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Tom Apostol v1 Solutions PDF
Tom Apostol v1 Solutions PDF
ERNEST YEUNG
Fund Science! & Help Ernest finish his Physics Research! : quantum super-A-polynomials - a thesis by Ernest Yeung
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Ernest Yeung is supported by Mr. and Mrs. C.W. Yeung, Prof. Robert A. Rosenstone, Michael Drown, Arvid Kingl, Mr .
and Mrs. Valerie Cheng, and the Foundation for Polish Sciences, Warsaw University.
I 2.5 Exercises - Introduction to set theory, Notations for designating sets, Subsets, Unions, intersections, complements.
Exercise 10. Distributive laws
Let X = A ∩ (B ∪ C), Y = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Suppose x ∈ X
x ∈ A and x ∈ (B ∪ C) =⇒ x ∈ A and x is in at least B or in C
then x is in at least either (A ∩ B) or (A ∩ C)
x ∈ Y, X ⊆ Y
Suppose y ∈ Y
y is at least in either (A ∩ B) or A ∩ C
then y ∈ A and either in B or C
y ∈ X, Y ⊆ X
X=Y
Let X = A ∪ (B ∩ C), Y = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Suppose x ∈ X
then x is at least either in A or in (B ∩ C)
if x ∈ A, x ∈ Y
if x ∈ (B ∩ C), x ∈ Y x ∈ Y, X ⊆ Y
Suppose y ∈ Y
then y is at least in A or in B and y is at least in A or in C
if y ∈ A, then y ∈ X
if y ∈ A ∩ B or y ∈ A ∪ C, y ∈ X (various carvings out of A, simply )
if y ∈ (B ∩ C), y ∈ X y ∈ X, Y ⊆ X
X=Y
1
Exercise 11. If x ∈ A ∪ A, then x is at least in A or in A. Then x ∈ A. So A ∪ A ⊆ A. Of course A ⊆ A ∪ A.
If x ∈ A ∩ A, then x is in A and in A. Then x ∈ A. So A ∩ A ⊆ A. Of course A ⊆ A ∩ A.
Exercise 12. Let x ∈ A. y ∈ A ∪ B if y is at least in A or in B. x is in A so x ∈ A ∪ B. =⇒ A ⊆ A ∪ B.
Suppose ∃b ∈ B and b ∈
/ A. b ∈ A ∪ B but b ∈
/ A. so A ⊆ A ∪ B.
Exercise 13. Let x ∈ A ∪ ∅, then x is at least in A or in ∅. If x ∈ ∅, then x is a null element (not an element at all). Then
actual elements must be in A. =⇒ A ∪ ∅ ⊆ A.
Let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ A ∪ ∅. A ⊆ A ∪ ∅. =⇒ A = A ∪ ∅.
Exercise 14. From distributivity, A ∪ (A ∩ B) = (A ∪ A) ∩ (A ∪ B) = A ∩ (A ∪ B).
If x ∈ A ∩ (A ∪ B), x ∈ A and x ∈ A ∪ B, i.e. x ∈ A and x is at least in A or in B.
=⇒ x is in A and is in B or is not in B. Then x ∈ A. =⇒ A ∩ (A ∪ B) ⊆ A. Of course, A ⊆ A ∩ (A ∪ B).
=⇒ A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.
Exercise 15. ∀a ∈ A, a ∈ C and ∀b ∈ B, b ∈ C. Consider x ∈ A ∪ B. x is at least in A or in B. In either case, x ∈ C.
=⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ C.
Exercise 16.
if C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B, then C ⊆ A ∩ B
∀c ∈ C, c ∈ A and c ∈ B
x ∈ A ∩ B, x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Then ∀c ∈ C, c ∈ A ∩ B. C ⊆A∩B
Exercise 17.
(1)
if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C then
∀a ∈ A, a ∈ B.∀b ∈ B, b ∈ C.
then since a ∈ B, a ∈ C, ∃c ∈ C such that c ∈
/ B.
∀a ∈ A, a ∈ B so a 6= c∀a. =⇒ A ⊂ C
(2) If A ⊆ B, B ⊆ C, A ⊆ C since, ∀a ∈ A, a ∈ B, ∀b ∈ B, b ∈ C. Then since a ∈ B, a ∈ C. A ⊆ C
(3) A ⊂ B and B ⊆ C. B ⊂ C or B = C. A ⊂ B only. Then A ⊂ C.
(4) Yes, since ∀a ∈ A, a ∈ B.
(5) No, since x 6= A (sets as elements are different from elements)
Exercise 18. A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C)
Suppose x ∈ A − (B ∩ C)
then x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B ∩ C =⇒ x ∈
/ B∩C
then x is not in even at least one B or C
=⇒ x ∈ (A − B) ∪ (A − C)
Suppose x ∈ (A − B) ∪ (A − C)
then x is at least in (A − B) or in (A − C) =⇒ x is at least in A and not in B or in A and not in C
then consider when one of the cases is true and when both cases are true =⇒ x ∈ A − (B ∩ C)
Exercise 19.
[
Suppose x ∈ B − A
A∈F
[
then x ∈ B, x ∈
/ A
A∈F
[
x∈
/ A =⇒ x ∈
/ A, ∀A ∈ F
A∈F
\
since ∀A ∈ F, x ∈ B, x ∈
/ A, then x ∈ (B − A)
A∈F
2
\
Suppose x ∈ (B − A)
A∈F
then x ∈ B − A1 and x ∈ B − A2 and . . .
then ∀A ∈ F, x ∈ B, x ∈
/A
then x ∈
/ even at least one A ∈ F
[
=⇒ x ∈ B − A
A∈F
\
Suppose x ∈ B − A
A∈F
\
then x ∈
/ A
A∈F
then at most x ∈ A for ∀A ∈ F but one
then x is at least in one B − A
[
=⇒ x ∈ (B − A)
A∈F
[
Suppose x ∈ (B − A)
A∈F
then x is at least in one B − A
then for A ∈ F, x ∈ B and x ∈
/A
Consider ∀A ∈ F
\
=⇒ then x ∈ B − A
A∈F
Exercise 20.
Suppose x ∈ (A − B) − C
then x ∈ A − B, x ∈
/C
then x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B and x ∈
/C
x∈
/ B and x ∈
/ C =⇒ x ∈
/ even at least B or C
x ∈ A − (B ∪ C)
Suppose x ∈ A − (B ∪ C)
then x ∈ A, x ∈
/ (B ∪ C)
then x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B and x ∈
/C
=⇒ x ∈ (A − B) − C
To show that (i) is sometimes wrong,
Suppose y ∈ A − (B − C)
y ∈ A and y ∈
/ B−C
y∈
/ B−C
then y ∈
/ B or y ∈ C or y ∈
/C
(where does this lead to?)
Consider directly,
Suppose x ∈ (A − B) ∪ C
then x is at least in A − B or in C
then x is at least in A and ∈
/ B or in C
Suppose x = c ∈ C and c ∈
/A
3
(2)
If C ⊆ A,
A − (B − C) = (A − B) ∪ C
I 3.3 Exercises - The field axioms. The goal seems to be to abstract these so-called real numbers into just x’s and y’s that
are purely built upon these axioms.
Exercise 1. Thm. I.5. a(b − c) = ab − ac.
b
Let x = for ax = b
a
y = a−1 for ay = 1
Want: x = by
Now b(1) = b, so ax = b = b(ay) = a(by)
=⇒ x = by (by Thm. I.7)
−1 −1
Thm. I.10. If a 6= 0, then (a ) = a.
Now ab = 1 for b = a−1 . But since b ∈ R and b 6= 0 (otherwise 1 = 0, contradiction), then using Thm. I.8 on b,
ab = b(a) = 1; a = b−1 .
Thm.I.11. If ab = 0, a = 0 or b = 0.
ab = 0 = a(0) =⇒ b = 0 or ab = ba = b(0) =⇒ a = 0. (we used Thm. I.7, cancellation law for multiplication)
Thm. I.12. Want: x = y if x = (−a)b and y = −(ab).
ab + y = 0
ab + x = ab + (−a)b = b(a + (−a)) = b(a − a) = b(0) = 0
0 is unique, so ab + y = ab + x implies x = y( by Thm. I.1 )
Thm. I.13. Want: x + y = z, if a = bx, c = dy, (ad + bc) = (bd)z.
(bd)(x + y) = bdx + bdy = ad + bc = (bd)z
So using b, d 6= 0, which is given, and Thm. I.7, then x + y = z.
4
Thm. I.14. Want: xy = z for bx = a, dy = c, ac = (bd)z.
(bd)(xy) = (bx)(dy) = ac = (bd)z
b, d 6= 0, so by Thm. I.7, xy = z.
Thm.I.15. Want: x = yz, if bx = a, dy = c, (bc)z = ad
(bc)z = b(dy)z = d(byz) = da
d 6= 0 so by Thm. I.7, by z = a, byz = abx
b 6= 0 so by Thm. I.7, yz = x
Exercise 2. Consider 0 + z = 0. By Thm. I.2, there exists exactly one z, z = −0. By Axiom 4, z = 0. 0 = −0.
Exercise 3. Consider 1(z)z(1) = 1. Then z = 1−1 . But by Axiom 4, there exists distinct 1 such that z(1) = 1, so z = 1.
Exercise 4. Suppose there exists x such that 0x = 1, but 0x = 0 and 0 and 1 are distinct, so zero has no reciprocal .
ad − bc
z= (bd)z = ad − bc by previous exercise or Thm. I.8, the possibility of division
bd
a
x= bx = a
b
−c
t= dt = −c (By Thm. I.3, we know that b − a = b + (−a) )
d
5
dbx + bdt = (bd)(x + y) = ad − bc = (bd)z
b, d 6= 0, so x + y = z
Exercise 1.
Exercise 2. If x = 0, x2 = 0. 0 + 1 = 1 6= 0. So x 6= 0.
Exercise 3.
Exercise 4. Consider ax = 1.
xb − ax = xb − 1 > 0 =⇒ bx > 1 = by
b > 0 so x > y
Exercise 6.
6
If a = b and b = c, then a = c
If a = b and b < c, then a < c
If a < b and b = c, then a < c
If a < b and b < c, then a < c (by transitivity of the inequality)
=⇒ a ≤ c
Exercise 7. If a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c. If a = c, then by previous proof, a = b.
Exercise 10.
If x = 0, done.
x
If x > 0, x is a positive real number. Let h = .
2
x
=⇒ > x Contradiction.
2
I 3.12 Exercises - Integers and rational numbers, Geometric interpretation of real numbers as points on a line,
Upper bound of a set, maximum element, least upper bound (supremum), The least-upper-bound axiom (completeness
axiom), The Archimedean property of the real-number system, Fundamental properties of the suprenum and infimum.
We use Thm I.30, the Archimedean property of real numbers, alot.
Theorem 9 (I.30). If x > 0 and if y is an arbitrary real number, there exists a positive integer n such that nx > y.
We will use the least upper-bound axiom (completeness axiom) alot for continuity and differentiation theorems later.
Apostol states it as an axiom; in real analysis, the existence of a sup for nonempty, bounded sets can be shown with an
algorithm to zoom into a sup with monotonically increasing and monotonically decreasing sequence of “guesses” and showing
its difference is a Cauchy sequence.
Axiom 1 (Least upper-bound axiom). Every nonempty set S of real numbers which is bounded above has a suprenum; that
is, there’s a real number B s.t. B = supS.
Exercise 1. 0 < y − x.
=⇒ n(y − x) > h > 0, n ∈ Z+ , h arbitrary
y − x > h/n =⇒ y > x + h/n > x
so let z = x + h/n Done.
a ± by
x±y =
b
a − mb
If a ± by was an integer, say m, then y = ± which is rational. Contradiction.
b
ay ay
xy = =
b1 b
n
If ay was an integer, ay = n, y = , but y is irrational. =⇒ xy is irrational.
a
x
y
y is not an integer
Exercise 8. Proof by counterexamples. We want that the sum or product of 2 irrational numbers is not always irrational. If y
1
2m1 + 1 = 2m2 2(m1 − m2 ) = 1 m1 − m2 =
. But m1 − m2 can only be an integer.
2
(2) By the well-ordering principle, if x ∈ Z+ is neither even and odd, consider the set of all x. There must exist a
smallest element x0 of this set. But since x0 ∈ Z+ , then there must exist a n < x such that n + 1 = x0 . n is even or
odd since it doesn’t belong in the above set. So x0 must be odd or even. Contradiction.
(3)
(2m1 )(2m2 ) = 2(2m1 m2 ) even
2m1 + 2m2 = 2(m1 + m2 ) even
(2m1 + 1) + (2m2 + 1) = 2(m1 + m2 + 1) =⇒ sum of two odd numbers is even
(n1 + 1)(n2 + 1) = n1 n2 + n1 + n + 2 + 1 = 2(2m1 m2 )
2(2m1 m2 ) − (n1 + n2 ) − 1 odd, the product of two odd numbers n1 , n2 is odd
(4) If n even, n is even, since for n = 2m, (2m)2 = 4m2 = 2(2m2 ) is even.
2
p 2l m 2l−n m
= n = and at least m or p odd
q 2 p p
a
Exercise 11. b can be put into a form such that a or b at least is odd by the previous exercise.
a
However, a2 = 2b2 , so a even, b even, by the previous exercise, part (d) or 4th part. Thus b cannot be rational.
Exercise 12. The set of rational numbers satisfies the Archimedean property but not the least-upper-bound property.
p
Since q ∈ Q ⊆ R, n pq11 > p2
q2 since if q1 , q2 > 0,
np1 q2 q1 p2
> np1 q2 > q1 p2
q1 q2 q1 q2
I 4.4 Exercises - An example of a proof by mathematical induction, The principle of mathematical induction, The
well-ordering principle. Consider these 2 proofs.
