = first moment about neutral axis of area outside the point of interest, in3
I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis, in4
b = width of cross section, inch
Note that the web will yield in shear long before the flange. We can define
shear strength as an average shear stress distribution across the beam
web area (dtw).
Rearranging terms:
V = fvdtw
Vn = 0.6Fydtw
Where:
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, ksi
Aw = dtw = web area, in2
Cv1 = web shear coefficient, unitless
2.24
Cv1 = 1.0
The User Note indicates that all rolled W-shapes, except for the 8 sections
listed, meet this web slenderness ratio when Fy = 50 ksi, the most
common situation.
The 8 rolled W-shapes listed in the user note are identified in both Manual
Part 1 and the Zx Tables by footnote “v”.
1.10
Cv1 = 1.0
1.10
1.10
Footnote “v” indicates if a shape does not have the proper h/tw ratio for
Section G2.1(a) and Φv = 1.00.
Required strength
wux = 1.2(1.068 K/ft) + 1.6(2.0 K/ft) = 4.48 K/ft
4.48 / 32
71.7
2 2
Design shear strength
43.6 {Manual 1-21}
29000
2.24 2.24 53.9
50
W21X68 IS ACCEPTABLE
DEFLECTION
GENERAL
Manual Page 16.1-165. Section L2. Deflections.
∆ ≤ ∆allow
ALLOWABLE DEFLECTIONS
Values are taken from the 2015 International Building Code (IBC).
Dead load deflections occur before any of the architectural items are
attached to the structure.
Dead load deflections of steel beams do not increase with time like
they do for concrete and wood beams.
∆L(unfactored) ≤ ∆L(allow)
5 5 2 / 32 1728 /
∆ 1.10
384 384 29000 1480
Allowable deflection
/
∆ 1.07 1.10 ng
DESIGN
DESIGN AIDS
AISC provides Design Aids for the
analysis and design of sections
commonly used as beams.
300
250
Design Moment Strength (ft-K)
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Answer: Although this point appears also on the corner of pages 3-122 and
3-123, the plot continues on Page 3-124.
The charts are the solutions for Eq. F2-1, F2-2 and F2-3 with Cb = 1.0.
For Cb > 1.0, just multiply the chart values for Eq. F2-2 and F2-3.
Remember that Eq. F2-2 and F2-3 must be less than ΦbMpx.
Plots for all of the W-shapes with Fy = 50 ksi appear on the same chart to
facilitate design.
For example, if you have Mux = 258 ft-K, Lb = 6 ft, and Cb = 1.0.
Enter the design chart on page 3-119 at Mux = 258 ft-K and Lb = 6 ft and
go up the Lb = 6 ft line.
Every beam line that is crossed represents a ΦbMnx value for Lb = 6 ft that
is larger then Mux = 258 ft-K and is an acceptable beam (W14x43, W8x67,
W12x50, W16x40, W18x40, W10x60, etc.).
The W16x40 is the first solid line that is crossed, representing the lightest
section with Mux ≤ ΦbMnx.
You can also use the charts if Cb > 1.0. Noting that:
Mux ≤ ΦbMnx
Mux ≤ Cb(ΦbMnx)chart
You can now enter the chart with and compare it with (ΦbMnx)chart.
For example, if you have Mux = 258 ft-K, Lb = 4 ft, and Cb = 1.32.
Enter the design chart on page 3-121 at 195 and Lb = 4 ft
.
and go up the Lb = 4 ft line.
Design Methodology
In general, assume that flexural strength will govern, unless there is reason to
believe that shear or deflection will govern.
Required Strength
2.20 / 45.9
579
8
2.20 / 45.9
50.5
2
Assume flexure governs select for flexure, check for shear and deflection
L
5wL4
51.0 K / ft 45.9 ft 4 1728 in 3 / ft 3
1.21in
384 EI x
38429000 ksi 2850 in 4
L 45.9 ft 12 in / ft
L allow 1.53 in 1.21in L ok
360 360
USE: W27X84
Required Strength
wu 1.21 K / ft 1.62 K / ft 4.40 K / ft governs
4.40 K / ft 30 ft 2
Mu 495 ft K
8
4.40 K / ft 30 ft
Vu 66.0 K
2
assume flexure governs select for flexure, check for shear and deflection
SELECT W24X55
b M n b M px 503 ft K 495 ft K M u {Manual 3-25}
L
5wL4
52.0 K / ft 30 ft 1728 in 3 / ft 3
4
0.93 in
384 EI x 38429000 ksi 1350 in 4
L 30 ft 12 in / ft
L allow 1.00 in 0.93 in L ok
360 360
USE: W24X55
The Tributary Width of a beam is defined as the width of the floor or roof
beam supported by the beam and is equal to the sum of half the distance
to the beam on its right plus half the distance to the beam on its left. The
tributary width of equally spaced interior beams is equal to the beam
spacing.
The Tributary Area of a beam is equal to its tributary width times its span
length.
Multistory Building
The beams supported by the Girders are called Fill Beams. The fill
beams are spaced at distance (s) and have span length (L).
The Fill Beams will support the one-way concrete Floor Slab. The floor
slab is designed in accordance with the concrete specification, ACI 318.
Taking the vertical section indicated will show the loading on the floor bay.
Load On Beam EF
The uniform load (w) along Beam EF is equal to the uniform pressure (q)
times the tributary width (s).
w = qs
Both q and w will include load factors, based on LRFD load combinations.
wu = qus
REQUIRED: Select the lightest W21 shape for the indicated floor beam
considering flexure, shear, and deflection.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
wD = (85 psf)(6.67 ft) = 567 lb/ft
wL = (150 psf)(6.67 ft) = 1000 lb/ft
wux = 1.2(0.567 K/ft) + 1.6(1.00 K/ft) = 2.28 K/ft
2.28 / 30
34.2
2 2
2.28 / 30
257
8 8
M ux b M nx ok
TRY W21X44
There is no footnote "f" for this section. Compact assumption is confirmed.
