CALCULATIONS OF GENERATOR SOURCE SHORT- CIRCUIT CURRENT
ACCORDING TO ANSI/IEEE AND IEC STANDARDS, WITH EMTP VERIFICATIONS.
J.C. Das, FIEE, FIEE, FIE, PE
AMEC, INC.
Atlanta, Georgia
Abstract: For the interruption of a large
generator source-short-circuit current, a current
zero may not be obtained at the contact parting
time of the circuit breaker. Large generators
which have high X/R ratio, and depending upon
the relative impedances and time constants the dc
component can be higher than the ac decaying
component delaying the occurrence of current
zero well beyond contact parting time of the
circuit breaker. The subject is well addressed in
the current literature, though not the calculations
of it. This paper presents calculations of a large
practical generator using ANSI/IEEE and IEC
standards with verifications of results using
EMTP. It demonstrates large differences which
impact the selection of generator circuit breaker
interrupting duties.
Key terms: generator source asymmetrical
short-circuit current, degree of asymmetry,
lack of current zero at contact separation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Consider system configurations shown in
Fig. 1 and Fig.2. Fig.1 shows a generating
station, the generation voltage is stepped up to
500 kV, the ratings of generators and
transformers are not shown for generality of
the discussions. Generators 2 and 3 have a
generator breaker, while generators 1 and 4 do
not. Provision of a generator breaker makes it
possible to use the generator step up
transformer as step down transformer during
start-up. (The relative merits of providing a
generator breaker are not discussed. In-line
generators breakers rated at 50 kA continuous
current and short-circuit interrupting current
up to 250 kA are available.) Consider fault
locations F1 and F2 in Fig.1. The generator
breaker short-circuit duties are of interest. For
a fault at F2, there are three contributions of
the short-circuit currents; which are: (1) from
the utility source, (2) from the auxiliary
distribution system rotating loads through
UAT, (3) from the generator itself. However,
the generator breaker sees only the component
(3) contributed by the generator. Similarly for
fault at F1, the generator breaker sees the sum
of the utility source and auxiliary distribution
system short-circuits current contributions, but
not the contribution from the generator itself.
While selecting a generator breaker, higher of
these two fault currents at F1 and F2 should
be considered. Generally, the generator
contribution for fault at F2 gives rise to higher
asymmetry than the fault at F1,because large
generators have a higher X/R ratio compared
to the short-circuit X/R ratios in the utility
systems.
Fig. 2 shows a bus connected
generator in an industrial distribution system
running in synchronism with utility. Again the
faults at F1 and F2 can be considered and the
generator breaker sees only the generator
contribution for a fault at F1.
ANSI/IEEE Std. C37.010 [1] cautions
that the longer dc time constants could cause a
problem with SF6 type puffer circuit breakers.
The interrupting window, which is the time
difference between the minimum and
maximum arcing times, may be exceeded
because of delayed current zero, and arc
energy and interruption window are of
concern. The calculation methods described in
this standard are qualified that the E/Z method
of calculation with adjustments of ac and dc
decrements can be used provided the X/R does
not exceed 45 at 60 Hz, i.e., the dc time
constant is not more than 120 ms. Yet, the
commercial software available in the USA is
based upon the empirical calculations of the
short-circuit currents according to ANSI/IEEE
standard [1], and unfortunately the industry
ignores the qualifying statement of dc time
constant with respect to short-circuit
calculations.
 IEEE std. C37.013 [2] for generator from generator source short-circuit current
circuit breakers, states that any combination may exceed 110% in the large generators
of ac symmetrical and dc components of being manufactured today. Ref. [2] recognizes
short-circuit currents are permissible provided this asymmetry and states that at the time of
the following conditions are met at the current interruption, the arc fault resistance
primary contact parting time: will add to the generator armature resistance.
This reduces the time constant of the dc
1. The symmetrical component does not
component and forces it to decay faster:
exceed required generator source
symmetrical capability. X d"
Ta = (1)
2. The degree of asymmetry from 2πf (Ra + Radd )
generator source does not exceed
110%. Where Ta is the armature time constant, Ra
is the armature resistance, Radd is the added arc
3. The total source current does not resistance and X”d is the subtransient
exceed the required generator-source reactance and f is the system frequency.
asymmetrical capability.
It is the second condition that is discussed
in this paper, which shows that asymmetry