N + N + · · · + N = N2
N
X N
X −1
(N − 1) + (N − 2) + · · · + (N − (N − 1)) + (N − N ) = N 2 − j= j
j=1 j=1
N N
X X N (N + 1)
N2 + N = 2 j =⇒ j=
j=1 j=1
2
So that
N N m N
X X X X m(m + 1) N (N + 1)
j= j+ j= j+ =
j=1 j=m j=1 j=m
2 2
N
X N (N + 1) − m(m + 1) (N − m)(N + m + 1)
j= =
j=m
2 2
S= 1+ 2+ · · · + (N − 2)+ (N − 1)+ N
but S = N + N − 1+ ···+ 3+ 2+ 1
N (N + 1)
2S = (N + 1)N S=
2
9
PN
Telescoping series will let you get j=1 j 2 and other powers of j.
N
X N (N + 1)
(2j − 1) = 2 − N = N2
j=1
2
N N N
X X X N (N + 1)
(j 2 − (j − 1)2 ) = (j 2 − (j 2 − 2j + 1)) = (2j − 1) = 2 − N = N2
j=1 j=1 j=1
2
N
X N
X N
X
3 3 3 3 3 2
(j − (j − 1) ) = N = (j − (j − 3j + 3j − 1)) = (3j 2 − 3j + 1)
j=1 j=1 j=1
N 3 2 N
X N (N + 1) 2N + 2N − 3N − 3N N (N + 1)(2N + 1) X 2
=⇒ 3 j 2 = −3 + N = N 3 =⇒ = = j
j=1
2 2 6 j=1
N
X N
X N
X
j 4 − (j − 1)4 = N 4 = j 4 − (j 4 − 4j 3 + 6j 2 − 4j + 1) = 4j 3 − 6j 2 + 4j − 1 =
j=1 j=1 j=1
N
X N (N + 1)(2N + 1) N (N + 1)
=4 j3 − 6 +4 − N = N4
j=1
6 2
N
X 1 4 1
=⇒ j3 = (N + N (N + 1)(2N + 1) − 2N (N + 1) + N ) = (N 4 + (2N )N (N + 1) − N (N + 1) + N )
j=1
4 4
1 4 1 1 (N (N + 1))2
= (N + 2N 3 + 2N 2 − N 2 − N + N ) = N 2 (N 2 + 2N + 1) =
4 4 4 2
N +1 n
1(1 + 1) X X n(n + 1) n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1) (n + 2)(n + 1)
j= j+n+1= +n+1= =
2 j=1 j=1
2 2 2
Exercise 6.
(1)
1 1 8k + 8 (2k + 3)2
A(k + 1) = A(k) + k + 1 = (2k + 1)2 + k + 1 = (4k 2 + 4k + 1) + =
8 8 8 8
(2) The n = 1 case isn’t true.
(3)
(n + 1)n n2 + n n2 + n + 41
1 + 2 + ··· + n = = <
2 2 2
2
(n + 1/2)2 n2 + n + 1/4
2n + 1 1
and = =
2 2 2 2
Exercise 7.
I 4.7 Exercises - Proof of the well-ordering principle, The summation notation. Exercise 1.
P4
(1) n(n+1)
2 = k=1 k = 10
P5 n−2
P3
(2) n=2 2 = n=0 2n = 1 + 14 = 15
3 P3
(3) 2 r=0 22r = 2 r=0 4r = 170
P
P4
(4) j j = 1 + 4 + 27 + 44 = 288
P5j=1 5(6)
(5) j=0 (2j + 1) = 2 2 + 6(1)= 36
P 1 Pn 1 1 1 n
(6) k(k+1) = k=1 k − k+1 = 1 − n+1 = n+1
Exercise 9.
n = 1(−1)(3) + 5 = 2 = 2n
n = 2(−1)(3) + 5 + (−1)7 + 9 = 4 = 2n
2n
X
n (−1)k (2k + 1) = 2n
k=1
2(n+1) 2n
X X
n+1 (−1)k (2k + 1) = (−1)k (2k + 1) + (−1)2n+1 (4n + 3) + (−1)2n+2 (4n + 5) =
k=1 k=1
= 2n + 2 = 2(n + 1)
Exercise 10.
11
(1) am + am+1 + · · · + am+n
(2)
1 1 1 1
n=1 = − =
2 1 2 2
2(n+1) 2n 2n
X 1 X (−1)m+1 1 1 1 X (−1)m+1 1 (−1)2n+1+1
n+1 = − + + = +− +
k m=1 m n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 2 m=1 m 2(n + 1) (2n + 1)
k=n+2
2(n+1)
X (−1)m+1
=
m=1
m
Exercise 13.
√ 1 √
n = 12( 2 − 1) < 1 < 2 since > 2 − 1
2
√ √ r
√ √ √ √ n+1+ n 1 1
n case ( n + 1 − n)( n + 1 + n) = n + 1 − n = 1 < √ = ( 1 + + 1)
2 n 2 n
√ √ √ √
n + 1 case ( n + 2 − n + 1)( n + 2 + n + 1) = n + 2 − (n + 1) = 1
√ √
q
1
n+2+ n+1 1 + 1 + n+1
√ = >1
2 n+1 2
So then, using the telescoping property,
n−1 m m
X √ √ √ X 1 X √ √ √ √
2( n + 1 − n) = 2( m − 1) < √ < 2( n − n − 1) = 2( m − 1) < 2 m − 1
n=1 n=1
n n=1
(9) x = a − b, b − c = −y.
|x| ≤ |x − y| + | − y| |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|
(10)
(
|x| − |y| if |x| − |y| ≥ 0
||x| − |y|| =
|y| − |x| if |x| − |y| ≤ 0
|x| ≤ |x − y| + | − y| =⇒ |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|
|y| ≤ |y − x| + | − x| =⇒ |y| − |x| ≤ |y − x| = |x − y|
Exercise 4.
⇒
If ∀k = 1 . . . n; ak x + bk = 0
n
!2 n
!2 n
! n
! n
! n
!
X X X X X X
2
ak (−xak ) = x ak = a2k (−xak ) 2
= a2k b2k
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
bk
⇐ Proving ak x + bk = 0 means x = − , ak 6= 0
ak
n
X n
X n
X n
X
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn )2 = a2j b2j + aj ak bj bk == a2j b2j + a2j b2k
j=1 j6=q j=1 j6=k
=⇒ a2j b2k
− aj ak bj bk = aj bk (aj bk − ak bj ) = 0
bj
if aj , bk 6= 0, aj bk − ak bj = 0 =⇒ ak + bk = 0
−aj
Exercise 8. The trick of this exercise is the following algebraic trick (“multiplication by conjugate”) and using telescoping
property of products:
j j j
+2j j+1
(1 − x2 )(1 + x2 ) = 1 − x2 = 1 − x2
1 1 j n
Y j−1 Y 1 − x2 1 − x2
1 + x2 = =
j=1 j=1
1 − x2j−1 1−x
if x = 1, 2n
Exercise 10.
x>1
x2 > x xn+1 = xn x > x2 > x
3 2
x >x >x
0<x<1
x2 < x xn+1 = xn x < x2 < x =⇒ xn+1 < x
X 3 < x2 < x
Exercise 12.
13
(1)
n n j n k
1 X n 1 X n! 1
1+ = =
n j=0
k n (n − k)!k! n
k=0
k−1 k−1
Y
Y r n−r 1 n!
1− = = k
r=0
n r=0
n n (n − k)!
n k−1
X 1 Y r 1 n!
1− = k
k! r=0 n n (n − k)!
k=1
(2)
1 n+1
n k−1
! n n n
1
1 X 1 Y r X 1 X 1 − 1
(1 + )n = 1 + (1 − ) < 1 + <1+ =1+ 2 2
1 = 1 + (1 − )
n k! r=0 n k! 2k 2
2
k=1 k=1 k=1
<3
The first inequality obtained from the fact that if 0 < x < 1, xn < x < 1. The second inequality came from the
1
previous exercise, that k! < 21k .
n k n−1 k n−1 k
1 n X n 1 1 X n 1 1 X n 1 n 1
(1 + ) = =1+ + =1+ + + > >2
n k n n k n n k n 1 n
k=0 k=1 k=2
Exercise 13.
(1)
p−1 k b p
X b 1− a
S= =
k=0
a 1 − ab
p−1 b p
X 1− bp − a p
bk ap−1−k = ap−1 a
=
k=0
1 − ab b−a
(2)
(3) Given
(n + 1)p+1 − np+1
np < < (n + 1)p
p+1
We want
n−1 n
X np+1 X
kp < < kp
p+1
k=1 k=1
2p+1
n = 21p < < 1p + 2p
p+1
p=1
1 < 22 /2 = 2.2 < 1 + 2 = 3
p−2
1 < 8/3 < 1 + 4 = 5
(1)
(2)
(3) Let n = 2.
2−1 2
X np+1 2p+1 X p
k p = 1p = 1, = k = 1 + 2p
p+1 p+1
k=1 k=1
What makes this exercise hard is that we have to use induction on p itself. Let p = 1.
21+1
1< = 2 < 1 + 21 = 3
1+2
14
Now assume pth case. Test the p + 1 case.
2p+2 2p+1
2(p + 1)
= >1
p+2 p+2 p+1
since p + 2 < 2p + 2 = 2(p + 1) for p ∈ Z+
For the right-hand inequality, we will use the fact just proven, that 2p − (p) > 0 and pth case rewritten in this manner
2p+1
(1 + 2p ) > =⇒ (1 + 2p )(p + 1) > 2p+1
p+1
So
(p + 2)(1 + 2p+1 ) = (p + 2) + ((p + 1) + 1)2p (2) = (p + 2) + 2(p + 1)2p + 2p (2) >
> (p + 2) + 2(2p+1 − (p + 1)) + 2p (2) = −p + 2p+2 + 2p+1 > 2p+2
So the n = 2 case is true for all p ∈ Z+ .
Assume nth case is true. We now prove the n + 1 case.
n n−1
X X np+1 np+1 (n + 1)p+1 − np+1 (n + 1)p+1
kp = k p + np < + np < + =
p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1
k=1 k=1
n+1 n
X X np+1 (n + 1)p+1 − np+1 (n + 1)p+1
kp = k p + (n + 1)p > + =
p+1 p+1 p+1
k=1 k=1
(n+1)p+1 −np+1
We had used the inequality proven in part b, np < p+1 < (n + 1)p .
1 + a1 = 1 + a1
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) = 1 + a2 + a1 + a1 a2 ≥ 1 + a1 + a + 2
k n k n k k k+1
(n + 1)nn 12
(n + 1)! n 1 1 1 1 1 1
≥ = = 1− < =
(n + 1)n+1 (n + 1)n+1 n+1 2 n+1 2 2 2 2
where in the second to the last step, we had made this important observation:
n 1 n+1 1 1 1
k≤ =⇒ k + ≤ =⇒ ≤ <
2 2 2 n+1 2k + 1 2
Exercise 16.
15
√
1+ 5
a1 = 1 <
2
√ !2 √ √
1+ 5 1+2 5+5 6+2 5
a2 = 2 < = =
2 4 4
√ !n √ !n−1 √ !n
1+ 5 1+ 5 1+ 5 2
an+1 = an + an−1 < + = 1+ √ =
2 2 2 1+ 5
√ !n √ ! √ !n+1
1+ 5 2(1 − 5) 4 1+ 5
= + =
2 1−5 4 2
Exercise 18.
1/4 1/2
a4 + b4 + c4 a2 + b2 + c2 23/2
≥ = since
3 3 31/2
64
a4 + b4 + c4 ≥
3
Pn
Exercise 19. ak = 1, k=1 1=n
Now consider the case of when not all ak = 1.
a1 = 1
a1 a2 = 1 and suppose, without loss of generality a1 > 1. Then 1 > a2 .
(a1 − 1)(a2 − 1) < 0
a1 a2 − a1 − a2 + 1 < 0 =⇒ a1 + a2 > 2
(consider n + 1 case ) If a1 a2 . . . an+1 = 1, then suppose a1 > 1, an+1 < 1 without loss of generality
b1 = a1 an+1
b1 a2 . . . an = 1 =⇒ b1 + a2 + · · · + an ≥ n (by the induction hypothesis)
(a1 − 1)(an+1 − 1) = a1 an+1 − a1 − an+1 + 1 < 0, b1 < a1 + an+1 − 1
=⇒ a1 + an+1 − 1 + a2 + · · · + an > b1 + a2 + · · · + an ≥ n
=⇒ a1 + a2 + · · · + an+1 ≥ n + 1
16
1.7 Exercises - The concept of area as a set function. We will use the following axioms:
Assume a class M of measurable sets (i.e. sets that can be assigned an area), set function a, a : M → R.
•
Axiom 2 (Nonnegative property).
(1) ∀S ∈ M, a(S) ≥ 0
•
Axiom 3 (Additive property). If S, T ∈ M, then S ∪ T, S ∩ T ∈ M and
(2) a(S ∪ T ) = a(S) + a(T ) − a(S ∩ T )
•
Axiom 4 (Difference property). If S, T ∈ M, S ⊆ T then T − S ∈ M and
(3) a(T − S) = a(T ) − a(S)
•
Axiom 5 (Invariance under congruence). If S ∈ M, T = S, then T ∈ M, a(T ) = a(S)
•
Axiom 6 (Choice of scale). ∀ rectangle R ∈ M, if R has edge lengths h, k then a(R) = hk
•
Axiom 7 (Exhaustion property). Let Q such that
(4) S⊆Q⊆T
If ∃ only one c such that a(S) ≤ c ≤ a(T ), ∀S, T such that they satisfy Eqn. (??)
then Q measurable and a(Q) = c
Exercise 1.
(1) We need to say that we consider a line segment or a point to be a special case of a rectangle allowing h or k (or both)
to be zero.
Let Tl = { line segment containing x0 }, Q = {x0 }.