Vux vVnx ok
L allow
L
30 ft 12 in / ft 1.00 in
360 360
L
5wL L4
51.0 K / ft 30 ft 1728 in 3 / ft 3
4
0.75 in {Manual 3-208}
384 EI x
38429000 ksi 843 in 4
L L allow ok
SELECT W21X44
REQUIRED: Select the lightest W24 shape for the indicated floor girder
considering flexure, shear, and deflection. Use LRFD load combinations.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Each beam support point supports a tributary area of 30 ft 6.67 ft 200 ft 2
PD 85 psf 200 ft 2 17000 lb
PL 150 psf 200 ft 2 30000 lb
Pu 1.217.0 K 1.630.0 K 68.4 K
268.4 K
Vu 68.4 K
2
M u 68.4 K 6.67 ft 456 ft K
M u b M nx ok
TRY W24X55
There is no footnote "f" for this section. Compact assumption is confirmed.
Vu vVnx ok
L allow
L
20 ft 12 in / ft 0.67 in
360 360
L
PL L3
30.0 K 20 ft 3 1728 in 3 / ft 3 0.38 in {Manual 3-211}
28 EI x
229000 ksi 1350 in 4
L L allow ok
SELECT W24X55
HOLES IN BEAMS
If beam connections are made with bolts, holes will be drilled or punched in the
beam web or flanges.
Holes in webs should be made in areas of low shear, near the center of
simply-supported beams.
Holes in flanges should be made in areas of low moment, near the ends
for simply-supported beams.
When the tension flange fracture strength is greater than the tension
flange yield strength, the tension flange holes need not be accounted for.
When the tension flange fracture strength is less than the tension flange
yield strength, the nominal moment strength of the beam at the location of
the holes must be limited to the tension flange rupture strength.
The gross area of the tension flange is the total cross-sectional area of the
tension flange taken perpendicular to the load, where no holes are
provided.
Afg = tfbf
The net area of the tension flange is the reduced cross-sectional area of
the tension flange taken perpendicular to the load, where holes are
provided.
The net area of the tension flange is the gross area minus something for
the holes.
ASTM A992 limits the maximum Fy/Fu ratio to 0.85, therefore, Yt = 1.1.
SOLUTION:
BIAXIAL BENDING
Biaxial bending occurs when a member is subject to bending about both the x-
axis and y-axis at the same time. We need to discuss the flexural limit states for
bending about the Y-Axis
The plastic bending moment (FyZy) is limited to 1.6 times the yield moment
(FySy) to limit excessive strain deformation.
The upper limit (1.6FySy) never governs for rolled W-Shape beams.
Sections with compact flanges need only consider the Yielding limit state
The User Note lists sections with Fy = 50 ksi that do not have compact
flanges.
Sections with slender flanges need only consider elastic flange local
buckling (FLB).
The force vector can be resolved into separate global x-direction and y-direction
forces.
The vertical component of force (Fvert), shown in the Beam Elevation View,
cause bending about the beam’s local X-axis.
The horizontal component of force (Fhoriz), shown in the Beam Plan View,
cause bending about the beam’s local Y-axis.
Interaction Formula
For an individual member, the strength limit state can be summarized as:
Ru ≤ ΦRn
Demand Capacity
Ru
1.0
Rn
Demand
1.0
Capacity
Demand Demand
1.0
Capacity 1 Capacity 2
The beam is not subject to torsion (twisting about its longitudinal axis).
If the section has at least one axis of symmetry and is loaded through the shear
center, the acceptance criteria for simultaneous bending about both the X-axis
and Y-axis can be expressed as:
M ux M uy
1 .0
b M nx b M ny
Part (a) of this figure shows the shear center for several common structural
shapes.
Note that the shear center is always located on the shapes’ axis of
symmetry.
For the C-Shape, the shear center is located “outside” the cross-section.
Part (b) of this figure shows two examples of the concentrated force not going
through the shear center.
The beam is also subject to torsion (twisting about it’s longitudinal axis).
AISC Design Guide 9 is a good source for the solution to torsional loads
on W-shape members.
The same principals apply to roof beams of wood and concrete materials.
Required strength
wux 1.20.17 K / ft 0.20 K / ft {acting on beam’s x-axis}
Pux 1.662.5 K cos 10 o 98.5 K {acting on beam’s x-axis}
0.20 K / ft 30 ft 98.5 K
Vux 52.2 K {acting on beam’s x-axis}
2
0.20 K / ft 30 ft 98.5 K 30 ft
2
M ux 761 ft K {acting on beam’s x-axis}
8 4
Puy 1.662.5 K sin 10 o 17.4 K {acting on beam’s y-axis}
17.4 K 30 ft
M uy 131 ft K {acting on beam’s y-axis}
4
0.9050 ksi 83.8 in 3
0.901.650 ksi 53.2 in 3
12 in / ft 12 in / ft
314 ft K 319 ft K
314 ft K
Check interaction
M ux M uy
1.0
b M nx b M ny
761 ft K 131 ft K
0.46 0.42 0.88 1.0 ok
1637 ft K 314 ft K
Check Deflection
L allow
L
30 ft 12 in / ft 1.00 in
360 360
L
PL L3
61.6 K 30 ft 3 1728 in 3 / ft 3 0.20 in 1.00 in ok
48 EI
4829000 ksi 10500 in 4
W36X170 IS ACCEPTABLE
Section F2
Compact flange
Compact web
Section F3
Compact web
Specification Page 16.1-45. Table User Note F1.1. Selection Table For The
Application Of Chapter F Sections.
Compact, Noncompact, or
Slender flange, 100%
Slender web
Section F6
Compact, Noncompact, or
Slender flange, 100%
Section F7
Applicable limit states are Yielding, Flange Local Buckling, Web Local
Buckling, and Lateral Torsional Buckling
Specification Page 16.1-45. Table User Note F1.1. Selection Table For The
Application Of Chapter F Sections.
Section F8
Section F9
Compact, Noncompact, or
Slender flange, 100%
DEFINITION ......................................................................................................... 2
GENERAL ....................................................................................................... 2
THE PERFECT STORM .................................................................................. 2
DEFINITION
GENERAL
Structure members with flexural loads are treated as beams, neglecting any
small axial loads caused by frame action.
Structural members with both flexural loads and axial compression loads are
called beam-columns.
Top chords of roof trusses supporting roof vertical loads between panel
points in addition to the axial loads from truss action
Bottom chords of roof trusses supporting interior ceilings and light fixtures
between panel points in addition to the axial loads from truss action
Moments concurrent with axial tension loads are of a lesser concern because the
axial tension tends to reduce compressive buckling tendencies.
stiffness reduction
shear (h/tw)
deflection Δ
moment amplification B1 , B 2 , C m , EI *
member displacement (δ)
Analysis
All the factors which affect beams and columns separately will also influence the
behavior, strength and design of beam-columns.