52 52 52 52 52 52

500 kV double bus

52 52 52 52 52 52

GSU1 GSU2 GSU3 GSU4

F2

52 52
G G
UAT2
F1 UAT1

G1 G2 52 52 G3 G4
Interlocks and auto switching

4.16 kV Bus 1 4.16 kV Bus 2

52

52 52 52
Aux Transf. 1 Aux. Transf. 2
Generation Medium-voltage
auxiliary loads
Third standby
source of power
Interlocks and auto switching
0.48 kV Bus 1 0.48 kV Bus 2

Generation Low-voltage
auxiliary loads

Fig.1. A diagram of connections, large utility generating station.


Fig.2. A bus connected industrial generator
Fig.3. A current zero obtained at the contact parting time
with added arc fault resistance.
Fig. 3 shows this effect on decay of the dc
component and the current zero obtained at the
contact parting time. However, the performance
with arc fault resistance is difficult to simulate and
demonstrate even in a test station.
When no current zero is obtained, the current
interruption in this mode will be equivalent to that
of interrupting a dc current without current zero
crossing. The high voltage circuit breakers have
limited interrupting capability in this mode of
operation, unless specifically designed to introduce
resistance in the arc fault path at current zero.
Generator circuit breakers capable of interrupting
with 130% asymmetry at the contact parting time
are commercially available. Current technologies in
some SF6 breaker designs use arc rotation
techniques to force a current zero. The vacuum
interruption technology may also achieve the same
results. The available continuous current rating and
the interrupting symmetrical rating of generator
breakers at the upper end is 50 kA and 250 kA,
respectively.
IEC standard [3], does not discuss the
asymmetry at the contact parting time of the
breaker. Short-circuit current profiles for “far
from” and “near to” the generator are shown in
Figs. 1 and 2 of this standard, respectively. There
is no discussion of not obtaining a current zero at
the contact parting time of the breaker. The IEC
standard showing the examples of short-circuit
calculations, part- 4 is yet to be published. Note
that some examples of calculations were included
in earlier 1988 issue of this standard, which have
been withdrawn. IEC may adopt IEEE standard [2]
for the generator breakers.
II. AC CURRENT INTERRUPTION
A short-circuit current with maximum
asymmetry in one phase may not have zero
crossing in many periods, while the asymmetry in
the other two phases will be minimum and these
phases will interrupt first.
A short-circuit in the phase having zero
asymmetry (depending upon the instant of fault on
the voltage wave), will be interrupted first, the
short-circuit changes to a two-phase fault, the
current is reduced by a factor of 0.866, which will
further prevent short-circuit current envelope from
crossing the zero-axis. When a two-phase fault
escalates to a three-phase fault, zero crossing may
not occur after several periods of contact opening
time.
With no current zero, the current interruption
is equivalent to interrupting a dc current. The high
voltage circuit breakers have limited current
interrupting capability in this mode. Some modern
technologies in ac circuit breakers intended for
generator applications , say SF6 designs, use arc
rotation techniques to force a current zero, and the
vacuum technology may also achieve the same
results. But caution has to be exercised that all
ANSI/IEEE rated breakers may not be suitable for
high asymmetrical current interruption. It is
prudent to consult the manufacturer for this
application.
 III. GENERATOR SOURCE SHORT- Table 1.
CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS Generator Manufacturer’s Data