For Q, only ∅ ⊂ Q
By Axiom 3, let T = S.
a(T − S) = a(∅) = a(T ) − a(T ) = 0
∅ ⊂ Q ⊆ Tl =⇒ a(∅) ≤ a(Q) ≤ a(Tl ) =⇒ 0 ≤ a(Q) ≤ 0
=⇒ a(Q) = 0
(2)
N
[ N
X
a Qj = a(Qj )
j=1 j=1
p 1 p 1
a(A ∩ B) = a2 + b2 d + ab − ( ab + a2 + b2 d) = ab
2 2
Exercise 3. Prove that every trapezoid and every parallelogram is measurable and derive the usual formulas for their areas.
A trapezoid is simply a rectangle with a right triangle attached to each end of it. Tr = R + T1 + T2 . T1 , T2 are right
triangles and so by the previous problem, T1 , T2 are measurable. Then Tr is measurable by the Additive property axiom (note
that the triangles and the rectangle don’t overlap).
17
We can compute the area of a trapezoid:
Tr = R + T1 + T2 =⇒ a(Tr ) = a(R) + a(T1 ) + a(T2 )
1 1 1
a(Tr ) = hb1 + h(b2 − b1 )/2 + h(b2 − b1 )/2 = h(b1 + h2 )
2 2 2
P = R (a parallelogram consists of a right triangle rotated by π and attached to the other side of the same right triangle;
the two triangles do not overlap). Since two right triangles are measurable, the parallelogram, P is measurable.
Using the Additive Axiom, a(P ) = 2a(T ) = 2 12 bh = bh
Exercise 4. A point (x, y) in the plane is called a lattice point if both coordinates x and y are integers. Let P be a polygon
whose vertices are lattice points. The area of P is I + 12 B − 1, where I denotes the number of lattice points inside the polygon
and B denotes the number on the boundary.
(1) Consider one side of the rectangle lying on a coordinate axis with one end on the origin. If the rectangle side has
length l, then l + 1 lattice points lie on this side (you have to count one more point at the 0 point. Then consider the
same number of lattice points on the opposite side. We have 2(l + 1) lattice points so far, for the boundary.
The other pair of sides will contribute 2(h−1) lattice points, the −1 to avoid double counting. Thus 2(l +h) = B.
I = (h − 1)(l − 1) by simply considering multiplication of (h − 1) rows and (l − 1) columns of lattice points
inside the rectangle.
I + 21 B − 1 = hl − h − l + 1 + (l + h) − 1 = hl = a(R)
(2)
(3)
Exercise 5. Prove that a triangle whose vertices are lattice points cannot be equilateral.
My way: I will take, for granted, that we know an equilateral triangle has angles of π/3 for all its angles.
Even if we place two of the vertices on lattice points, so that its length is 2L, and put the midpoint and an intersecting
perpendicular bisector on a coordinate axis (a picture would help), but the ratio of the perpendicular bisector to the third
vertex to half the length of the triangle is cot π/3 = √13 . Even if we go down by an integer number L, L steps down, we go
√
“out” to the third vertex by an irrational number 3L. Thus, the third vertex cannot lie on a lattice point.
Exercise 6. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and let M denote the class of all subsets of A. (There are 32 altogether counting A itself
and the empty set ∅). (My Note: the set of all subsets, in this case, M, is called a power set and is denoted 2A . This is
because the way to get the total number of elements of this power set, |2A |, or the size, think of assigning to each element a
“yes,” if it’s in some subset, or “no”, if it’s not. This is a great way of accounting for all possible subsets and we correctly
get all possible subsets.) For each set S in M, let n(S) denote the number of distinct elements in S. If S = {1, 2, 3, 4} and
T = {3, 4, 5},
[
n(S T) = 5
\
n(S T) = 2
n(S − T ) = n({1, 2}) = 2
n(T − S) = n({5}) = 1
n satisfies nonnegativeSproperty
T because by definition, there’s T thing as a negative number of elements. If S, T are
S no such
subsets of A, so are S T , S T since every element in S ST , S T is in S. Thus n could T be assigned to T
it, so that it’s
measurable. Since n counts only distinct elements, then n(S T ) = n(S) + a(T ) − a(S T ), where −a(S T ) ensures
there is no double counting of distinct elements. Thus, the Additive Property Axiom is satisfied.
(1)
[x + n] = y ≤ x + n, y ∈ Z; y − n ≤ x
[x] + n = z + n ≤ x + n
If y − n < z, then y < z + n ≤ x + n. then y wouldn’t be the greatest integer less than x + n
=⇒ y = z + n
(2)
= y2 ≤ x − [x] = −y2 ≥ −x − y2 − 1 ≤ x
−x ≥ y1 = [−x] = −y2 − 1 = −[x] − 1; ( and y1 = −y2 − 1 since −y2 > −x )
If x is an integer −[x] = [−x]
(3) Let x = q1 + r1 , y = q2 + r2 ; 0 ≤ r1 , r2 < 1.
(
q1 + q2
= [q1 + q2 + r1 + r2 ] =
q1 + q2 + 1 if r1 + r2 ≥ 1
[x] + [y] = q1 + q2 [x] + [y] + 1 = q1 + q2 + 1
(4)
1
If x is an integer , [2x] = 2x = [x] + [x + ] = [x] + [x] = 2x
( 2
1 q if r < 12
[x] + [x + ] = q +
2 2q + 1 if r > 12
(
2q if r < 12
[2x] = [2(q + r)] = [2q + 2r] =
2q + 1 if r > 12
(5)
(
2
(
1 3q
if r < 31
1 2 q if r < q if r <
[x] + [x + ] + [x + ] = q + 2
3 + 3
1
= 3q + 1 if 13 < r < 2
3
3 3 q + 1 if r > q+1 if r >
if r > 32
3 3
3q + 2
3q
if r < 13
[3x] = [3(q + r)] = [3q + 3r] = 3q + 1 if 13 < r < 2
3
if r > 23
3q + 2
nq
if r < n1
[nx] = [n(q + r)] = nq + 1 if n1 < r < 2
n
if r > n−1
nq + n − 1
n
Exercise 6.
1
a(R) = hk = IR + BR − 1
2
b
X
[f (n)] = [f (a)] + [f (a + 1)] + · · · + [f (b)]
n=a
[f (n)] = g ≤ f (n), g ∈ Z, so that if f (n) is an integer,g = f (n), and if f (n) is not an integer, g is the largest integer such
that g < f (n), so that all lattice points included and less than g are included.
Exercise 7.
19
(1) Consider a right triangle with lattice points as vertices. Consider b + 1 lattice points as the base with b length.
Start from the vertex and move across the base by increments of 1.
The main insight is that the slope of the hypotenuse of the right triangle is ab so as we move 1 along the base, the
hypotenuse (or the y-value, if you will) goes up by ab . Now
h na i
(5) = number of interior points at x = n and below the hypotenuse line of the right triangle of sides a, b,
b
including points on the hypotenuse
b−1 h
X na i 1 ab
+ ((a + 1) + b) − 1 =
n=1
b 2 2
(a − 1)(b − 1) ab a b 1
Now = − − +
2 2 2 2 2
b−1 h
X na i (a − 1)(b − 1)
=⇒ =
n=1
b 2
(2) a, b ∈ Z+
b−1 h b−1
X na i X a(b − n)
= (reverses order of summation)
b n=1 n=1
b
b−1
( P
b−1
− n=1 an if an n
Xh an i −a b − a4 is an integer (but a − 1 can’t be!)
a− = Pb−1 ban b
n=1
b − n=1 b −a −1 otherwise
b−1 h b−1 h
X an i X an i
=− −a −1 =− − a − (b − 1) =
n=1
b n=1
b
b−1 h
X an i
=− + a(b − 1) − (b − 1)
n=1
b
b−1 h
X na i (a − 1)(b − 1)
=
n=1
b 2
Exercise 8. Recall that for the step function f = f (x), there’s a partition P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } of [a, b] such that f (x) = ck
if x ∈ Ik . (
1 ∀x ∈ S
Given that χs (x) = .
0 ∀x ∈ /S
If x ∈ [a, b], then x must only lie in one open subinterval Ij , since real numbers obey transitivity.
n
X n
X
ck χIk (x) = cj for x ∈ Ij =⇒ ck χIk (x) = f (x)∀x ∈ [a, b]
k=1 k=1
1.15 Exercises - The definition of the integral for step functions, Properties of the integral of a step function, Other
notations for integrals. Exercise 1.
R3
(1) 1 [x]dx = (−1) + 1 + (2) = 2
R3 R 7/2
(2) −1 [x + 21 ]dx = −1/2 [x]dx = (−1) 12 + (1)(1) + (2)(1) + 12 3 = 4
R3
(3) −1 ([x] + [x + 12 ])dx = 6
R3
(4) −1 2[x]dx = 4
R3 R6
(5) −1 [2x]dx = 12 −2 [x]dx = 12 ((−2)1 + (−1) + (1) + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) = 6
R3 R −3 R1
(6) −1 [−x]dx = − 1 [x]dx = −3 [x]dx = −3 + −2 + −1 = −6
Exercise 2.
(
5/2 if 0 < x < 2
s=
−1 if 2 < x < 5
20
Exercise 3. [x] = y ≤ x so −y ≥ −x.
Exercise 4.
Rn Pn−1 (n−1)(n−1+1) (n−1)n
(1) n ∈ Z+ , 0
[t]dt = t=0 t= 2 = 2
(2)
Exercise 5.
R2 R2 √ √ √ √ √ √
(1) 0 [t2 ]dt = 1 [t2 ]dt = 1( 2 − 1) + 2( 3 − 2) + 3(2 − 3) = 5 − 2 − 3
R3 2 R3 2 R0 2 R3 2 R0 2 R3 2
(2) −3 [t ]dt = 0 [t ]dt + −3 [t ]dt = 0 [t ]dt + − 3 [t ]dt = 2 0 [t ]dt
Z 3 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
[t2 ]dt = 4( 5 − 2) + 5( 6 − 5) + 6( 7 − 6) + 7( 8 − 7) + 8(3 − 8)
2
√ √ √ √
16 − 5 − 6 − 7 − 8
Z 2
2
Z 3 √ √ √ √ √ √
[t ]dt + [t2 ]dt = 21 − 3 2 − 3 − 5 − 6 − 7 − 8
0 2
Z 3 √ √ √ √ √
=⇒ [t2 ]dt = 42 − 2(3 2 + 3 + 5 + 6 + 7)
−3
Exercise 6.
Rn Rn Pn−1 (n−1)n(2n−1)
(1) [t]2 dt = [t]2 dt = j=1 j2 = 6
R0x 2 1
P[x−1]
(2) 0
[t] dt = j=1 j 2 + q r where x = q + r, q ∈ Z+ , 0 ≤ r < 1.
2
Z x
q(q − 1)(2q − 1)
[t]2 dt = + q 2 r = 2(x − 1) = 2(q + r − 1)
0 6
=⇒ q(q − 1)(2q − 1) + 6q 2 r = 12q + 12r − 12
=⇒ x = 1, x = 5/2
Exercise 7.
(1)
Z 9 √ Z 9√
[ t]dt = [ t]dt = 3(1) + 5(2) = 13
0 1
Z 1 √ (4)(3)(17)
6[ t]dt = 3(1) + 5(2) + 7(3) = 34 =
0 6
√n2
n(n − 1)(4n + 1)
Z
Assume [ t]dt =
0 6
Z (n+1)2 √ Z n2 √ √ (n+1)2
n(n − 1)(4n + 1)
Z
[ t]dt = [ t]dt + [ t]dt = + n((n + 1)2 − n2 ) =
0 0 n2 6
(n2 − n)(4n + 1) + 6n(2n + 1) 4n3 + n2 − 4n2 − n + 12n2 + 6n 4n3 + 9n2 + 5n
= = =
6 6 6
indeed ,
(n + 1)(n)(4(n + 1) + 1) (n2 + n)(4n + 5) 4n3 + 5n2 + 4n2 + 5n
= =
6 6 6
21
R b+c R b+c−c Rb
Exercise 8. a+c
f (x)dx = a+c−c
f (x − (−c))dx = a f (x + c)dx
R kb 1
R (kb)/k x Rb
Exercise 9. ka
f (x)dx = 1 (ka)/k
f 1/k dx = k a f (kx)dx
k
Rp
Exercise 10. Given s(x) = (−1)n n if n ≤ x < n + 1; n = 0, 1, 2, . . . p − 1; s(p) = 0, p ∈ Z+ . f (p) = 0
s(x)dx.
R3
So for f (3) = 0
s(x)dx, we need to consider n = 0, 1, 2.
s(0 ≤ x < 1) = 0
s(1 ≤ x < 2) = (−1)(1)
s(2 ≤ x < 3) = 2;
s(3 ≤ x < 4) = −3
So then
f (3) = (−1)(1) + 2(1) = 1
f (4) = 1 + (−3)(1) = −2
f (f (3)) = f (1) = 0
We obtain this formula (
p p+1
f (p) = 2 (−1) p even
since
p−1 p+1
2 (−1) p even
Z p+1 n
f (p + 1) = f (p) + s(x)dx = p−1
2 (−1)
p+1
p even + (−1)p p
p
( ( (
−p p
2 p even p 2
= p−1 + = −p−1 =
2 p odd −p 2
(
− (p+1)
2 if p + 1 even
= p
2 if p + 1 odd
Thus, p = 14, p = 15.
Exercise 11.
(1)
Z b n
X
s(x)dx = s3k (xk − xk−1 )
a k=1
Z b Z c n1
X n2
X n2
X Z c
s+ s= s2k (xk − xk−1 ) + s3k (xk − xk−1 ) = s3k (xk − xk−1 ) = s(x)dx
a b k=1 k=n1 k=1 a
Rb Pn3 Rb Rb
(2) (s + t) = k=1 (s + t)3k (xk − xk−1 ) 6= t s+ a
Rab Pn Rb a
(3) a cs = k=1 (cs)3 (xk − xk−1 ) 6= c a s
(4) Consider these facts that are true, that xk−1 < x < xk , s(x) = sk ; x0 = a + c, xn = b + c,
xk−1 − c < x − c < xl − c =⇒ yk−1 < y < yk so then s(y + c) = sk .
n
X k
X
s3k (xk − xk−1 ) = s3k (xk − c − (xk−1 − c)) =
k=1 k=1
Xn Z b
= s3k (yk − yk−1 ) = s(y + c)dy
k=1 a
Rb Pn 3
(5) s < t, a
s= k=1 sk (xk − xk−1 ).
if 0 < s, s3 < s2 t < st2 < t3
if s < 0t, s3 < and t3 > 0
ts > t2
if s < t < 0, s3 < s2 t, s(st) < t(ts) = t2 s
t2 s < t 3
s3 < s2 t < t2 s < t3
22
Rb Rb
Then a
s< a
t.