Design
The design of beam columns usually involves the selection of trial sections, and
then checking that the required strength is less than the design strength.
INTERACTION FORMULAS
For an individual structural member, the strength limit state can be summarized
as:
Ru ≤ ΦRn
1.0
∅
1.0
∅ ∅ ∅
The combined resistances of axial and bending about both the x-axis and y-axis
can be expressed in LRFD terms as the interaction equation:
Pu M ux M uy
1 .0
c Pn b M nx b M ny
Where:
Pu and ΦcPn are determined as for tension or compression members
Mux, Muy, ΦbMnx, and ΦbMny are determined as for flexural members
SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
Manual Page 16.1-77. Chapter H. Design Of Members For Combined
Forces And Torsion
Where:
Pr =required axial compression strength = Pu for LRFD
Pc = available axial compression strength = ΦcPn for LRFD
Mr = required flexural strength Mu for LRFD
Mc = available flexural strength ΦbMn for LRFD
For LRFD:
Pu Pu 8 M ux M uy
When 0 .2 : 1 .0 {Eq. H1-1a}
c Pn c Pn 9 b M nx b M ny
Pu Pu M ux M uy
When 0 .2 : 1 .0 {Eq. H1-1b}
c Pn 2 c Pn b M nx b M ny
Required Strengths (Pu, Mux, Muy) are determined from statics and load
combinations. Later, we will modify them to account for interactions
between axial compression loads and flexural deflections.
Manual Page 6-79. Table 6-2. Available Strength For Member Subject To
Axial, Shear, Flexural, And Combined Forces.
AISC calls Manual Table 6-2 its SUPER TABLE because it combines some of
the best design strength features of the Manual beam and column design aids.
For Compression
For Flexure
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu = 1.2(35 K) + 1.6(99 K) = 200.4 K
Qu = 1.2(5 K) + 1.6(12 K) = 25.2 K
.
107.1 {Manual 3-210, Case 7}
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 17 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = (1.0)(17 ft) = 17 ft
Lcy = (KL)y = (1.0)(17 ft) = 17 ft governs
Modification Factors
Cb = 1.32 {Manual 3-18}
Check Interaction
Pu 200.4 K
0.49 0.20 Use Eq. H1-1a
Pn 404 K
Pu 8 M ux M uy
1.00
{Eq. H1-1a}
Pn 9 b M nx b M ny
200.4 K 8 107.1 ft K
0 1.00
404 K 9 227 ft K
0.49 0.42 0.91 ok
W10x49 Is Acceptable
Moment Amplification
1
P
1 u
Pe
Because we are amplifying the bending moment, the Euler buckling force must
be determined in the plane of bending. This will most likely be the X-axis.
2 EI x
Pe
K x L x 2
Where:
Mnt = required moment associated with no translation (no sidesway), ft-K
Mlt = required moment associated with lateral translation (sidesway), ft-K
Pnt and Plt = required axial force associated with no translation and lateral
translation respectively, Kips
B1 and B2 = magnification factors
Stability Assessment
Add a vertical load (P), resulting in additional bending moment (Mx) and
additional member deflection (y).
A secondary moment is created that is equal to the axial load times the
flexural displacement.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
Mux = Mlateral + Pu(δ+y) ≈ B1Mlateral
Where:
Cm = modification factor, a function of moment curvature, unitless
Where:
K1 = effective length factor for braced frame in the plane of bending, = 1.0
unless analysis indicates a smaller value may be used, unitless
EI* = 0.8τbEI for the Direct Analysis Method.
EI* = EI for the Effective Length Method.
EVALUATION OF CM COEFFICIENT
The magnification factor (B1) was developed for the largest possible lateral
displacement of braced frames.
Case (a) applies when there are Case (b) applies when there are
no transverse loads between transverse loads between
supports. Moments are supports, causing moments in
introduced at one or both ends the member.
of the member.
Required Strength
Punt = 159 K Pult = 0 K
Muxnt = 650 ft-K Muxlt = 0 ft-K
Muynt = 0 ft-K Muylt = 0 ft-K
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 14 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = 1.0(14 ft) = 14 ft
Lcy = (KL)y = 1.0(14 ft) = 14 ft y-axis governs
Modification Factors
Cb = 1.0 for constant moment diagram
0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 1.00 {Eq. A-8-4}
Note: Both Cb and Cm will always be equal to 1.00 for constant moment
diagrams.
Cmy is not needed, because there is no Muynt.
.
1.0
= 1.01 ≥ 1.00
= 1.01
Mux = B1xMuxnt + B2xMuxlt = 1.01(650 ft-K) + B2x(0 ft-K) = 657 ft-K {Eq. A-8-1}
Pu = Punt + B2xPult = 159 K + B2x(0 K) = 159 K {Eq. A-8-2}
Check Interaction
0.11 0.20 Use Eq. H1-1b
∅
{Eq. H1-1b}
∅ ∅ ∅
0 0.05 0.75 0 0.80 1.0 ok
W14x132 Is Acceptable
Required Strength
Punt = 420 K Pult = 0 K
Muxnt = 82.4 ft-K Muxlt = 0 ft-K
Muynt = 0 ft-K Muylt = 0 ft-K
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 16 ft
Lc = (KL)x = 1.0(16 ft) = 16 ft
Modification Factors
.
{Eq. F1-1}
.
. .
1.060
. . . . .
Cmx is not needed because the loads have already been amplified.
Cmy is not needed because the loads have already been amplified.
Check Interaction
0.66 0.20 Use Eq. H1-1a
∅
{Eq. H1-1a}
∅ ∅ ∅
.
0 0.66 0.21 0 0.87 1.0 ok
W12x65 Is Acceptable
Add a vertical load (P), resulting in additional bending moment (Mx) and
additional member deflection (y).
A secondary moment is created that is equal to the axial load times the
flexural displacement.
Msecondary = P(∆+y)
Note that the maximum moment and maximum deflection do not occur at
the same location. This is different than what we saw for braced frames.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
Mux = Mlateral + Pu(∆+y) ≈ B2Mlateral
The B2 factor considers that the typical beam-column will be part of some larger
structure.