The generator source fault current, for a Description Symbol Data

practical machine, is calculated by three methods: Per unit reactance data, direct axis
(1) IEEE standard, (2) IEC standard and, (3) EMTP Synchronous Xd 2.120
simulation. A comparative analysis of the results of
Transient X’d 0.230
these calculations is made for further discussions
and analysis.. Subtransient X’’d 0.150
A generator of 234 MVA, 2-pole, 18 kV, Saturated negative X2v 0.150
0.85 power factor, (198.9 MW), 7505 rated current, sequence
60 Hz. 350 field volts, wye connected 0.56 SCR Leakage reactance, XLM,OXE 0.135
(short-circuit ratio), high resistance grounded and overexcited
connected directly to a step up transformer is
considered. Table 1, shows the manufacturer’s Leakage reactance, XLM,UEX 0.150
data, which is limited to the modeling and the under excited
calculations in this paper. All data is in per unit on Per unit reactance data, quadrature axis
generator MVA base of 234 MVA. All time Synchronous Xq 1.858
constants are in seconds. Table shows saturated
reactance’s, which are used in the short-circuit Transient X’q 0.434
calculations Subtransient X’’q 0.140
Generator effective X/R 125
1V. ANSI CALCULATIONS X/R
Generator source short circuit current, in the phase
with maximum asymmetry and the generator Field time constant data, direct axis
unloaded is calculated using the following Open circuit T’do 5.615
equation, from [2]: Three-phase short- T’d 0.597
⎡⎛ 1 ⎤ circuit transient
1 ⎞ −t / T "
⎢⎜⎜ " − ' ⎟⎟e d ⎥ Short-circuit T’’ d 0.015
P 2 ⎢⎝ X d X d ⎠ ⎥ subtransient
I asym = ⎢
V 3⎢ ⎛ 1 ⎥ cos2ωt
1 ⎞ −t / Td' 1 ⎥ Open circuit T’’do 0.022
+⎜ − ⎟e +
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ X d' X d ⎟⎠ X d ⎥⎦ subtransient
Field time constant data quadrature axis
⎡⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎤ Open circuit T’qo 0.451
⎢⎜ " + " ⎟e−t / Ta ⎥
⎢⎜X X ⎟ ⎥ Open circuit T”q0 0.046
P 2 ⎝ d q ⎠
+ ⎢ ⎥ subtransient
V 3 ⎢ 1⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎥
⎜ ⎟
⎢− 2 ⎜ X '' − X " ⎟ cos2ωt ⎥
Armature dc component time constant data
⎣ ⎝ d q ⎠ ⎦ Three-phase short- Ta 0.330
(2) circuit
Where Iasym is the generator source
asymmetrical current, P = rated power, V =rated The calculations in this paper follow a sample
maximum voltage, ω is the angular frequency, and example in [2]. If the generator is operating under-
t is the time in seconds. All other symbols are excited at leading power factor a higher
defined in Table 1. The second harmonic term in asymmetry can be expected at the contact parting
this equation is neglected. Note that there is no time [2].
commercially available software computerizing the
short-circuit calculations
 The equation (2) considers that the generator is
operating at no-load. ANSI/IEEE Short-circuit
calculations ignore the prior loading of generators
and motors and the calculations are, generally,
made at the rated voltage. This is rather an
oversimplification of a complex transient
phenomenon. In practice the generator will be
connected to an interconnected system, and its
terminal voltage, rotor angle and frequency will all
change. For a terminal fault, as discussed here, the
terminal voltage will be zero, and power supplied
to the load reduces to zero, while the prime mover
output cannot change abruptly. Thus, the generator
will accelerate. In multi-machine system speeds of
all machines will change, so that these generate
their share of synchronizing power in the overall
impact, as these strive to reach a mean retardation
through oscillations [6]. The paper confines to the
basis laid out in the standard. Using the data
from Table 2 and considering a 5 cycle breaker,
with contact parting time of 3-cycles, consisting of
½ cycle tripping delay and 2.5 cycles opening time,
the calculated short-circuit currents are:
• Close and latch: 112.2 kA peak.
• Generator source ac symmetrical
interrupting current: 30.9 kA rms.
• Dc component = 59.22 kA.
• Total rms asymmetrical interrupting
current at contact parting=66.80 kA.
• Asymmetry factor = 135.5% and the
current zero is not obtained.
The step-by step details of the calculations
are not shown. The asymmetry factor α is given by:
dc component
α=
2 symmetrical int errupting current (3)
And the total asymmetrical interrupting current
is given by:
I total ,asym = (ac sym ) 2 + (dc) 2 (4)
An important parameter of calculation is the
X/R ratio. The effective resistance of the generator
used in the short-circuit calculations is calculated
from the following expression, from [1].
X 2v
RG = (5)
2π f Ta
Where RG is the generator effective resistance,
and all the symbols have been described in Table
2. Using appropriate values from Table 2, this
gives an X/R of 125, which correlates with the
data supplied by the manufacturer in Table 2.
Ref. [2], however, specifies a dc component
decay time constant of 133 ms. Required
asymmetrical interrupting capability for three-
phase faults is 110% of the peak value of the
symmetrical generator source current. It implies
that a current zero will always be obtained at the