Exercise 12.
Rb Rc Pn1 Pn2 Pn3 Rc
(1) a
s+ b s = k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) + k=n 1
sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) = k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) = a s
Rb Pn3 2 2
Pn3 2 2
Pn3 2 2
Pn3 2 2
(2) a
(s+t) = k=1 (s+t)k (xk −xk−1 ) = k=1 (sk +tk )(xk −xk−1 ) = k=1 sk (xk −xk−1 )+ k=1 tk (xk −xk−1 )
since P3 = {xk } is a finer partition than the partition for s, P1 , t, P2 , then consider
sk (yj2 − yj−1
2
) = sk ((x2k+1 − x2k ) + (x2k − x2k−1 )), so
n3
X n3
X n1
X n2
X
2 2
sk (x2k −x−k−1 )+ tk (x2k −x−k−1 )= sj (x2j −x−j−1 )+ 2
tj (x2j − x − j − 12 ) =
k=1 k=1 j=1 j=1
Z b Z b
= s+ t
a a
Rb Pn Pn Rb
(3) cs = csk (x2k − x2k−1 ) = c k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) =
k=1 c a s
Rab+c Pn
(4) a+c
s(x)dx = k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) where
s(x) = sk if xk−1 < x < xk
x(y + c) = sk if xk−1 < y + c < xk =⇒ xk−1 − c < y < xk − c =⇒ yk−1 < y < yk
0
where P = {yk } is a partition on [a, b]
Z b n
X
s(y + c)dy = sk (yk2 − yk−1
2
)=
a k=1
Xn n
X
= sk ((xk − c)2 − (xk−1 − c)2 ) = sk (x2k − 2xk c + c2 − (x2k−1 − 2xk−1 c + c2 )) =
k=1 k=1
Xn n
X
= sk (x2k − x2k−1 − 2c(xk − xk−1 )) 6= sk (x2k − x2k−1 )
k=1 k=1
Rb Pn Rb Pn
(5) Since x2k − x2k−1 > 0, a sdx = k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) < k=1 tk (x2k − x2k−1 ) = a tdx
Note that we had shown previously that the integral doesn’t change under finer partition.
Exercise 13.
Z b n
X Z b n2
X
s(x)dx sk (xk − xk−1 ); t(x)dx = tk (yk − yk−1 )
a k=1 a k=1
P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }, Q = {y0 , y1 , . . . , yn }
Note that x0 =S y0 = a; xn = yn2 = b.
Consider P Q = R. R consists of n3 elements, (since n3 ≤ n + n2 some elements of P and Q may be the same. R is
another partition on [a, b] (by partition definition) since xk , yk ∈ R and since real numbers obey transitivity, {xk , yk } can be
arranged such that a < z1 < z2 < · · · < zn3 −2 < b where zk = xk or yk .
(s + t)(x) = s(x) + t(x) = sj + tk if xj−1 < x < xj ; yj−1 < x < yj
If xj−1 ≶ yj−1 , let zl−1 = yj−1 , xj−1 and
If xj ≶ yj , let zl = xj , yj
Let sj = sl ; tk = tl
(s + t)(x) = s(x) + t(x) = sl + tl , if zl−1 < x < zl
Z b Z b n3
X n3
X n3
X
(s(x) + t(x))dx = ((s + t)(x))dx = (sl + t)l)(zl − zl−1 ) = sl (zl − zl−1 ) + tl (zl − zl−1 )
a a l=1 l=1 l=1
In general, it was shown (Apostol I, pp. 66) that any finer partition doesn’t change the integral R is a finer partition. So
Xn3 n
X Xn Xn2 Z b Z b
sl (zl − zl−1 ) + tl (zl − zl−1 ) = sk (xk − xk−1 ) + tk (yk − yk−1 ) = s(x)dx + t(x)dx
l=1 l=1 k=1 k=1 a a
23
Exercise 14. Prove Theorem 1.4 (the linearity property).
Z b Z b n
X n2
X
c1 s(x)dx + c2 t(x)dx = c1 sk (xk − xk−1 ) + c2 tk (xk − xk−1 ) =
a a k=1 k=1
n3
X n3
X n3
X
= c1 sl (zl − zl−1 ) + c2 tl (zl − zl−1 ) = (c1 sl + c2 tl )(zl − zl−1 ) =
l=1 l=1 l=1
Z b
= (c1 s + c2 t)(x)dx
a
We relied on the fact that we could define a finer partition from two partitions of the same interval.
s(x) < t(x) ∀x ∈ [a, b]; s(x)(zl − zl−1 ) < t(x)(zl − zl−1 ) (zl − zl−1 > 0)
Z b n
X n3
X n3
X n2
X
s(x)dx = sk (xk − xk−1 ) = sl (zl − zl−1 ) < tl (zl − zl−1 ) = tk (yl − yk−1 ) =
a k=1 l=1 l=1 k=1
Z b
= t(x)dx
a
Z b Z b
=⇒ s(x)dx < t(x)dx
a a
Exercise 16. Prove Theorem 1.6 (additivity with respect to the interval).
Use the hint: P1 is a partition of [a, c], P2 is a partition of [c, b], then the points of P1 along with those of P2 form a
partition of [a, b].
Z c Z b n1
X n2
X n3
X Z b
s(x)dx + s(x)dx = sl (xk − xk−1 ) + sk (xk − xk−1 ) = sk (xk − xk−1 ) = s(x)dx
a a k=1 k=1 k=1 a
P 0 = {y0 , y1 , . . . , yn }; yk = xk + c;
=⇒xk−1 + c < y < xk + c
xk−1 < y − c < xk
yk − yk−1 = xk + c − (xk−1 + c) = xk − xk−1
1.26 Exercises - The integral of more general functions, Upper and lower integrals, The area of an ordinate set ex-
pressed as an integral, Informal remarks on the theory and technique of integration, Monotonic and piecewise mono-
tonic functions. Definitions and examples, Integrability of bounded monotonic functions, Calculation of the integral
Rb
of a bounded monotonic function, Calculation of the integral 0 xp dx when p is a positive integer, The basic properties
of the integral, Integration of polynomials.
R2
Exercise 16. 0
|(x − 1)(3x − 1)|dx =
24
Z 2 Z 2 2
(x − 1)(3x − 1)dx = (3x2 − 4x + 1)dx = (x3 − 2x2 + x)1 = 2
1 1
Z 1 1 4
(1 − x)(3x − 1)dx = − (x3 − 2x2 + x)1/3 =
1/3 27
Z 1/3
4
(x − 1)(3x − 1)dx =
0 27
So the final answer for the integral is 62/27.
R3 R3 R 3−5/2 1/2
Exercise 17. 0 (2x − 5)3 dx = 8 0 (x − 52 )3 dx = 8 −5/2 x3 dx = 8 14 x4 −5/2 = 39
2
R3 R3 Rx R3 R3
Exercise 18. −3
(x2 − 3)3 dx = 0
(x2 − 3)3 + −3
(x2 − 3)3 = 0
(x2 − 3)2 + − 0
(x2 − 3)3 = 0
2.4 Exercises - Introduction, The area of a region between two graphs expressed as an integral, Worked examples.
Exercise 15. f = x2 , g = cx3 , c > 0
For 0 < x < 1c , cx < 1 (since c > 0). So cx3 < x2 (since x2 > 0).
Z Z 1/c
1 3 c 4 1
f − g = x2 − cx3 = x − x =
3 4 0 12c3
Z
2 1 1
f −g = = ; c= √
3 12c3 2 2
(1) r
Z 3 Z 3 x 2 Z 1
p
2
p 9π
9 − x dx = 3 1− = 3(3) 1 − x2 =
−3 −3 3 −1 2
Now Z kb x Z b
f dx = k f dx
ka k a
(2) r
Z 2 Z 1
1 p 2π π
1 − x2 dx = 2 1 − x2 dx = =
0 4 0 4 2
R2 √
(3) −2 (x − 3) 4 − x2 dx
Z 2 p Z −2 p Z 2 p
2
x 4 − x dx = (−1) 2
−x 4 − x =⇒ 2 x 4 − x2 = 0
−2 2 −2
Z 2 r x 2 Z 1p
−3 2 1− dx = (−6)(2) 1 − x2 = −6π
−2 2 −1
Exercise 18. Consider a circle of radius 1 and a twelve-sided dodecagon inscribed in it. Divide the dodecagon by isosceles
triangle pie slices. The interior angle that is the vertex angle of these triangles is 360/12 = 30 degrees.
Then the length of the bottom side of each triangle is given by the law of cosines:
√ ! s √
3 √ 3
c2 = 1 + 1 − 2(1)(1) cos 30◦ = 2 1 − =⇒ c = 2 1 −
2 2
25
The height is given also by the law of cosines
√
s
1 + 23
r
◦ 1+ cos 30◦
h = 1 cos 15 = =
2 2
The area of the dodecagon is given by adding up twelve of those isosceles triangles
√ √
s s
√
1 3 1 3
(12) 1 + √ 2 1 − =3
2 2 2 2
So 3 < π.
Now consider a dodecagon that’s circumscribing the circle of radius 1.
√ √ !
v
3
u
1 tu 1 − 2 3
(12) 2 √ (1) = 12 2 − >π
2 1+ 2 3 2
Exercise 19.
Exercise 20. Let f be nonnegative and integrable on [a, b] and let S be its ordinate set.
2.8 Exercises - The trigonometric functions, Integration formulas for the sine and cosine, A geometric description of
the sine and cosine functions. Exercise 1.
Exercise 2.
Exercise 3.
sin x + π = − sin x + π/2 + π/2 = cos x + π/2 = − sin x
cos x + π = cos x + π/2 + π/2 = − sin x + π/2 = − cos x
Exercise 4.
26
sin 3x = sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x = 2 sin x cos2 x + sin x(cos2 x − sin2 x) = 3 cos2 x sin x − sin3 x =
= 3(1 − sin2 x) sin x − sin3 x = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x
cos 3x = cos 2x cos x − sin 2x sin x = (cos2 x − sin2 x) cos x − (2 sin x cos x) sin x = cos x − 4 sin2 x cos x
cos 3x = −3 cos x + 4 cos3 x
Exercise 5.
(1) This is the most direct solution. Using results from Exercise 4 (and it really helps to choose the cosine relationship,
not the sine relationship),
cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
x = π/6
cos 3π/6 = 0 = 4 cos3 π/6 − 3 cos π/6 = cos π/6(4 cos2 π/6 − 3) = 0
√
=⇒ cos π/6 = 3/2, sin π/6 = 1/2( by Pythagorean theorem )
√
(2) sin 2π/6 = 2 cos π/6 sin π/6 = 32, cos π/3 √= 1/2 (by Pythagorean theorem)
(3) cos2π/4 = 0 = 2 cos π/4 − 1, cos π/4 = 1/ 2 = sin π/4
Note that the most general way to solve a cubic is to use this formula. For x3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0,
9bc − 27d − 2b3
R=
p
54 S = (R + Q3 + R2 )1/3
3c − b2
p
Q= T = (R − Q3 + R2 )1/3
9
x1 = S + T − b/3
√
x2 = −1/2(S + T ) − b/3 + 1/2 −3(S − T )
√
x3 = −1/2(S + T ) − b/3 − 1/2 −3(S − T )
Exercise 6.
1
!
sin x − y sin x cos y − sin y cos x cos x cos y tan x − tan y
tan x − y = = 1 =
cos x − y cos x cos y + sin x sin y cos x cos y
1 + tan x tan y
if tan x tan y 6= −1
Similarly,
sin x + y sin x cos y + sin y cos x tan x + tan y
tan x + y = = = , tan x tan y 6= 1
cos x + y cos x cos y − sin x sin y 1 − tan x tan y
cos x + y cos x cos y − sin x sin y cot x cot y − 1
cot x + y = = =
sin x + y sin x cos y + sin y cos x cot y + cot x
√ √
3 3 3
Exercise 7. 3 sin x + π/3 = A sin x + B cos x = 3(sin x 12 + 2 cos x) = 3
2 sin x + 2 cos x
Exercise 8.
C sin x + α = C(sin x cos α + cos x sin α) = C cos α sin x + C sin α cos x
A = C cos α, B = C sin α
Exercise 9. If A = 0, B cos x = B sin π/2 + x = C sin x + α so C = B, α = π/2 if A = 0.
If A 6= 0,
B
A sin x + B cos x = A(sin x +
cos x) == A(sin x + tan α cos x)
A
A A
= (cos α sin x + sin α cos x) = (sin x + α)
cos α cos α
A
where −π/2 < α < π/4, B/A = tan α, C = cos α
Exercise 10. C sin x + α = C sin x cos α + C cos x sin α.
√
C cos α = −2, C sin α = −2, C = −2 2, α = π/4
Exercise 15.
sin x + h − sin x sin (x + h/2) cos h/2 + cos (x + h/2) sin h/2 − sin (x + h) cos h/2 − cos x + h/2 sin h/2
=
h h
sin h/2
= cos (x + h/2)
h/2
cos x + h − cos x cos (x + h/2) cos h/2 − sin (x + h/2) sin h/2 − (cos (x + h/2) cos h/2 + sin (x + h/2) sin h/2)
=
h h
sin h/2
=− sin (x + h/2)
h/2
Exercise 16.