All of the columns in a frame will deflection laterally by the same frame
deflection (∆).
To capture the second-order behavior, the vertical loads (Pu) of all of the
columns in the frame must be considered.
The B2 factor does not appear to over magnify the maximum moment,
which normally occurs at the ends of the unbraced frame beam-column.
As a result there is no need for the Cm factor.
The total vertical load is needed for the frame deflections (∆).
The story shear (H) and story height (L) must be determined in the
direction of horizontal translation being considered.
Equation A-8-7 can be modified for using the building code or any
∆
specified maximum drift ratio .
Required Strength
Required Strengths were determined from a First-Order Analysis with unreduced
flexural rigidity. Use the Effective Length Method (Appendix 7).
Punt = 350K Pult = 40 K
Muxnt = 0 ft-K Muxlt = 200 ft-K
Muynt = 0 ft-K Muylt = 0 ft-K
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 12 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = 1.2(12 ft) = 14.4 ft
Lcy = (KL)y = 1.2(12 ft) = 14.4 ft Y-axis governs
Modification Factors
.
{Eq. F1-1}
.
.
2.27
.
Note: Cb = 2.27 for reverse curvature with equal and opposite end moments.
Cmx is not needed because there is no Muxnt.
Cmy is not needed because there is no Muynt.
1.21
Mux = B1xMuxnt + B2xMuxlt = 1.00(0 ft-K) + 1.21(200 ft-K) = 242 ft-K {Eq. A-8-1}
Pu = Punt + B2xPult = 350 K + 1.21(40 K) = 398 {Eq. A-8-2}
Check Interaction
0.40 0.20 Use Eq. H1-1a
∅
{Eq. H1-1b}
∅ ∅ ∅
0 0.40 0.39 0 0.79 1.0 ok
W12x96 Is Acceptable
DESIGN OF BEAM-COLUMNS
TRIAL SECTIONS
The design of a beam-column is accomplished by analysis of a trial section.
If the results of the interaction equation indicate that the trial section is too
small or too big, select another trial section and repeat the process.
Yura Method
If the beam column is judged to have a high axial load and small moment, it is
convenient to convert the moments to approximate equivalent axial loads.
.
For LRFD:
Select a trial section using the Specification equations for columns; then analyze
the section in accordance with the Specification equations and design aids for
beam-columns.
If the beam column is judged to have a high moment and small axial load, it is
convenient to convert the axial load to approximate equivalent x-axis moment
loads.
Select a trial section using the Specification equations for beams; then analyze
the section in accordance with the Specification equations and design aids for
beam-columns.
Pu, Mux, and Muy (without second Pu, Mux, and Muy (without second
order effects) order effects)
Required Strength
Punt = 800 K Pult = 0 K
Muxnt = 400 ft-K Muxlt = 0 ft-K
Muynt = 0 ft-K Muylt = 0 ft-K
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 15 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = 0.8(15 ft) = 12 ft
Lcy = (KL)y = 0.8(15 ft) = 12 ft y-axis governs
For Lcy = 12 ft
Try: W14x132 ΦcPn = 1570 K {Manual 6-76}
Try: W14x120 ΦcPn = 1430 K {Manual 6-76}
8 4
0.7
9
.
400 0 356 0 653 1009
/
For Lb = 15 ft
Try: W14x159 ΦbMnx = 1070 ft-K {Manual 6-75}
Try: W14x145 ΦbMnx = 968 ft-K {Manual 6-76}
Required Strength
Required Strengths were determined from a First-Order Analysis with unreduced
flexural rigidity. Use the Effective Length Method (Appendix 7).
Punt = 800 K Pult = 0 K
Muxnt = 200 ft-K Muxlt = 0 ft-K
Muynt = 0 ft-K Muylt = 0 ft-K
Boundary Conditions
Lb = 14 ft
Lcx = (KL)x = 1.0(14 ft) = 14 ft
Lcy = (KL)y = 1.0(14 ft) = 14 ft y-axis governs
Modification Factors
Cb = 1.0 for constant moment diagram
Beam-column has no transverse loads. Specification Section A-8.2.1(a) applies.
Beam-column is bent in single curvature.
0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 1.00 {Eq. A-8-4}
For Lcy = 14 ft
Try: W14x109 ΦcPn = 1240 K {Manual 6-77}
We now will analyze the trial section.
.
1.0
= 1.07 ≥ 1.00
= 1.07
Mux = B1xMuxnt + B2xMuxlt = 1.07(200 ft-K) + B2x(0 ft-K) = 214 ft-K {Eq. A-8-1}
Pu = Punt + B2xPult = 800 K + B2x(0 K) = 800 K {Eq. A-8-2}
{Eq. H1-1a}
∅ ∅ ∅
0 0.645 0.266 0 0.91 1.0 ok
Select W14x109
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 3
BOLTED SHEAR CONNECTIONS: FAILURE MODES .................................. 5
INTRODUCTION
Bolted Connections
Two relatively unskilled workers can install structural bolts. Monkeys can
be trained to install structural bolts.
connecting elements such as gusset plates, web splice plates, and angles
Notice that for connections, the resistance factor (Φ) does not have a
subscript and the nominal strength (Rn) is not converted to P, M, V, etc.
If the centers of gravity of the connection loads do not coincide with the
center of gravity of the connection reactions, the eccentricity must be
accounted for.
We learned in our earlier drawing classes that there is more than one possible
side view of this connection.
An analysis of the free-body diagram shows that the first condition creates a
single shear plane in each bolt – single shear connection. Although the loading
is not perfectly concentric, the small eccentricity can be ignored.
Vbolt f v Av
An analysis of the free-body diagram shows that the second condition creates
two shear planes in each bolt – double shear connection.
Vbolt 2 f v Av
Where:
C a constant that depends on the amount of acceptable connected
material deformation, determined by testing
C 2.4 for standard holes to limit bolt hole deformation to approximately
¼ inch.
Rn = 2.4dtFu
Rn = 2AshearFshear
Rn = 2(Lct)(CFu)
Rn = 2CLctFu
Where:
C = a constant that depends on the amount of acceptable connected
material deformation, determined by testing
C = 0.6 for standard holes to limit bolt hole deformation to approximately
Rn = 1.2LctFu
Rn rn edge rn other
Both Fu and t are for the connected material, not the bolts
Spacing is the distance from the center of a bolt hole to the center of the
adjacent bolt hole, in any direction.