contact parting time due to added arc resistance at
the current interruption.
V. IEC CALCULATIONS
There are analytical and conceptual
differences between the ANSI/IEEE methods of
short circuit calculations and IEC [7, 8, 9, and 10].
It is not the intention to go into the details of the
IEC calculations, except to present the calculated
results.
For near to generator faults, IEC distinguishes
between the generators directly connected to
systems and generators and unit transformers of
power station units, i.e., the generator and
transformer is considered a single unit. IEC
requires calculation of initial symmetrical short-
circuit current in each contributing source, which
forms basis of further calculations. Tracking each
contributing source current throughout the system
is necessary, and each of these component currents
is a function of X/R ratio, type of network,
(meshed or radial), type of excitation system for
synchronous generators, preloading, minimum
time delay and the determination whether the
contribution is from near to (local) or far from
(remote) short-circuit sources.
For the calculations of peak short-circuit
current with sufficient accuracy, [3] recommends a
fictitious resistance, which considers ac and dc
decay:
RGf = 0.05 times the subtransient reactance for
machines of UrG > 1 kV and SrG ≥ 100 MVA.
(6)
 Where UrG is the generator rated voltage, RGf is
the fictitious generator resistance and SrG is its
rating in MVA.
Using the values from Table 2, this gives an
X/R ratio of 20, which is much lower than the X/R
ratio of 125 calculated using (5). IEC [3], however,
cautions that the actual generator resistance can
be much lower and the value arrived from (5) can
not be used for calculating the aperiodic dc
component of short-circuit current.
The partial initial short-circuit current of the
" calculation of generator source symmetrical fault
generator, I kG , is given by:
cU rG
"
I kG =
3K G ,SO Z G
(7)
Where c is the IEC voltage factor =1.10 for
maximum short-circuit current calculations for
medium and high voltages (>1-230 kV), UrG is the
generator rated voltage, ZG is generator impedance
and K G,SO is a defined factor for generators and
unit transformers of the power stations. It is given
by the following expression:
1 c
K G , SO = (8)
1 + pG 1 + X d sin φ rG
"
Where φrG is the load power factor angle prior
to the generator fault and factor pG considers
generator voltage regulation. For the purpose of
this calculation, it is ignored as ANSI/IEEE
methods and EMTP simulations are made with
rated generator voltage. Also the generator is
considered at no-load, i.e., φrG =0. Substituting all
the values, KG,SO=1.10
ZG is the generator impedance, given by:
Z G = RGf + jX d" (9)
"
Then, from (7), I kG = 49.97 kA . Generator
peak current is given by:
i pG = χ 2 I kG
"
(10)
Where ipG is the peak short-circuit current
(equivalent ANSI /IEEE close and latch current).
The factor χ can be ascertained from the X/R
curves in [3] or from analytical expression in [3].
This gives i pG = 131.6 peak .
The generator breaking (ANSI interrupting)
current for minimum time delay of 0.05 s (ANSI
contact parting time) is:
ibsym = μI kG
"
(11)
Where ibsym is the symmetrical component of
the generator source fault current and μ is the
multiplying factor, calculated from the expressions
in [3]. This calculation gives, ibsym = 38.5 kA.
Compare this calculation with IEEE
current calculated as 30.90 kA. There is
considerable difference in the calculated results
using the same data.
The aperiodic dc component at minimum time
delay is calculated from equation (64) of [3]:
I dc = 2 I kG
"
e −2πftR / X (12)
Here X/R =20 cannot be used. Using
X/R=125, as calculated before, Idc=60.73 kA.
Thus, the asymmetry factor is 112% versus
135% with ANSI calculations.
The calculations described above omit many
steps and explanations, Ref. [3, 7, 9 and 10]
provide further reading.
VI. EMTP SIMULATION
Short-circuit calculations are conducted
using EMTP program, with detail modeling and
Park’s transformations. EMTP uses Park’s
transformation, which is a powerful analytical
transformation for the study of synchronous
machine behavior. Conceptually this
transformation is shown in Fig. 4. The inductance
matrix of a synchronous machine reactance in the
stator frame of reference is not constant and varies
with the position of the rotor with respect to the
stator coils. Consider that the field winding is co-
phasial with the direct axis and also that the direct
axis carries a damper winding. The q-axis also has
a damper winding. The field flux is directed along
d-axis; therefore, the machine generated voltage is
at right angles to it, along q-axis. Consider phase
‘a’ inductance, which is a combination of its own
self inductance, and its mutual inductance with
respect to phases b an c. All these inductances
vary with the position of the rotor with respect to
the stator.
 Park’s transformation describes a new set of
variables, such as currents, voltages and flux
linkages in 0dq axes. The stator parameters are
transferred to the rotor parameters.
Using matrix notation:

i0 dq = P iabc
v0 dq = P v abc (13)
λ0 dq = P λabc

Here the matrix and vectors are denoted by a

top bar, subscript 0dq refers to transformed axes
and subscript abc refers to stator frame of
reference. i , v , λ are currents, voltages and flux
linkage vector and P the transformation matrix.
The abc constants in the stator windings produce a
synchronously rotating field, stationary with
respect to the rotor. This rotating field is produced
by constant currents in the fictitious rotating coils
in d-q axes, Fig.4 (b).
It is not the intention to go into the details of
the synchronous machine modeling theory or the
calculation routines in EMTP. Manufacturer’s data
is always supplied in the stator frame of reference,
Table 2. The input of this data into EMTP
modeling converts it to 0dq axes. For example the
decoupled flux matrix in d-axis can be written as:
Fig.4. To illustrate Park’s transformation and
λd Ld KM fd KM dkd id inverse Park’s transformation
λ f = KM fd Lf M fkd i f
Mfkd = mutual inductance between field
λkd KM dkd M fkd Lkd ikd
and damper windings
(16) id, if, ikd =Currents in the direct axis, field
and damper windings.
Where
K = 3/2
Ld = self inductance of the armature
These all pertain to transformed d-axis.
Lf = self inductance of the field
Similar transformation applies to q-axis. EMTP
winding
routine calculates the transformed parameters
Lkd =self inductance of the damper winding
based upon the input manufacturer’s data. It can
Mfd =mutual inductance between the
also accept the transformed parameters in 0dq axes
field and armature windings
directly, which can be first externally calculated
Mdkd = mutual inductance between
from the manufacturer’s data in a-b-c frame of
armature and damper windings
reference. These calculations are not shown. Refs
[11-15] provide further reading.
Also the system inertia constant and
mechanical damping has been modeled. These
details are not presented. Ref. [16] may be seen for
the EMTP model.
 The three-phase short-circuit current profile is This simulation is, however, to show the
shown in Fig. 7 for phases a, b and c. It is seen impact of low load and very low power factor.
that in phase c, current zero is not obtained for a Practically, while absorbing power from the power
number of cycles. The calculated values at the system, a generator will not be operated at such a
contact parting time are: low power factor.
• Generator symmetrical interrupting
/breaking short circuit current = 33.59 kA
rms
• Dc component = 62.5 kA
• Asymmetry factor = 131%.
The results are read from the computer outputs;
Ref.[17] describes a geometric construction for the
calculation of ac symmetrical and dc components
from offset asymmetrical wave.
Table 3 shows the comparative results obtained
with the three methods of calculations.
VII. THE EFFECT OF POWER FACTOR
The load power factor (lagging) in IEC
"
calculations will increase I kG (equation
(7)).Similarly a leading power factor will
"
decrease I kG . This is correct; as a lagging power
factor increases the internal voltage behind the
machine transient reactance, and conversely a
leading power factor decreases it. However from
(11) and (12) it does not change the asymmetry at
"
the contact parting time, because I kG is common to
these equations. But, the asymmetry does change
with the power factor and prior load. This is clearly
shown in the EMTP simulation in Fig. 8. Fig. 8(a)
shows the generator operating at no-load; it is the
same plot as shown in Fig. 7 for phase c, except
that the simulation is carried for 500 ms. The
comparative results are shown in Table 2, which
shows considerable differences in the asymmetry Fig.7. EMTP simulations of the generator short-
factor, calculated by the three methods. circuit currents, see text