(1)
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
if sin 2x = 2 sin x and x 6= 0, x 6= πn, cos x = 1 but x 6= πn =⇒ x = 2πn
(2) cos x + y = cos x cos y − sin x sin y = cos x + cos y.
p
cos x cos y − cos x − cos y = sin y 1 − cos2 x
Letting A = cos x, B = cos y,
A B + A + B − 2A2 B − 2AB 2 + 2AB = 1 − A2 − B 2 + A2 B 2
2 2 2 2
A2 + B 2 − A2 B − AB 2 + AB = 1/2
B 2 (1 − A) + B(A − A2 ) + A2 − 1/2 = 0
p
A(1 − A) ± A2 (1 − A)2 − 4(1 − A)(A2 − 1/2) 1
B= =A± √ (A2 (1 − A) − 4(A2 − 1/2))1/2 =
1−A 1−A
1
=A± √ (−3A2 − A3 + 2)1/2
1−A
Note that −1 ≤ B ≤ 1, but for |A| ≤ 1. √ √
Solve for the roots of −3A2 − A3 + 2, A0 = −1, −1 + 3, −1 − 3. So suppose cos x = 9/10. Then there is
no real number for y such that cos y would be real and satisfy the above equation.
(3) sin x + y = sin x cos y + sin y cos x = sin x + sin y
=⇒ sin y(1 − cos x) + sin y + − cos x sin y = 0, =⇒ y = 2πn
Checking our result, we find that sin (2πn + y) = sin 2πn + sin y(1)
28
(4) Z y
y
sin xdx = − cos x|0 = −(cos y − 1) = 1 − cos y = sin y
0
p
=⇒ 1 − cos y = 1 − cos2 y
2(j + 1)π
1 − 2 cos y + cos2 y = 1 − cos2 y =⇒ cos y(cos y − 1) = 0; y = , 2πn
2
Rb b
Exercise 17. a
sin xdx = − cos x|a = − cos b + cos a
√
(1) − 23 + 1
√
(2) − 22 + 1
1
(3) 2
(4) 1
(5) 2
(6) 0 We were integrating over one period, over one positive semicircle and over one negative semicircle.
(7) 0 We
√
had√integrated over two equal parts, though it only shaded in up to x = 1.
(8) − 2 + 23
2
Rπ π 2 2
Exercise 18. 0 (x + sin x)dx = ( 12 x2 − cos x)0 = π2 − (−1 − 1) = π2 + 2
R π/2 π/2
Exercise 19. 0
(x2 + cos x)dx = ( 13 x3 + sin x)0 = 31 (π/2)3 + 1
R π/2 π/2
Exercise 20. 0
(sin x − cos x)dx = (− cos x − sin x)|0 = −1 − (−1) = 0
R π/2 R π/4 π/4 √
Exercise 21. | sin x − cos x|dx = ( by symmetry )2
0 0
(cos x − sin x)dx = 2(sin x + cos x)|0 = 2( 2 − 1)
Rπ 1 π
Exercise 22. 0 ( 2 + cos t)dt = ( 12 t + sin t)0 = π2
Exercise 23.
Z 2π/3 Z π 2π/3 2π/3
1 1 t t
( + cos t)dt + −( + cos t)dt = ( + sin t) + ( + sin t)
0 2 2π/3 2 2 0 2 π
√
π 3 π π √
= 2( + )− = + 3
3 2 2 6
Exercise 24. If −π < x ≤ − 2π
3 ,
Z x Z −π −π
1 1 t π x
−( + cos t)dt = ( + cos t)dt = + sin t = − − − sin x
−π 2 x 2 2 x 2 2
If −2π/3 ≤ x ≤ 2π/3,
Z −2π/3
−π/6 √
Z x
1 1 x
−( + cos t)dt + ( + cos t)dt = 3/2 + (t/2 + sin t)|−2π/3
−π 2 −2π/3 2 +
√ √ x
= x/2 + sin x − π/3 − 3/2 + 3/2 − π/6 = + sin x − π/3
2
If 2π/3 ≤ x ≤ π,
√ Z x √ 2π/3
√
3/2 + −(1/2 + cos t)dt = 3/2 + (t/2 + sin t)|x = π/3 + 3 − x/2 − sin x
2π/3
R x2 x6 −x3
Exercise 25. x
(t2 + sin t)dt = ( 13 t3 + − cos t) = 3 + cos x − cos x2
R π/2 π/2
− cos (2x)
Exercise 26. sin 2xdx = = (−1/2)(−1 − 1) = 1
0 2
0
R π/3 π/3
Exercise 27. 0
cos x/2dx = 2 sin x/2|0 = 2 21 = 1
Exercise 28.
29
Z x Z x cos a x
cos (a + bt)dt = (cos a cos bt − sin a sin bt)dt = sin bt − sin a(− cos bt/b) =
0 0 b 0
cos a sin a 1
= sin bx + (cos bx − 1) = sin a + bx − sin a/b
b b b x
Z x Z x
sin a cos a
sin (a + bt)dt = (sin a cos bt + sin bt cos a)dt = sin bt − cos bt =
0 0 b b 0
1
= (cos bx + a + cos a)
b
Exercise 29.
(1)
x x x
3 sin t − sin 3t cos 3x − 1
Z Z
3 3
sin tdt = dt = − cos t + cos 3t/12 = −3/4(cos x − 1) + =
0 0 4 4 0 12
1 3 1
= − cos x + (cos 2x cos x − sin 2x sin x) = 2/3 − 1/3 cos x(2 + sin2 x)
3 4 12
(2)
Z x Z x x
3 1 1 sin 3t 3
cos tdt = + sin t =
(cos 3t + 3 cos t)dt =
0 0 4 4 3 4 0
1 3 1
= (sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x) + sin x = (2 sin x cos x + sin x(2 cos2 x − 1)) =
12 4 12
sin x cos2 x + 2 sin x
=
3
Exercise 30. Now using the definition of a periodic function,
Exercise 31.
(1)
Z 2π Z 2πn
2πn
1 1 1
sin nxdx = (− cos x) = − (1 − 1) = 0
sin xdx =
0 0 n n 0 n
Z 2π 2πn
1 2πn
Z
1
cos nxdx = cos xdx = sin x =0
0 n 0 n 0
(2)
Z 2π Z 2π
1
sin nx cos mxdx = (sin (n + m)x + sin (n − m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
0 0 2
Z 2π Z 2π
1
sin nx sin mxdx = (cos (n − m)x + cos (n + m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
0 0 2
Z 2π Z 2π
1
cos nx cos mxdx = (cos (n − m)x + cos (n + m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
0 0 2
While
2π 2π
1 − cos 2nx
Z Z
sin2 nxdx = dx = π
0 0 2
Z 2π Z 2π
1 + cos 2nx
cos2 nxdx = dx = π
0 0 2
30
Exercise 32. Given that x 6= 2πn; sin x/2 6= 0,
n n n
X X X x x x
2 sin x/2 cos kx = 2 sin x/2 cos kx = sin (2k + 1) − sin (2k − 1) = sin (2n + 1) − sin x/2
2 2 2
k=1 k=1 k=1
= sin nx cos x/2 + sin x/2 cos nx − sin x/2 =
= 2 sin nx/2 cos nx/2 cos x/2 + sin x/2(1 − 2 sin2 nx/2) − sin x/2 =
= 2(sin nx/2)(cos (n + 1)x/2)
cos (2k + 1)x/2 − cos (2k − 1)x/2 = cos kx + x/2 − cos kx − x/2 =
= cos kx cos x/2 − sin kx sin x/2 − (cos kx cos x/2 + sin kx sin x/2) =
= −2 sin kx sin x/2
n
X n
X
−2 sin x/2 sin kx = (cos (2k + 1)x/2 − cos (2k − 1)x/2) = cos (2n + 1)x/2 − cos x/2 =
k=1 k=1
= cos nx + x/2 − cos x/2
Now
sin nx/2 sin nx/2 + x/2 = sin nx/2(sin nx/2 cos x/2 + sin x/2 cos nx/2) =
= sin2 nx/2 cos x/2 + sin x/2 cos nx/2 sin nx/2 =
1 − cos nx sin nx
= cos x/2 + sin x/2 =
2 2
1 1
= (cos x/2 − cos x/2 cos nx + sin nx sin x/2) = (cos x/2 − cos (nxx /2)
2 2
Then
n
X 1
−2 sin x/2 sin kx = −2 sin nx/2 sin (n + 1)x
2
k=1
n
X sin nx/2 sin 12 (n + 1)x
sin kx =
sin x/2
k=1
Exercise 34. Using triangle OAP, not the right triangle, if 0 < x < π/2
1 1 x
cos x sin x < sin x <
2 2 2
=⇒ sin x < x
Now if 0 > x > −π/2, sin x < 0,
| sin x| = − sin x = sin −x = sin |x| < |x|
1
x2 dx = 13 (b2 + ab + a2 )
R
2.17 Exercises - Average value of a function. Exercise 1. b−a
1 7
x2 + x3 =
R
Exercise 2. 1−0 12
1 4
x1/2 =
R
Exercise 3. 4−0 3
1 45
x1/3 =
R
Exercise 4. 8−1 28
1
R π/2 2
Exercise 5. π/2−0 0
sin x = π
1
R
Exercise 6. π/2−−π/2 cos x = 2/π
1
R
Exercise 7. π/2−0 sin 2x = −1/π(−1 − 1) = 2/π
1 1
R
Exercise 8. π/4−0 sin x cos x = π
31
π
1
sin2 x = 1 1
R
Exercise 9. π/2−0 π (x − sin 2x/2)0 = 2
1 1
cos2 x =
R
Exercise 10. π−0 2
Exercise 11.
1
√
x2 = a2 /3 = c2 =⇒ c = a/ 3
R
(1) a−0 a
1 an
x = a1 n+1
1 a
R n
(2) xn+1 = n+1 = cn =⇒ c =
a−0
0 (n+1)1/n
Exercise 12.
Z Z Z Z
A = wf / w wx2 =k x
Z
1 1 1
x3 = x4 = k x2 ; k = ,w = x
4 2 2
Z
1 1 3
x4 = x5 = k x3 ; k = , w = x2
5 3 5
Z
1 1 2
x5 = x6 = k x4 ; k = , w = x3
6 4 3
Exercise 13.
Z Z Z
1 1 1
A(f + g) = f +g = f+ g = A(f ) + A(g)
b−a b−a b−a
Z Z
1 1
A(cf ) = cf = c f
b−a b−a
Z Z
1 1
A(f ) = f≤ g = A(g)
b−a b−a
Exercise 14.
R R R
w(c1 f + c2 g) c1 wf c2 wg
A(c1 f + c2 g) = R = R + R
w w w
= c1 A(f ) + c2 A(g)
f ≤ g w > 0( nonnegative ), =⇒ wf ≤ wg
Exercise 15.
b c b
! Rc ! Rb
c−a f b − a − (c − a) a f
Z Z Z
1 1
Aba (f ) = f= f+ f = a
+
b−a a b−a a c b−a c−a b−a b−c
a<c<b
c−a
c−a Let t =
0< <1 b−a
b−a
=⇒ Aba (f ) = tAca (f ) + (1 − t)Abc (f )
Rb Rc Rc Rb Rc ! Rb
wf w wf w − w wf
Aba (f ) = Ra b = Rab Ra c + a
Rb
a c
Rb
w w a w w w
a a a c
Rc Rc
w w
0 < Rab < 1 since w is a nonnegative function. Let t = Rab
a
w a
w
=⇒ Aba (f ) = tAca (f ) + (1 − t)Abc (f )
R R
Exercise 16. Recall that xcm = R xρ or rcm =
rdm
ρ M .
32
RL
x L
xcm = R0L =
1 2
Z0 Z
Icm = r2 dm = x2 (1) = L3 /3
Icm L
r2 = R L = L2 /3 =⇒ r = √
0
1 3
Exercise 17.
R l/2 RL
0
x+ L/2
2xdx yL2
xcm = L =
2 + 2(L − L/2) 12
Z L/2 Z L √
5L3 /8 5L2 5L
Icm = x2 + 2x2 = 5L3 /8 r = 2
= =⇒ r = √
0 L/2 3L/2 12 2 3
1 3 L
R
xxdx 3 x 0 2
xcm = R = L = L
xdx 1 2 3
2x 0
Z
Icm = x2 xdx = L4 /4
L4 /4 L
r2 = = L2 /2 r= √
L2 /2 2
Exercise 19.
1 3 L/2
L
xxdx + x L2 dx 3x 0 + L2 (x2 /2)L/2
R R
xcm = R R = = 11L/18
xdx + L/2 1 2 L/2
L
2 x 0
+ 2 (L − L/2)
Z Z
2 2 4
Icm = x xdx + x L/2dx = L 31/192
√
31L
r2 = Icm /(L2 3/8) = L2 31/72 r = √
6 2
xx2 dx
R
xcm = R = 3L/4
x2
Z
Icm = x2 x2 dx = L5 /5
r
2 Icm 3 2 3
r = 1 3 = L r= L
3 L 5 5
Exercise 21.
R L/2 RL 2
0
xx2 dx + L/2
x L4 dx
xcm = R L/2 R L L2 = 21L/32
0
x2 dx + L/2 4
dx
L
L2
Z
L/2 2 2
Icm = int0 x x dx + x2
dx = 19L5 /240
L/2 4
Icm √ √
r2 = = 19L2 /40 =⇒ r = 19L/2 10
L3 /6
Exercise 22. Be flexible about how you can choose a convenient origin to evaluate the center-of-mass from
33
Let ρ = cxn
Z L
1
c xn dx =
Ln+1 c = M
0 n + 1
(n + 1)M
=⇒ c =
Ln+1
Z L
1 n+1 3M L
c xxn dx = c Ln+2 = ML =
0 n+2 n+2 4
R Z
xρ 3L n+1 3
xcm = = =⇒ xρ = = =⇒ n = 2
M 4 n+2 4
3M 2
ρ= x
L3
Exercise 23.