Edge distance is the distance from the center of a bolt hole to the adjacent
edge of a member, in any direction.
Table J3.4 defines the minimum edge distance for standard holes.
The Bearing and Tearout limit states of Section J3.10 also apply.
The table indicates minimum edge distance from center of standard holes
to edge of connecting part.
REQUIRED: Check connection for bolt spacing, edge distance, and bearing, and
tearout.
SOLUTION:
Bolt Spacing
2 2 2.33 {Manual 16.1-130}
s = 3 in ≥ 2.33 in ok
Edge Distance
1 {Manual Table J3.4}
Le = 1.5 in ≥ 1.125 in ok
1.5 1.03
rn = 1.2LctFu = 1.2(1.03”)(0.625”)(65 ksi) = 50.2 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6c}
Φrn = (0.75)(50.2 K/bolt) = 37.7 K/bolt
Other Bolts
Lc = s – h = 3 2.06
rn = 1.2LctFu = 1.2(2.06”)(0.625”)(65 ksi) = 100.4 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6c}
Φrn = (0.75)(100.4 K/bolt) = 75.3 K/bolt
Total
Edge Other
2 2
n=
Φrn(bearing) = 64.0 64.0 K/bolt
SHEAR STRENGTH
ASTM A307 Bolts
ASTM A307 bolts, known as common bolts, are also known by a variety of other
names:
Unfinished bolts
Rough bolts
Ordinary bolts
Machine bolts
They are seldom used today, usually for lightly loaded applications such as stairs
and handrails.
The area of the bolt is based on the gross area of the shank.
4
Manual Page 16.1-133. Section J3.6. Tension And Shear Strength Of
Bolted And Threaded Parts. (Continued)
The User note reminds us that the strength of an individual bolt is the
lesser of the shear limit state and the bearing limit state.
The nominal strength of the bolt group (Rn) is equal to the sum of the
nominal strengths (rn) of the individual bolts in the group.
Threads Excluded From Shear Plane Threads Not Excluded From The
Shear Plane
Fnv = 27 ksi
Fnv = 54 ksi
Fnv = 68 ksi
Fnv = 68 ksi
Fnv = 84 ksi
AISC reduces the nominal shear strength (Fnv) when the threads are included,
allowing the bolt area to be always based on the shank diameter.
We don’t know where the threads will be relative to the shear plane.
We cannot inspect a tightened bolt and know where the shear plane is.
We must assume that the bolt threads are not excluded from the shear
plane.
In the academic world, we need to pay attention to where the shear plane is.
REQUIRED: Check the connection for the additional limit state of bolt shear.
SOLUTION:
Bolt Shear
0.875
0.6013
4 4
Φ = 0.75
Fnv = 54 ksi {Table J3.2}
rn = FnvAb = (54 ksi)(0.6013 in2) = 32.47 K/bolt {Eq. J3-1}
Φrn = (0.75)(32.47 K/bolt) = 24.35 K/bolt
Total
The design strength of the bolt group (ΦRn) is equal to the sum of the design
nominal strengths (Φrn) of the individual bolts in the group.
Edge Other
2 2
n=
Φrn(bearing) = 64.0 64.0 K/bolt
Monkey wrench.
Where:
Pb = Pretensioned force on bolt, Kips
N = Normal force between plates, Kips
When an external load (Pb) is applied, a frictional resistance (F) to the external
force is developed.
P ≤ F = μN
Where:
P = external force, Kips
F = frictional resistance between the connected parts, Kips
μ coefficient of static friction between the connected parts, unitless
For example, the AISC Seismic Provisions (AISC 341) requires that all
bolted connections that are part of the Seismic Force Resisting System
(SFRS) must be installed as pretensioned high-strength bolts.
Direct-Tension-Indicator Pretensioning
High strength bolts may be installed to the snug-tight condition and used
in Bearing-Type connections.
ASTM A307 bolts must also be installed to the snug-tight condition and
used in Bearing-Type connections.
Snug tight means tightened until the two plies are pulled together.
Design
SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTIONS
The bolt shank does not need to come in contact with the connection
plates; hence, no bearing stresses between the shank and the bearing
plates are produced.
Design
SLIP RESISTANCE
Manual Page 16.1-134. Section J3.8. High-Strength Bolts In Slip Critical
Connections.
They must also be checked for shear and bearing limit states.
Φ = 1.00
Du = 1.13
Research has shown that the presence of filler plates (shim plates) can
reduce the slip resistance of a connection.
hf = 1.0
This is the number of planes where the normal force can generate slip
resistance.
Class A surfaces require relatively little prep and therefore have much
more variability than Class B surfaces.
μ = 0.30
Class B surfaces must be blast cleaned or blast cleaned and coated with
an SC-qualified paint. This provides a more predictable surface with a
higher slip resistance, but at an additional cost.
μ = 0.50
Total
The design strength of the bolt group (ΦRn) is equal to the sum of the design
nominal strengths (Φrn) of the individual bolts in the group.
Edge Other
2 2
n=
Φrn(bearing) = 64.0 64.0 K/bolt
7
Using Table 7-1: Group A, threads not excluded, single shear, inch
8
7
Using Table 7-3: Group A, standard hole, single shear, inch .
8
Manual Pages 7-27. Table 7-4. Available Bearing And Tearout Strength At
Bolt Holes Based On Bolt Spacing.
Manual Pages 7-29. Table 7-5. Available Bearing And Tearout Strength At
Bolt Holes Based On Edge Distance.
Bolt Shear
Assume that threads are not excluded from the shear plane.
1.00
0.785
4 4
Φ = 0.75
Fnv = 54 ksi {Table J3.2}
rn = FnvAb = (54 ksi)(0.785 in2) = 42.39 K/bolt {Eq. J3-1}
Φrn = (0.75)(42.39 K/bolt) = 31.8 K/bolt
1.5 0.97
rn = 1.2LctFu = 1.2(0.97”)(1.0”)(65 ksi) = 75.66 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6c}
Φrn = (0.75)(75.66 K/bolt) = 56.7 K/bolt
Other Bolts
Lc = s – h = 3 1 1.94
rn = 1.2LctFu = 1.2(1.94”)(1.0”)(65 ksi) = 151.3 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6c}
Φrn = (0.75)(151.3 K/bolt) = 113.5 K/bolt
Total
The design strength of the bolt group (ΦRn) is equal to the sum of the design
nominal strengths (Φrn) of the individual bolts in the group.