Fig. 8(b) shows the simulation with prior load

on the generator as follows:
MW=28, Mvar= 92.4 Mvar, 0.29 PF, 93.3
MVA.
The first cycle peak current is reduced from
132 kA at no-load to 129 kA and the asymmetry at
contact parting time is increased from 131% at no
load to 142%, and the current zero is further
delayed compared to Fig. 8 (a).
 Table 2 ms, (b) short-circuit current in phase C, with
Comparison of Calculations using IEEE/IEC generator loaded, 28 MW, 0.29 leading power
Standards and EMTP Simulations factor

Calculated IEEE IEC EMTP VIII. CALCULATIONS FOR BUS

Parameter CONNECTED GENERATOR
Close and Latch , 112.2 131.60 132.05
kA peak ( IEC
peak short-circuit
Fig. 2 shows a generator of 81.82 MVA,
current) 12.47 kV, 0.85 power factor directly connected to
Generator source 30.90 38.50 33.59 a 12.47 kV bus, also powered by a 30/40/50 MVA,
Interrupting kA 115-12.47 kV utility transformer. The two sources
sym. RMS (IEC are run in synchronism, and the plant running load
symmetrical
breaking current is 45 MVA; the excess generated power is
ibsym. supplied into the utility system. The size of a
Dc component, kA 59.22 60.73 62.50 generator that can be bus connected in an
Total 66.80 71.90 70.90 industrial distribution is approximately limited to
asymmetrical, kA 100 MVA, as an acceptable level of short-circuit
RMS
(IEC ibasym) should be maintained at the medium voltage
Asymmetry 135% 112% 131% switchgear and the downstream distributions.
factor Such large units in the industrial
distribution pose the same problem of higher
asymmetry at the contact parting time as the
directly connected utility generators through step
up transformers. Following are the specific
parameters of the 81.82 MVA generator shown in
Fig. 10.
X d'' = 16.2, X d' = 22.3, X d = 201.8,
X q'' = 15.9, Td'' = 0.015 s,
Td' = 0.638 s, Ta = 0.476 s
Considering a 5-cycle symmetrical rated
breaker, the asymmetry at the contact parting time
from (2) and (3) = 132%. The calculations are not
carried out using IEC standards and EMTP
simulation.

IX. CONCLUSIONS

A power system engineer must be cautious

Fig. 8, (a) EMTP simulation of the generator short
circuit current, generator unloaded, same as in Fig.
7, phase C, except the simulation carried for 500
when applying calculation methods according to
accepted standards. There can be differences in the
calculations using the same data. When using IEC
calculations, actual X/R specified by the
manufacturers should be used for calculation of
aperiodic dc current at the contact parting time.
The example of calculation in this paper
clearly demonstrates that asymmetry at contact
parting time can be even 130% or more. The
delayed current zeros can also occur on short-
circuits in large industrial systems, with co-
generation facilities. In general, a generator breaker
capable of interrupting 130% asymmetrical current
seems to be an appropriate application in most
cases.
Developments in generator circuit breakers
have produced designs, which can handle 130%
asymmetry, [18, 19 and 20]. The manufacturers
can supply test certificates showing successful
interruption at this asymmetry. All generator
breakers in the market may not meet these criteria.
The possibility of catastrophic failure exist when
this phenomena is ignored and short-circuit
currents are not properly calculated. The
manufacturer should be consulted for applicability
of their breakers to interrupt the high asymmetry
currents as demonstrated by testing. One solution
to the problem can be purposely delaying the
opening of the breaker; though this will increase
the fault energy let-through and will have profound
impact on stability of the power system.
X. REFERENCES
[1] ANSI/IEEE Std. C37.010, Guide for AC High
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on
Symmetrical Current Basis, 1999.
[2] IEEE Std. C37.013, 1997. IEEE Standard for
Generator Circuit Breakers Rated on
Symmetrical Current Basis, 1997 and IEEE
Std. C37.013a, Amendment 1: supplement for
use with Generators rated 10-100 MVA, 2007.
[3] IEC 60909.-0, Short-Circuit Currents in Three-
Phase AC Systems, 0- Calculation of Currents,
2001-07, Also IEC 60909-1;, Factors for
Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents in Three-
Phase AC Systems According to IEC 60909-0,
1991.
[4] Ragaller K. Current Interruption in High
Voltage Networks, 1978, New York, Plenum
Press.
[5] Braun A., Edinger, A., Rouss, E., Interruption
of Short-Circuit Currents in High Voltage AC
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Power Systems, 1988, Brussels.
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