(1) Z
1 6
3 sin 2t =
π/2 − 0 π
(2)
1
Z √
9 sin2 2t = 9/2 =⇒ vrms = 3 2/2
π/2 − 0
Exercise 24. T = 2π (just look at the functions themselves)
1
Z 2π √
160 sin t2 sin (t − π/6) = 80 3
2π 0
Rx
2.19 Exercises - The integral as a function of the upper limit. Indefinite integrals. Exercise 1. 0
(1 + t + t2 )dt =
x + 12 x2 + 13 x3
Exercise 2. 2y + 2y 2 + 8y 3 /3
Exercise 3. 2x + 2x2 + 8x3 /3 − (−1 + 1/2 + −1/3) = 2(x + x2 + 4x3 /3) + 5/6
R 1−x 1−x
Exercise 4. 1
(1 − 2t + 3t2 )dt = (t − t2 + t3 )1 = −2x + 2x2 − x3
Rx 1 5
x x5 x3
Exercise 5. −2
t4 + t2 = 5t + 13 t3 −2 = 5 + 3 + 40
3
R x2 x2
t5
Exercise 6. t4 + 2t2 + 1 = + 23 t3 + t = 51 (x10 − x5 ) + 23 (x6 − x3 ) + x2 − x
x 5
x
2 3/2
x
Exercise 7. 3t + t 1 = 23 (x3/2 − 1) + (x − 1)
2 3/2
x2
Exercise 8. 3t + 45 t5/4 x = 23 (x3 − x3/2 ) + 45 (x5/2 − x5/4 )
x
Exercise 9. sin t|iπ = sin x
t
x2 x2
Exercise 10. 2 + sin t 0 = 2 + sin x2
1
x2 x2 −x
Exercise 11. 2t + cos t x = 2 + cos x2 − cos x
1 3
x x3
Exercise 12. 3u + − 13 cos 3u 0 = 3 + − 13 (cos 3x − 1)
x2
1 3 cos 3v x6 −x3 −1 2
Exercise 13. 3v + = + 3 (cos 3x − cos 3x)
−3 3
x
1−cos 2x 1 sin 2x
y y sin 2y y 2
+ 12 x2 0 =
R
Exercise 14. 2 +x= 2x − 4 − +
2 4 2
34
− cos 2w
x (cos 2x − 1) x
Exercise 15. 2 + 2 sin w2 0 = − + 2 sin
2 2
Rx Rx x
Exercise 16. (1
−π 2
+cos t)2 dt = 1
−π 4
+cos t+cos2 t = 41 (x+π)+sin x+ 1
2 t+ sin 2t
2
= 3 (x+π)+sin x+ 1 sin 2x
−π 4 4
Rx 1
Rx
Exercise 17. 0
(t3 − t)dt = 3
√
2
(t − t3 )dt
√
Note that t3 − t < 0 for 0 < t ≤ 1 and t3 − t > 0 for t > 1. t − t3 < 0 for t > 2.
x
1 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 4 1 1
x − x = t − t √ = x2 − x4
4 2 3 2 4 2 6 12
1 4 2 2 √
=⇒ x − x = 0 =⇒ x = 0, x = 2
3 3
R1 R √2
0
(t3 − t)dt + 1
(t3 − t)dt “cancel” each other out.
1
Exercise 18. f (x) = x − [x] − 2 if x is not an integer; f (x) = 0 if x ∈ Z.
For any real number, x = q + r, 0 ≤ r < 1, q ∈ Z. So then
x − [x] = r
1
f (x) = r −
2
(1) To show the periodicity, consider
1 1
f (x + 1) = x + 1 − [x + 1] − = r − = f (x) sincex + 1 = q + 1 + r, [x + 1] = q + 1
2 2
1
x + 1 − [x + 1] = r −
2
Rx Rx
(2) P (x) = 0 f (t)dt = 0 (t − 12 ) = 12 x2 − 21 x because given 0 < x ≤ 1, then q = 0 for x, so we can use r = t.
To show periodicity,
Z x+1 Z 1 Z x+1 Z x Z x
P (x + 1) = f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (t)dt = 0 + f (t + 1)dt = f (t)dt = P (x)
0 0 1 0 0
Z 1 1
1 2
since f (t)dt = (x − x) = 0
0 2 0
(3) Since P itself is periodic by 1, then we can consider 0 ≤ x < 1 only. Now x − [x] = r and P (x) = 12 (r2 − r). So
P (x) = 12 ((x − [x])2 − (x − [x])).
(4)
Z 1 Z 1
(P (t) + c)dt = 0 =⇒ P (t)dt = −c
0 0
1
0 ≤ t ≤ 1 so P (t) = (t2 − t)
2
Z 1 1
1 1 3 1 2 1 −1 1
=⇒ P (t)dt = t − t = =⇒ c =
0 2 3 2 0 2 6 12
Rx
(5) Q(x) = 0
(P (t) + c)dt
Z x+1 Z 1
Z x+1
Q(x + 1) = (P (t) + c)dt =
(P (t) + c)dt + (P (t) + c)dt =
0 0 1
Z x Z x
=0+ (P (t + 1) + c)dt = (P (t) + c)dt = Q(x)
0 0
so without loss of generality, consider 0 ≤ x < 1
Z x
1 2 1 1 1 x
=⇒ Q(x) (t − t) + = x3 − x2 +
0 2 12 6 4 12
35
R 2π
Exercise 19. g(2n) = 0
f (t)dt
Consider Z 1 Z 1 Z 0 Z 1 Z 0
1
f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (−1t)dt =
−1 0 −1 0 −1 1
Z 1 Z 0
f+ f (t)dt = 0
=
0 1
R3 R1 R1
Consider that 1 f (t)dt = −1 f (t + 2)dt = −1 f (t)dt = 0. Then, by induction,
Z 2n+1 Z 2n−1 Z 2n+1 Z 1 Z 1
f= f+ f (t)dt = 0 + f (t + 2n)dt = f (t)dt = 0
1 1 2n−1 −1 −1
(1)
Z 1 Z 2n−1 Z 2n Z 1 Z 0 Z 1 Z 0
g(2n) = f+ f+ f= f+ f (t)dt = f +− f (−t)dt
0 1 2n−1 0 −1 0 1
Z 1 Z 0
= f+ f =0
0 1
(2)
Z −x Z x Z x
g(−x) = f =− f (−t)dt = f (t)dt = g(x)
0 0 0
Z x+2 Z 2 Z x+2 Z x Z x
g(x + 2) = f (t)dt = f+ f= f (t + 2)dt = f (t)dt = g(x)
0 0 2 0 0
Exercise 20.
(3)
Z x Z x−5 Z x−5 Z x−5 Z 0 Z −5
f (t)dt = f (t + 5)dt = g(t)dt = g+ g = f (x − 5) + − g(t)dt =
0 −5 −5 0 −5 0
Z 5
f (x − 5) + g(−t)dt = f (x − 5) + f (5) = −g(x) + g(0)
0
where we’ve used f (x − 5) = −g(x) in the second and third to the last step.
3.6 Exercises - Informal description of continuity, The definition of the limit of a function, The definition of continuity
of a function, The basic limit theorems. More examples of continuous functions, Proofs of the basic limit theorems.
Polynomials are continuous.
1 1 1
Exercise 1. limx→2 x2 = limx→2 x2 = 4
(x−2)(x+2)
Exercise 3. limx→2 (x−2) =4
(2x−1)(x−1)
Exercise 4. limx→1 x−1 =1
t2 +2th+h2 −t2
Exercise 5. limh→0 h = 2t
(x−a)(x+a)
Exercise 6. limx→0 (x+a)2 = −1
(x−a)(x+a)
Exercise 7. lima→0 (x+a)2 =1
(x−a)(x+a)
Exercise 8. limx→a (x+a)2 =0
limt→0 sin t 0
Exercise 9. limt→0 tan t = limx→0 cos t = 1 =0
Exercise 10. limt→0 (sin 2t + t2 cos 5t) = limt→0 sin 2t + limt→0 t2 limt→0 cos 5t = 0 + 0 = 0
|x|
Exercise 11. limx→0+ x =1
|x|
Exercise 12. limx→0− x = −1
√
x2
Exercise 13. limx→0+ x = +1
√
x2
Exercise 14. limx→0− x = −1
2 sin x cos x
Exercise 15. limx→0 x =2
2 sin x cos x
Exercise 16. limx→0 cos 2x sin x =2
5 sin 5x 3 sin 3x
limx→0 5x − limx→0 3x = 5 − 3 = 2 Exercise 19.
37
x+a x−a
− sin x+a x−a
sin 2 + 2 −2 2
lim =
x→0 x−a
!
sin x+a
2 cos x−a
2 + sin x−a
2 cos x+a
2 − sin x+a
2 cos x−a
2 − sin x−a
2 cos x+a
2
= lim =
x→0 x−a
2 sin x−a x+a
2 cos 2
= lim = cos a
x→a x−a
2 sin2 x/2 1 sin x/2
Exercise 20. limx→0 4(x/2)2 = 2 limx→0 x/2 = 12
√ √ 1
1− 1−x2 1+√1−x2 1−(1−x2 )
Exercise 21. limx→0 x2 2
= limx→0 √ =
1+ 1−x x2 (1+ 1−x2 ) 2
Exercise 26.
Exercise 29.
3.11 Exercises - Bolzano’s theorem for continuous functions, The intermediate-value theorem for continuous func-
tions. These theorems form the foundation for continuity and will be valuable for differentiation later.
Theorem 10 (Bolzano’s Theorem).
Let f be cont. at ∀x ∈ [a, b].
Assume f (a), f (b) have opposite signs.
Then ∃ at least one c ∈ (a, b) s.t. f (c) = 0.
Proof. Let f (a) < 0, f (b) > 0.
Want: Fine one value c ∈ (a, b) s.t. f (c) = 0
Strategy: find the largest c.
Let S = { all x ∈ [a, b] s.t. f (x) ≤ 0 }.
S is nonempty since f (a) < 0. S is bounded since all S ⊆ [a, b].
=⇒ S has a suprenum.
Let c = supS.
If f (c) > 0, ∃(c − δ, c + δ) s.t. f > 0
c − δ is an upper bound on S
but c is a least upper bound on S. Contradiction.
If f (c) < 0, ∃(c − δ, c + δ) s.t. f < 0
c + δ is an upper bound on S
but c is an upper bound on S. Contradiction.
ck xk ck Pn−1
Since limx→∞ ck−1 xk−1
= limx→∞ ck−1 x = ∞ ∃M > 0 such that |cn M n | > | k=0 ck M k . So then
n−1
X
f (M ) = cn M n + ck M k ≶ cn
k=0
Exercise 2. Try alot of values systematically. I also cheated by taking the derivatives and feeling out where the function
changed direction.
(1) If P (x) = 3x4 − 2x3 − 36x2 + 36x − 8, P (−4) = 168, P (−3) = −143, P (0) = −8, P ( 12 ) = 15 16 , P (1) = −7,
P (−3) = −35, P (4) = 200
(2) If P (x) = 2x4 − 14x2 + 14x − 1, P (−4) = 231, P (−3) = −7, P (0) = −1, P ( 21 ) = 18 , P ( 23 ) = − 11 8 , P (2) = 2
(3) If P (x) = x4 + 4x3 + x2 − 6x + 2, P (−3) = 2, P (− 52 ) = − 16
3
, P (−2) = 2, P ( 13 ) = 22
81 , P ( 1
2 ) = 3
− 16 , P ( 32 ) =
14
− 81 , P (1) = 2.
Exercise 5. Consider g(x) = f (x) − x. Then g(x) is continuous on [0, 1] since f is.
Since 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 for each x ∈ [0, 1], consider g(1) = f (1) − 1, so that −1 ≤ g(1) ≤ 0. Likewise 0 ≤ g(0) ≤ 1.
If g(1) = 0 or g(0) = 0, we’re done (g(0) = f (0) − 0 = 0. f (0) = 0. Or g(1) = f (1) − 1 = 0, f (1) = 1 ).
Otherwise, if −1 ≤ g(1) < 0 and 0 < g(0) ≤ 1, then by Bolzano’s theorem, ∃ at least one c such that
g(c) = 0 (g(c) = f (c) − c = 0. f (c) = c).
Exercise 3. D = R, g(y) = 1 − y
Exercise 5. D = R,
y
if y < 1
√
g(y) = y if 1 ≤ y ≤ 16
y 2
8 if y > 16
Pn Pn
Exercise 6. f (Mf ) = f (f −1 1 1
n i=1 f (ai ) ) = n i=1 f (ai )
1
Pn
Exercise 7. f (a1 ) ≶ n i=1 f (ai ) ≶ f (an ). Since f is strictly monotonic.
g preserves monotonicity.
=⇒ a1 ≶ Mf ≶ an
n
! n
! n
!
1X 1X 1X
Mh = H h(ai ) = H (af (ai ) + b) = H a f (ai ) + b
n i=1 n i=1 n i=1
h−b
= H(h) = h−1 . So then
The inverse for h is g a
n
!
1X
Mh = g f (ai ) = Mf
n i=1
The average is invariant under translation and expansion in ordinate values.
3.20 Exercises - The extreme-value theorem for continuous functions, The small-span theorem for continuous func-
tions (uniform continuity), The integrability theorem for continuous functions.
Exercise 1.
1 1
g = x9 > 0 for x ∈ [0, 1]; f = √ m = √ ,M = 1
1+x 2
Z 1 1
1 10 1
x9 = x =
0 10 0 10
Z 1 9
1 x 1
√ ≤ √ dx ≤
10 2 0 1 + x 10
Exercise 2.
p 1 − x2 1 2
1 − x2 = √ .f = √ g = (1 − x2 ) M = √ , m = 1
1−x 2 1−x 2 3
Z 1/2 1/2
1 11
(1 − x2 )dx = (x − x3 )
=
0 3 0 24
Z 1/2 p r
11 11 4
≤ 1 − x2 dx ≤
24 0 24 3
Exercise 3.