Edge Other
n= 2 4
Φrn(bearing) = 117.0 117.0 K/bolt
Φrn(tearout) = 56.7 113.5 K/bolt
Φrn(shear) = 31.8 31.8 K/bolt
Φrn(slip critical) = 17.3 17.3 K/bolt
Φrn = 17.3 17.3 K/bolt
The area of the bolt is based on the gross area of the shank.
4
Manual Page 16.1-129. Table J3.2. Nominal Stress Of Fasteners And
Threaded Parts
Fnt = 45 ksi
Fnt = 90 ksi
The external 60K tension force goes through the centroid of the bolt
pattern, and is therefore a simple connection, without eccentricity.
The 60K tension force is a vector that can be broken into the components
that put the bolts in pure shear and pure tension.
3
60 36
5
36
9 /
4
4
60 48
5
48
12 /
4
BEARING-TYPE CONNECTIONS
Manual Page 16.1-133. Section J3.7. Combined Tension And Shear In
Bearing-Type Connections.
F’nt = the nominal tensile stress (Fnt) reduced to include the effect of shear
stresses (fnv).
fnv ≤ Fnv
The User Note acknowledges that if one of the stresses is less than 30%
of the nominal shear stress, there is no bolt.
Shear: Vu ≤ ΦFnvAb
Bearing: Vu ≤ Φ1.2LctFu
Tearout: Vu ≤ Φ2.4dtFu
SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTIONS
The effect of combined shear and tension on a slip-critical connection is that the
external tension force (Tu) reduces the pretension force (Tb). This in turn reduces
the frictional resistance (Rn) to external shear forces (Vu).
Manual Page 16.1-135. Section J3.9. Combined Tension And Shear In Slip-
Critical Connections.
It’s important that required force (Tu) and the pretension force (Tb) both be
forces per bolt.
∅ 1
Shear: Vu ≤ ΦFnvAb
Bearing: Vu ≤ Φ1.2LctFu
Tearout: Vu ≤ Φ2.4dtFu
Tension: Tu ≤ ΦFntAb
∅ 1
.
1 0.65
.
M=Pe
For symmetrical bolt groups, the center of bolt pattern can be located by
observation.
ELASTIC ANALYSIS
The elastic analysis and design method is based on the following assumptions
for the distribution of shear stress in connections subject to shear and torsion:
Shear forces in the bolts are proportional to and normal to the radius from
the center-of-the-bolt-pattern.
Although these assumptions are not really true, due to the nonlinear behavior of
the materials and installation tolerances, they allow the use of a simple rational
analysis. Test results have confirmed that this method is conservative.
Convert the load (Px) at eccentricity (ey) to a force through the center-of-
the-bolt-pattern and a torsional moment (Mx) around the center-of-the-bolt-
pattern.
Similarly, convert the load (Py) at eccentricity (ex) to a force through the
center-of-the-bolt-pattern and a torsional moment (My) around the center-
of-the-bolt-pattern.
M = ∑Pe
The complete problem could include both Px and Py. For simplicity, this
discussion only includes Py.
By inspection, the heaviest loaded bolts are at the upper right corner and
lower right corner.
AISC 360-16 - Bolted Connections.docx R. M. Drake, SE
AISC 360-16 BOLTED CONNECTIONS Sheet 42
Terms
Pcy = bolt shear force along y-axis due to shear loading, Kips
Pcx = bolt shear force along x-axis due to shear loading, Kips
Pmy = bolt shear force parallel to y-axis due to torsional moment, Kips
Pmx = bolt shear force parallel to x-axis due to torsional moment, Kips
A = bolt cross-section area, in2
x = bolt distance along x-axis from center-of-bolt-group, inch
y = bolt distance along y-axis from center-of-bolt-group, inch
J = bolt group polar moment of inertia, in4
Y-Direction:
For each bolt, shear stresses and forces can be calculated from:
General:
General:
Y-Direction:
X-Direction:
We will calculate the shear reaction (V) for the most heavily loaded bolt, in the
upper right corner.
Test results indicate that the external loads and resisting bolts do not rotate
about the center-of-the-bolt-pattern as assumed with the Elastic Analysis.
The plate and bolts are subject to inelastic strains due to both reaction
shear and moment.
The resultant of these strains is a rotation of the bolt group about some
point, defined as the instantaneous center.
The exact Ultimate Strength Analysis is iterative and requires the use of a
spreadsheet
Manual Page 7-37. Table 7-7. Coefficient C For Eccentrically Loaded Bolt
Groups.
Rn = Crn
Where:
Rn = bolt group nominal
strength, Kips
Φ = 0.75
Where:
Pu = bolt group required strength when applied at eccentricity (e), Kips
Φrn = individual bolt design strength, Kips
ΦRn = bolt group design strength, Kips
REQUIRED:
(a) Determine the required bolt shear strength using Elastic Analysis.
(b) Determine the required bolt shear strength using the Manual Design Aids
(Ultimate Strength Analysis)
(a) Determine the required bolt shear strength using Elastic Analysis.
SOLUTION:
Note: It can be seen that the upper right and lower right bolts are the most
heavily loaded. It can also be observed that the center of the bolt pattern is at
the center of the middle row of bolts.
3 A 2.75in 3 A 2.75in 2 A 3 in 2 A0 in 2 A 3 in
2 2 2 2 2
(b) Determine the required bolt shear strength using the Manual Design
Aids (Ultimate Strength Analysis)
SOLUTION:
Coefficient
s 3 in
ex 5in
n 3 rows
distance between vertical rows 5.5 in
C 2.96 {Manual 7-43}
REQUIRED: Determine the required bolt shear strength using the Manual Design
Aids (Ultimate Strength Analysis)
SOLUTION:
Coefficient
s 3 in
ex 16in
n 4 rows
Distance between vertical rows 4 in
C 4.49 {Manual 7-73}
REQUIRED:
(a) Determine the required bolt shear strength using Manual Design Aids
(Ultimate Strength Analysis). Use LRFD load combinations.
(b) Determine what diameter bolt is required if the bolts are Group A bearing type
bolts with threads not excluded.
(c) Determine what diameter bolt is required if the bolts are Group A slip-critical
bolts with Class A Faying Surface.
SOLUTION:
Required Strength
Pu = 1.2(30 K) + 1.6(40 K) = 100 K
(a) Determine the required bolt shear strength using Manual Design Aids
(Ultimate Strength Analysis). Use LRFD load combinations.
s = 3 in
3
4 5.5
2
n = 4 rows
Distance between vertical rows = 3 in
C = 3.95 by interpolation for ex {Manual 7-37}
100
∅ 25.3
3.95
Required Bolt Shear Strength = 25.3 K
(b) Determine what diameter bolt is required if the bolts are Group A
bearing type bolts with threads not excluded
Φrn for one-inch diameter bolt = 31.8 K {Manual 7-22}
(c) Determine what diameter bolt is required if the bolts are Group A slip-
critical bolts with Class A Faying Surface.
Φrn for 1-1/4 in diameter bolt = 27.5 K {Manual 7-24}
Bolt shear
There are several new limit states to check with this second part of the
connection:
The applied load (P) at the eccentricity (e) is equivalent to the applied load (P) at
no eccentricity (e) plus an applied moment equal to Pe.
Simple Load
The applied load (P) at no eccentricity loads all of the bolts equally in
shear.
SOLUTION:
This is a bearing-type connection with bolts subject to combined shear and
tension. Consider Shear, Bearing, and Combined Tension And Shear.
Required Strength
Pu = 1.2(20 K) + 1.6(40 K) = 88 K
88
11.0 /
8
Define rt as the strength level tension force on the
bolts
there are 4 rows of 2 bolts at the distances 4.5”, 1.5”,
1.5”, and 4.5” from the neutral axis
summing moments about the neutral axis
Mu(resisting) = (2rt)(4.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 4.5) = 24rt in-K
Mu(applied) = (88 K)(2.75 in) = 242 in-K
242
10.1 /
24
Bolt Shear
0.75
0.442
4 4
Φ = 0.75
Fnv = 54 ksi {Table J3.2}
rn = FnvAb = (54 ksi)(0.442 in2) = 23.87 K/bolt {Eq. J3-1}
Φrn = (0.75)(23.87 K/bolt) = 17.9 K/bolt
1.5 1.094
rn = 1.2LctFu = 1.2(1.094”)(0.560”)(65 ksi) = 47.8 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6c}
Φrn = (0.75)(47.8 K/bolt) = 35.9 K/bolt
Other Bolts
Lc = s – h = 3 2.188
rn = 1.2LctFu = 1.2(2.188”)(0.560”)(65 ksi) = 95.6 K/bolt {Eq. J3-6c}
Φrn = (0.75)(95.6 K/bolt) = 71.7 K/bolt
Summary
Φrn(shear) = 17.9 K/bolt governs
Φrn(bearing) = 49.1 K/bolt
Φrn(tearout) = 35.9 K/bolt
Φrn = 17.9 K/bolt > 11.0 K/bolt ok
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 2
WELDED CONNECTIONS .............................................................................. 2
STRUCTURAL ARC WELDING ...................................................................... 4
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) ................................................. 6
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) ......................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION
WELDED CONNECTIONS
Require no holes in members.
connecting elements such as gusset plates, web splice plates, and angles
Notice that for connections, the resistance factor (Φ) does not have a
subscript and the nominal strength (Rn) is not converted to P, M, V, etc.
If the centers of gravity of the connection loads do not coincide with the
center of gravity of the connection reactions, the eccentricity must be
accounted for.
When the circuit is energized and the electrode tip touches the work piece,
the circuit is completed.
When the electrode tip is then withdrawn from, but held close to the work
piece, an arc is created across the gap.
The arc produces a temperature of about 6500OF, which melts the base metal,
and any filler metal.
After the melted metals cool and solidify, a solid piece of bonded metal is
left, the completed weld.
The electrode coating produces a blanket of slag over the molten metal and
solidified weld.
The slag protects the weld from nitrogen and oxygen that would otherwise
react with the hot metals.
The slag also serves to slow down the cooling process of the weld,
reducing potential brittleness.
The work area must be kept dry to preclude the introduction of hydrogen and
oxygen into the molten material.
GROOVE WELDS
Groove Welds fill a gap (or groove) between two pieces of steel, and are often
used to connect work pieces aligned in the same plane.
Note that some of the work pieces have beveled or machined edges to
facilitate making the weld.
If the groove weld has the same strength as the work pieces being joined, it is
called a complete joint penetration (CJP) groove weld.
If the weld does not extend all the way through a joint, it is called a partial joint
penetration (PJP) groove weld.
Bevel shapes are chosen based on weld access from one or both sides.
Grooves that are not symmetrical will cause distortion due to unbalanced
shrinkage.
Weld Nugget is the melted filler metal and base metal joining the work pieces.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is the base metal whose mechanical properties or
microstructure have been altered by the heat of welding and subsequent cooling.
Preheat of base metal will slow down HAZ cooling rate, reduces cooling
rate and allows absorbed hydrogen to escape
Face is the exposed weld surface on the side from which the welding was done.
DESIGN STRENGTH
Manual Page 16.1-123. Table J2.5. Available Strength Of Welded Joints
Pertinent Metal:
Greek Letters
For LRFD, Φ
Nominal Stress:
Effective Area:
For CJP groove welds, joint strength is controlled by the base metal alone;
no calculations of weld metal strength are required.
FILLET WELDS
Fillet Welds are principally used to connect structural members (work pieces) not
aligned in the same plane. The welds are made on the “outside” of the pieces.
Fillet welds are usually chosen for overall economy, ease of fabrication,
and fit-up.
Weld Nugget is the melted filler metal and base metal joining the work pieces.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is the base metal whose mechanical properties or
microstructure have been altered by the heat of welding and subsequent cooling.
Preheat of base metal will slow down HAZ cooling rate, reduces cooling
rate and allows absorbed hydrogen to escape
Face is the exposed weld surface on the side from which the welding was done.
EFFECTIVE AREA
Manual Page 16.1-119. Section J2.2. Fillet Welds.