42
a a
a3 a5
Z
1 1 1
g = 1 − x2 + x4 1 − x2 + x4 = x − x3 + x5 = a −
f= +
1 + x6 0 3 5 0 3 5
1
m= M =1
1 + a6
a
a3 a5 a3 a5
Z
1 1
a− + ≤ dx ≤ a − +
1 + a6 3 5 0 1+x
2 3 5
1 3 5 3 5
So if a = 10 , (a − a /3 + a /5) = a − 0.333 . . . a + 0.2a = 0.099669
Exercise 4. (b) is wrong, since it had chosen g = sin t, but g needed to be nonnegative.
4.6 Exercises - Historical introduction, A problem involving velocity, The derivative of a function, Examples of deriva-
tives, The algebra of derivatives. Exercise 1. f 0 = 1 − 2x, f 0 (0) = 1, f 0 (1/2) = 0, f 0 (1) = −1, f 0 (10) = −19
Exercise 2. f 0 = x2 + x − 2
(1) f 0 = 0, x = 1, −2
(2) f 0 (x) = −2, x = 0, −1
(3) f 0 = 10, x = −4, 3
Exercise 3. f 0 = 2x + 3
−1
Exercise 7. f 0 = (x2 +1)2 (2x) + 5x4 cos x + x5 (− sin x)
x−1−(x) −1
Exercise 8. f 0 = (x−1)2 = (x−1)2
43
−1
Exercise 9. f 0 = (2+cos x)2 (− sin x) = sin x
(2+cos x)2
Exercise 10.
Exercise 11.
Exercise 12.
Exercise 13.
(1)
f (t + h) − f (t) v0 h − 32th − 16h2
= = v0 + 32t − 16h
h h
f 0 (t) = v0 − 32t
v0
(2) t = 32
(3) −v0
v0 v0
(4) T = 16 , v0 = 16 for 1sec. v0 = 160 for 10sec. 16 for T sec.
00
(5) f = −32
(6) h = −20t2
dV
Exercise 14. V = s3 , dS = 3s2
Exercise 15.
dA
(1) dr = 2πr = C
dV
(2) dr = 4πr2 = A
Exercise 16. f 0 = 1
√
2 x
−1
Exercise 17. f 0 = √
(1+ x)2
1
√
2 x
−3 −5/2
Exercise 19. 2 x
1 −1/2 √
2x (1+x)− x
Exercise 22. f 0 = (1+x)2 = √ 1
2 x(1+x)2
√ √
(1+ x)−x 21 √1 1+ 21 x
Exercise 23. f 0 = √
(1+ x)2
x
= √ 2
(1+ x)
Exercise 24.
44
g = f1 f2
g0 f0 f0
g 0 = f10 f2 + f1 f20 = 1+ 2
g f1 f2
g = f1 f2 . . . fn fn+1
g 0 = (f1 f2 . . . fn )0 fn+1 + (f1 f2 . . . fn )fn+1
0
;
g0 (f1 f2 . . . fn )0 f0
= + n+1
g f1 f2 . . . fn fn+1
f 0
f 0
f0 f0
= 1 + 2 + · · · + n + n+1
f1 f2 fn fn+1
Exercise 25.
cos x 0 cos2 x − (− sin x) sin x
(tan x)0 = = = sec2 x
sin x cos2 x
cos x 0 − sin x sin x − cos x cos x
(cot x)0 = = = − csc2 x
sin x sin2 x
−1
(sec x)0 = (− sin x) = tan x sec x
cos2 x
−1
(csc x)0 = cos x = − cot x csc x
sin2 x
Exercise 35.
(2ax + b)(sin x + cos x) − (cos x − sin x)(ax2 + bx + c)
f0 = =
(sin x + cos x)2
(2ax + b)(sin x + cos x) − (cos x − sin x)(ax2 + bx + c)
=
(sin x + cos x)2
Exercise 36.
f 0 = a sin x + (ax + b) cos x + c cos x + (cx + d)(− sin x) = ax cos x + (b + c) cos x + (a − d) sin x − cx sin x
So then a = 1, d = 1, b = d, c = 0.
Exercise 37.
(1)
(n + 1)xn (x − 1) − (1)(xn+1 − 1)
(1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn )0 = 1 + 2x + · · · + nxn−1 =
(x − 1)2
(n + 1)(xn+1 − xn ) − xn+1 + 1 nxn+1 − (n1 )xn + 1
= 2
=
(x − 1) (x − 1)2
nxn+2 − (n + 1)xn+1 + x
x(1 + 2x + · · · + nxn−1 ) = x + 2x2 + · · · + nxn =
(x − 1)2
(2)
(x + 2x2 + · · · + nxn )0 = (1 + 22 x1 + · · · + n2 xn−1 ) =
(n(n + 2)xn+1 − (n + 1)2 xn + 1)(x − 1)2 − 2(x − 1)(nxn+2 − (n + 1)xn+1 + x)
=
(x − 1)4
(n(n + 2)xn+2 − (n + 1)2 xn+1 + x)(x − 1) − 2(nxn+3 − (n + 1)xn+2 + x2 )
x + 2 2 x2 + · · · + n2 xn = =
(x − 1)3
n2 xn+3 + (−2n2 − 2n + 1)xn+2 + (n + 1)2 xn+1 − x2 − x
=
(x − 1)3
45
Exercise 39.
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)n − xn
=
h h
n
X n n−j j
(x + h)n = x h
j=0
j
Pn n n−j j
n
(x + h)n − xn j=1 j x h
X n
= = xn−j hj−1
h h j=1
j
(x + h)n − xn
n n−1
lim = x = nxn−1
h→0 h 1
4.9 Exercises - Geometric interpretation of the derivative as a slope, Other notations for derivatives. Exercise 6.
(1)
f = x2 + ax + b f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) x2 − x21 + a(x2 − x1 )
= 2
f (x1 ) = x21 + ax1 + b x2 − x1 x2 − x1
f (x2 ) = x22 + ax2 + b = x2 + x1 + a
(2)
f 0 = 2x + a
x2 + x1
m = x2 + x1 + a = 2x + a x =
2
f 0 (−1) = −2 =⇒ y = −2x − 2
For the other line,
f 0 (a) = 1 − 3a2
=⇒ y(−1) = 0 = (1 − 3a2 )(−1) + b =⇒ b = 1 − 3a2
Now f (a) = a(1 − a2 ) = a − a3 at this point. The line and the curve must meet at this point.
y(a) = (1 − 3a2 )a + (1 − 3a2 ) =
= a − 3a3 + 1 − 3a2 = a − a3
1 3
=⇒ −2a3 + 1 − 3a2 = 0 = a3 − + a2
2 2
The answer could probably be guessed at, but let’s review some tricks for solving cubics.
First, do a translation in the x direction to center the origin on the point of inflection. Find the point of inflection by taking
the second derivative.
1
f 00 = 6a + 3 =⇒ a = −
2
So
1
a=x−
2
1 3 3 1 2 1 3 1
=⇒ (x − ) + (x − ) − = x3 = x − = 0
2 2 2 2 4 4
46
Then recall this neat trigonometric fact:
cos 3x = cos 2x cos x − sin 2x sin x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
3 cos 3x
=⇒ cos3 x = cos x − =0
4 4
Particularly for this problem, we have cos 3x = 1. So x = 0, 2π/3, 4π/3. cos x = 1, − 21 . Plugging cos x → x back into
what we have for a, a = −1, which we already have in the previous part, and a = 12 . So
1 3
f =
2 8
1 1
y(x) = x +
4 4
Exercise 9.
(
x2 if x ≤ c
f (x) =
ax + b if x > c
(
2x if x ≤ c
f 0 (x) =
a if x > c
a = 2c; b = −c2
Exercise 10.
(
1
|x| if |x| > c
f (x) = 2
a + bx if |x| ≤ c
Note that c ≮ 0 since |x| ≤ c, for the second condition.
1
− x 2
if x > c
0 1
f (x) = if x < c
x2
2bx if |x| ≤ c
1 3
So b = − 3
,a= .
2c 2c
Exercise 11.
(
0 cos x if x ≤ c
f =
a if a > c
√
1−√2 1−A
Exercise 12. f (x) = = 1+A
1+ 2
√ 1 −1/2 1 1 1
A= x A0 = a = x = ; A00 = − x−3/2 = − 3
2 2A 4 4A
−A0 (1 + A) − A0 (1 − A) −2A0 −1
f0 = = =√ √
(1 + A)2 (1 + A)2 x(1 + x)2
√
1 3 x+1
f 00 = 0 2 0
(A (1 + A) + A(2)(1 + A)A ) = 3/2 √
(A(1 + A2 ))2 2x (1 + x)3
−1 0 2
000 1 A2 A (A (1 + A)3 ) − (2AA0 (1 + A)3 + 3A2 (1 + A)2 A0 )(3 + 1
A)
f =
2 (A2 (1 + A)3 )2
1 √
−3 A + 4 + 5A 3 (1 + 4 x + 5x)
= = − √ √
4 A4 (1 + A4 ) 4 x(x + x)4
Exercise 13.
47
P = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
P 00 (0) = 2b = 10 =⇒ b = 5
P 0 = 3ax2 + 2bx + c
P 0 (0) = c = −1 P (0) = d = −2
P 00 = 6ax + 2b
P (1) = a + 5 + −1 + −2 = a + 2 = −2 =⇒ a = −4
Exercise 14.
f0 f0 g0 1
f g = 2, = 2 = 4 = 2f = , g = 4
g0 g g 2
(1)
f 0 g − g0 f f0 g0 f 1 15
h0 = 2
= − = 4 − 2( ) =
g g g g 8 4
(2)
k 0 = f 0 g + f g 0 = 4g 2 + f 2g = 64 + 4 = 68
(3)
g 0 (x) limx→0 g 0 (x) 1
lim = =
x→0 f 0 (x) 0
limx→0 f (x) 2
Exercise 15.
Exercise 16.
(1)
(f (x + h) + g(x + h))2 − (f (x) + g(x))2 (F + G)2 − (f + g)2
D∗ (f + g) = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
2F G − 2f g
= D∗ f + D∗ g + lim
h→0 h
2F G − 2f g (2(F G) − 2f G)(F + f ) (2f G − 2f g)(G + g)
lim = lim + =
h→0 h h→0 (F + f )h (g + G)h
2g F2 − f2 2f G2 − g 2
= lim lim + lim lim =
h→0 F + h h→0 h h→0 G + g h→0 h
g f
= D∗ f + D∗ g
f g
48
(f (x + h) − g(x + h))2 − (f (x) − g(x))2
D∗ (f − g) = lim =
h→0 h
(F − G)2 − (f − g)2
= lim =
h→0 h
2F G − 2f g
= D∗ f + D∗ g + − lim
h→0 h
∗ ∗ g ∗ f ∗
=D f +D g− D f + D g
f g
((f g)(x + h))2 − ((f g)(x))2
D∗ (f g) = lim =
h→0 h
(f 2 (x + h))(g 2 (x + h)) − f 2 (x)g 2 (x + h) + (g 2 (x + h) − g 2 (x))f 2 (x)
= lim =
h→0 h
= g2 D∗ f + f 2 D∗ g
f 2 (x+h) f 2 (x) f 2 (x+h)−f 2 (x) f 2 (x) f 2 (x)
g 2 (x+h) − g 2 (x) g 2 (x+h) + g 2 (x+h) − g 2 (x)
D∗ (f /g) = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
∗
D f f2
= 2
+ 4 (−D∗ g) when g(x) 6= 0
g g
(2)
(3)
4.12 Exercises - The chain rule for differentiating composite functions, Applications of the chain rule. Related rates
and implicit differentiation. Exercise 1. −2 sin 2x − 2 cos x
Exercise 2. √ x
1+x2
Exercise 4.
f 0 = cos (cos2 x)(−2 cos x sin x) cos (sin2 x) + sin (cos2 x) sin (sin2 x)(2 sin x cos x) =
= − sin 2x(cos (cos 2x))
Exercise 5.
f 0 = n sinn−1 x cos x cos nx + −n sin nx sinn x
Exercise 6.
f 0 = cos (sin (sin x))(cos (sin x))(cos x)
Exercise 7.
2 sin x cos x sin x2 − 2x cos x2 sin2 x sin 2x sin x2 − 2x sin2 x cos x2
f0 = 2 2 =
sin x sin2 x2
Exercise 8. f 0 = 1
2 sec2 x
2 + 1
2 csc2 x
2
Exercise 11. f 0 = 4
(4−x2 )3/2
Exercise 12.
−2/3 −2/3
1 + x3 3x2 (2) 2x2 1 + x3
1
f0 = =
3 1 − x3 (1 − x3 )2 (1 − x3 )2 1 − x3
Exercise 13. This exercise is important. It shows a neat integration trick.
49
√ !
1 1 x − 1 + x2
f (x) = √ √ =√ √ √ =
2
1 + x (x + 1 + x ) 2 1 + x (x + 1 + x2 )
2 x − 1 + x2
√
x − 1 + x2 x
= √ =1− √
− 1+x 2 1 + x2
√ x2
1 + x2 − √1+x 2 1
0
f = 2
=
1+x (1 + x2 )3/2
Exercise 14.
√ √
1 1 1
q
(x + x+ x)−1/2 (1 + (x + x)−1/2 1 + √ )
2 2 2 x
Exercise 15.
Exercise 16.
f0
0 −1 −1 1 −1 −1
f = = g0 = f0 =
1 2
2
x2 (x + 1)2 f2 (f + 1)2
1+ x 1 + f1
(x + 1)−2 1
g0 = 2 =
x (2x + 1)2
x+1 + 1
Exercise 17. h0 = f 0 g 0
x h h0 k k0
0 f (2) = 0 2(−5) = −10 g(1) = 0 1(5) = 5
1 f (0) = 1 5(1) = 5 g(3) = 1 −6(−2) = 12
2 f (3) = 2 4(1) = 4 g(0) = 2 −5(2) = −10
3 f (1) = 3 −2(−6) = 12 g(2) = 3 1(4) = 4
Exercise 18.
g(x) = xf (x2 )
g 0 (x) = f (x2 ) + x(2x)f 0 (x2 ) = f (x2 ) + 2x2 f 0 (x2 )
g 00 (x) = 2xf 0 (x2 ) + 4xf 0 (x2 ) + 2x2 (2x)f 00 (x2 ) = 6xf 0 (x2 ) + 4x3 f 00 (x2 )
x g(x) g 0 (x) g 00 (x)
0 0 0 0
1 1 3 10
2 12 6 + 8(3) = 30 12(3) + 32(0) = 36
Exercise 19.