Awe = Lete
Where:
Awe = weld effective area, in2
te = weld effective throat, inch
Le = weld effective length, inch
ABM is usually considered a slight distance away from the weld toe.
Design values for Φ, FnBM and Fnw are defined in Table J2.5.
ΦRn = 0.90FuAe
Very similar to limit states for tension members with 0.6 factor from Mohr’s Circle
and different resistance factors:
ΦRn = 0.75(0.60Fu)Anv
∑Ru ≤ ΦRn
The table defines the minimum size of fillet welds as a function of material
thickness of the thinner part joined.
Minimum weld sizes are defined to ensure sufficient fusion of weld, and to
minimize distortion.
wmax = tmaterial
REQUIRED: Determine the design strength of the weld metal and base metal.
SOLUTION:
Fillet welds loaded at an angle from the longitudinal axis have 50% more strength
than welds loaded along their longitudinal axis.
The directionality strength increase applies to both the weld metal and the
base metal.
Sin 0o = 0.00
Linear weld groups are a single line of weld, or parallel lines of welds, loaded
through its center of gravity at angle Φ, relative to the weld longitudinal axis.
Concentrically loaded weld groups combine welds in tension and shear, with the
applied load and the resisting welds in the same plane.
Rnwl = (0.60FEXX)(0.707w)(Llongitudnal)
Rnwt = (0.60FEXX)(0.707w)(Ltransverse)
Eq. J2-10b indicates that for concentrically loaded weld groups, it is acceptable
to increase the tension weld strength by 50% as long as we also reduce the
shear weld strength by 15%.
This equation is based on test data and shows some strength reduction
for weld groups when compared to linear welds.
WELD SYMBOLS
Weld symbols on plans and drawings shall be per AWS symbols.
Examples
In practice, welds are fully defined by the AWS symbology alone. In these
examples, AWS symbology is interpreted by:
REQUIRED: Design fillet welds shown. Do not consider base metal. Use LRFD
load combinations.
SOLUTION:
Required strength
Pu = 1.2(10 K) + 1.0(120 K) = 132 K
Weld Size
ΦRn = 483.5w K = 132 K = Pu
w = 132 / 483.5 = 0.273” say 5/16” > 3/16” minimum
Use: w = 5/16"
Longitudinal
Weld Metal Strength
Φ = 0.75 {Table J2.5}
Fnw = 0.60FEXX = 0.60(70 ksi) = 42.0 ksi {Table J2.5}
0.707 2 4 4.94
Rn = FnwAwe = (42.0 ksi)(4.94 in2) = 207.5 K {Eq. J2-3}
ΦRn = (0.75)(207.5 K) = 155.6 K
Shear Yielding
Φ = 1.00 {Spec. J4.2(a)}
Fy = 36 ksi {Manual 2-49}
2
Agv = 1”(2x4”) = 8.00 in
Rn = 0.60FyAgv = 0.60(36 ksi)(8.00 in2) = 172.8 K {Eq. J4-3}
ΦRn = (1.00)(172.8 K) = 172.8 K
Shear Rupture
Φ = 0.75 {Spec. J4.2(b)}
Fu = 58 ksi {Manual 2-49}
Anv = (1”)(2x4”) = 8.00 in2
Rn = 0.60FuAnv = 0.60(58 ksi)(8.00 in2) = 278.4 K {Eq. J4-4}
ΦRn = (0.75)(278.4 K) = 208.8 K
Summary
ΦRn(weld) = 155.6 K governs
ΦRn(shear yielding) = 172.8 K
ΦRn(shear rupture) = 208.8 K
Transverse
Weld Metal Strength
Φ = 0.75 {Table J2.5}
Fnw = 0.60FEXX = 0.60(70 ksi) = 42.0 ksi {Table J2.5}
0.707 6 3.71
Rn = FnwAwe = (42.0 ksi)(3.71 in2) = 155.8 K {Eq. J2-3}
ΦRn = (0.75)(155.8 K) = 116.9 K
Tension Yielding
Φ = 0.90 {Spec. J4.1(a)}
Fy = 36 ksi {Manual 2-49}
Ag = (1”)(6”) = 6.00 in2
Rn = FyAg = (36 ksi)(6.00 in2) = 216.0 K {Eq. J4-1}
ΦRn = (0.90)(216.0 K) = 194.4 K
Tension Rupture
Φ = 0.75 {Spec. J4.1(b)}
Fu = 58 ksi {Manual 2-49}
2
Ae = (1”)(6”) = 6.00 in
Rn = FuAe = (58 ksi)(6.00 in2) = 348.0 K {Eq. J4-2}
ΦRn = (0.75)(348.0 K) = 261.0 K
Summary
ΦRn(weld) = 116.9 K governs
ΦRn(tension yielding) = 194.4 K
ΦRn(tension rupture) = 261.0 K
M=Pe
For symmetrical weld groups, the center of weld pattern can be located by
observation.
ELASTIC ANALYSIS
The elastic analysis and design method is based on the following assumptions
for the distribution of shear stress in connections subject to shear and torsion:
All welds have the same strength regardless of the direction of loading.
The rotation of the plates and connectors under loading produce shear
forces in the welds which are proportional to and normal to the radius from
the center-of-the-weld-pattern.
Although these assumptions are not really true, due to the nonlinear behavior of
the materials and installation tolerances, they allow the use of a simple rational
analysis. Test results have confirmed that this method is conservative.
First, convert the applied load (P) to vector forces acting through the
center-of-the-weld pattern.
Second, convert the load (P) times the eccentricity (e) to a torsional
moment (M) around the center-of-the-weld-pattern.
Manual Page 8-68. Table 8-4. Coefficient C For Eccentrically Loaded Weld
Groups.
AISC has precalculated "C" values for a number of bolt group geometries; 2
lines, rectangles, C-shapes, and L-shapes.
Pu = Φrn = CC1DL
Where:
Φrn = weld group design strength, Kips
C = precalculated coefficient, unitless
C1 = electrode strength coefficient, unitless
D = fillet weld size, sixteenths of an inch
L = reference weld length, inch
REQUIRED:
(a) Select fillet weld size using Elastic Analysis
(b) Select fillet weld size using Ultimate Strength Analysis.
SOLUTION:
. . . .
0
Underwater welding.