(1)
df (x2 )
g0 = 2x = 2xf 0
dx2
(2)
g 0 = 2 sin x cos xf 0 − 2 cos x sin xf 0 = (sin 2x)(f 0 (sin2 x) − f 0 (cos2 x))
(3)
df (f (x)) 0
g0 = f
d(f (x))
(4)
df (f (f (x))) d(f (f (x))) df
g0 =
d(f (f (x))) d(f (x)) dx
50
dV
Exercise 20. V = s3 , s = s(t) dt = 3s2 ds
dt .
r 2 1 1
= = α, V = πr2 h = πα2 h3
h 5 3 3
(1)
πr2 2 1
(h y − hy 2 + y 3 )
V =
h2 3
dV πr2 dy
= 2 (h2 − 2hy + y 2 )
dt h dt
h2 102
dy 1 dV 1 5
= 2 2 2
= 2 2
5=
dt πr h − 2hy + y dt π4 10 − 2(10)5 + 25 4π
(2)
dV dh dh 1 dV 5
= πα2 h2 , = =
dt dt dt πα2 h2 dt 4π
Exercise 25.
r 3
α= =
h 2
dV 2 2 dh
= πα h
dt dt
9
c − 1π (22 )4 = 36π =⇒ c = 36π + 1
4
Exercise 26. The constraint equation, using Pythagorean theorem on the geometry of a bottom hemisphere, is
r2 = R2 − (R − h)2 = 2Rh − h2
So then
dr dh
= (R − h)
r
Z dt dt
2 dV
V = πr dh =⇒ = πr = π(2Rh − h2 )
2
dh
dV
=⇒ = π(2(10(5) − 25)) = 50π
dh
51
dV dV dh dh dV 1
= , =⇒ =
dt dh dt dt dt π(2Rh − h2 )
r dr dV 1
=
R − h dt dt π(2Rh − h2 )
dr dV R−h
= =
dt dt rπ(2Rh − h2 )
=⇒
√
10 − 5 1
= (5 3) 3/2
=
π(2(10)5 − 25) 15π
Now the point on vertex B moves up along the y axis according to y = 1 + 2t. y 27 = 8.
r
1 36
A= (y − 1) y
2 7
r r !
dA 1 36 1 1 36 dy
= √ y + (y − 1) =
dt 2 y 2 y−1 7 dt
1 6 66
= 8 + 6 (2) =
2 2(7) 7
πR2
Exercise 28. From the given information, h = 3r + 3. The volume formula is V = 3 H. So then
Exercise 29.
dy 1 dy
(1) = 2x dx
dt
1
dt ; when x = 2 , y = 4 , dt =
dx
dt
π
(2) t =
6
Exercise 30.
(1) 3x2 + 3y 2 y 0 = 0 =⇒ x2 + y 2 y 0 = 0
(2)
2x + 2yy 02 + y 2 y 00 = 0 =⇒ y 2 y 00 = −2(x + yy 02 )
4
xy + yx4
00
=⇒ y = −2 = −2xy −5
y6
Exercise 31.
√
1 1 1 0 0 − y
√ + √ y = 0y = √ < 0
2 x 2 y x
Exercise 32.
r
12 − 3x2
±
4
52
−3x
6x + 8yy 0 = 0 =⇒ y 0 =
4y
3 + 4(y 02 + yy 00 ) = 0
00 3 02 1 −9
y = − −y = 3
4 y 4y
Exercise 33.
sin xy + x cos2 xy(y + xy 0 ) + 4x = 0
y 0 x2 cos xy + xy cos xy + sin xy + 4x = 0
Exercise 34. y = x4 . y n = xm .
mxm−1 m xm−1
y n = xm , y 0 ny n−1 = mxm−1 ; y 0 = = =
ny n−1 n xm(1−1/n)
m m/n−1
y0 =
x
n
4.15 Exercises - Applications of differentiation to extreme values of functions, The mean-value theorem for derivatives.
Let’s recap what was shown in the past two sections:
Theorem 13 (Theorem 4.3).
Let f be defined on I.
Assume f has a rel. extrema at an int. pt. c ∈ I.
If ∃ f 0 (c), f 0 (c) = 0; the converse is not true.
Proof. Q(x) = f (x)−f
x−c
(c)
if x 6= c, Q(c) = f 0 (c)
0
∃f (c), so Q(x) → Q(c) as x → c so Q is continuous at c.
If Q(c) > 0, f (x)−fx−c
(c)
> 0. For x − c ≷ 0, f (x) ≷ f (c), thus contradicting the rel. max or rel. min. (no neighborhood
about c exists for one!)
If Q(c) < 0, f (x)−fx−c
(c)
< 0. For x − c ≷ 0, f (x) ≶ f (c), thus contradicting the rel. max or rel. min. (no neighborhood
about c exists for one!)
Converse is not true: e.g. saddle points.
Theorem 14 (Rolle’s Theorem).
Let f be cont. on [a, b], ∃f 0 (x) ∀x ∈ (a, b) and let
f (a) = f (b)
0
then ∃ at least one c ∈ (a, b), such that f (c) = 0.
Proof. Suppose f 0 (x) 6= 0 ∀x ∈ (a, b).
By extreme value theorem, ∃ abs. max (min) M, m somewhere on [a, b].
M, m on endpoints a, b (Thm 4.3).
F (a) = f (b), so m = M . f constant on [a, b]. Contradict f 0 (x) 6= 0
Theorem 15 (Mean-value theorem for Derivatives). Assume f is cont. everywhere on [a, b], ∃f 0 (x) ∀x ∈ (a, b).
∃ at least one c ∈ (a, b) such that
(6) f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a)
Proof.
h(x) = f (x)(b − a) − x(f (b) − f (a))
h(a) = f (a)b − f (a)a − af (b) + af (a)
h(b) = f (b)(b − a) − b(f (b) − f (a)) = bf (a) − af (b) = h(a)
=⇒ ∃c ∈ (a, b), such that h0 (c) = 0 = f 0 (c)(b − a) − (f (b) − f (a))
Theorem 16 (Cauchy’s Mean-Value Formula). Let f, g cont. on [a, b], ∃f 0 , g 0 ∀x ∈ (a, b)
Then ∃ c ∈ (a, b). x
(7) f 0 (c)(g(b) − g(a)) = g 0 (c)(f (b) − f (a)) (note how it’s symmetrical)
53
Proof.
h(x) = f (x)(g(b) − g(a)) − g(x)(f (b) − f (a))
h(a) = f (a)(g(b) − g(a)) − g(a)(f (b) − f (a)) = f (a)g(b) − g(a)f (b)
h(b) = f (b)(g(b) − g(a)) − g(b)(f (b) − f (a))
=⇒ h0 (c) = f 0 (c)(g(b) − g(a)) − g 0 (c)(f (b) − f (a)) = 0 (by Rolle’s Thm.)
y(a) = Aa2 + Ba + C
y(b) = Ab2 + Bb + C
y(b) − y(a) A(b − a)(b + a) + B(b − a)
= = A(b + a) + B
b−a b−a
y 0 = 2Ax + B
a+b
y0 = A(a + b) + B
2
Thus the chord joining a and b has the same slope as the tangent line at the midpt.
Exercise 2. The contrapositive of a theorem is always true. So the contrapositive of Rolle’s Theorem is
If @ at least one c ∈ (a, b) s.t. f 0 (c) = 0,
then f (a) 6= f (b).
3−x2 1
Exercise 3. f (x) = 2 if x ≤ 1, f (x) = x if x ≥ 1.
(1) See sketch.
(2) (
3−x2
2 if x ≤ 1
f (x) = f (1) = 1 = f (1) = 1/1
1/x if x ≥ 1
(
−x; f 0 (1) = −1 for x ≤ 1
f 0 (x) =
−1/x2 ; f 0 (1) = −1 for x > 1
Then f (x) is cont. and diff. on [0, 2].
For 0 ≤ a < b ≤ 1
3−b2 3−a2
2 − −(a + b)
2
= = −c
b−a 2
0
Note that −1 ≤ f ≤ 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
For 1 ≤ a < b ≤ 2
1
− a1 −1 −1 √
b
= = 2 =⇒ c = ab
b−a ab c
Note that −1 ≤ f 0 ≤ −1/4
For 0 ≤ a ≤ 1 , 1≤b≤2
1 3−a2
b − 2 − (3 − a2 )b
2 −1
= = −c or 2
b−a 2b(b − a) c
depending upon if 0 ≤ c ≤ 1 or 1 ≤ c ≤ 2, respectively
54
f (b)−f (a) √
For instance, for a = 0, b = 2, then b−a = −1/2, so c = 1/2 or c = 2
Exercise 4.
f (1) = 1 − 12/3 = 0 = f (−1) = 1 − ((−1)2 )3 = 0
−2 −1/3
f0 = x 6= 0 for |x| ≤ 1
3
This is possible since f is not differentiable at x = 0.
Exercise 5. x2 = x sin x + cos x. g = xS + C − x2 . g 0 = S + xC − S − 2x = xC − 2x = x(C − 2). Since |C| ≤ 1 then
(C − 2) is negative for all x. Then for x ≷ 0, g 0 ≶ 0. Since g(0) = 1 and for x → ±∞, g → ∓∞, then we could conclude
that g must become zero between 0 and ∞ and −∞ and 0.
Exercise 6.
f (b) − f (a)
= f 0 (c)
b−a
b=x+h
b−a=h
=⇒ f (x + h) − f (x) = hf 0 (x + θh)
a=x
x < x + θh < x + h
2 0
(1) f (x) = x , f = 2x.
(x + h)2 − x2 = 2xh + h2 = h(2(x + θh))
2x + h 1 1
− x = θh =⇒ θ = so then lim θ =
2 2 h→0 2
(2) f (x) = x3 , f 0 = 3x2 .
! r
3 3 2 2 3 3x2 + 3xh + h2 2
(x + h) − x = 3x h + 3xh + h = h3(x + θh) =⇒ − x /h = θ
3
q q
2 + xh + h2 − x 2
x2 + xh + h3 + x
r
2
3x + 3xh + h 2 x x 3
θ= − = q =
3h2 h h 2
x2 + xh + h3 + x
h
x+ 3
= q
h2
x+ x2 + hx + 3
1
=⇒ lim θ =
2h→0
Notice the trick of multiplying by the conjugate on top and bottom to get a way to evaluate the limit.
Exercise 7. f (x) = (x − a1 )(x − a2 ) . . . (x − ar )g(x).
(1)
sin x − sin y sin x − sin y
= | cos c| ≤ 1
= cos c =⇒
x−y x−y
=⇒ | sin x − sin y| ≤ |x − y|
(2) x ≥ y > 0.
f (z) = z n is monotonically increasing for n ∈ Z.
By mean-value theorem,
xn − y n
= ncn−1 for y < c < x
x−y
xn −y n
Since 0 < y < c < x; ny n−1 ≤ x−y ≤ nxn−1 .
f (b)−f (a) bf (a)−af (b)
Exercise 9. Let g(x) = b−a x+ b−a .
h(a) = h(c)
f −g =h
h(c) = h(b)
so ∃c1 ∈ (a, c), c2 ∈ (c, b) s. t. h (c1 ) = h0 (c2 ) = 0 by Rolle’s Thm.
0
Let h0 = H
since H(c1 ) = H(c2 ) = 0 and H is cont. diff. on (c1 , c2 ). then
∃c3 ∈ (c1 , c2 ) s.t. H 0 (c3 ) = h00 (c3 ) = 0
Now h00 = (f − g)00 = f 00 so f 00 (c3 ) = 0
We’ve shown one exists; that’s enough.
Exercise 10. Assume f has a derivative everywhere on an open interval I.
f (x) − f (a)
g(x) = if x 6= a; g(a) = f 0 (a)
x−a
(1) g = 1
x−a f− 1
x−a f (a). f is cont. on (a, b] since ∃ f 0 ∀x ∈ (a, b).
1
x−a is cont. on (a, b]. Then g is cont. on (a, b] (remember, you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide cont. functions
to get cont. functions because the rules for taking limits allow so).
g is cont. at a since limx→a g = limx→a f (x)−f x−a
(a)
= f 0 (a).
h is cont. on [a, b] → h takes all values from h(a) to f 0 (b) on [a, b] (by intermediate value theorem).
Exercise 1. f (x) = x2 − 3x + 2
(1) f 0 (x) = 2x − 3 x0 = 32 .
(2) f 0 (x) ≷ 0 for x ≷ 23
(3) f 00 = 2 > 0 for ∀ x ∈ R
(4) See sketch.
Exercise 2. f (x) = x3 − 4x
(1) f 0 = −2 0
x3 f (x) = 0 for no x
0
(2) f ≷ 0 when x ≶ 0
(3) f 00 = x64 > 0 ∀x 6= 0
(4) See sketch.
Exercise 7. f (x) = x + 1/x2
−2
(1) f 0 = 1 + x3 f 0 (x) = 0 = 1 − 2
x3 =⇒ xc = 21/3
(2)
f 0 (x) > 0 when x < 0, 0 < x < 21/3
f 0 (x) < 0 when x > 21/3
(3) f 00 = x64 > 0 ∀x 6= 0
(4) See sketch.
1
Exercise 8. f (x) = (x−1)(x−3)
(−2)(x−2)
(1) f 0 = (x−1)−1
2 (x−3)2 ((x − 3) + x − 1) = (x−1)2 (x−3)2
0
f (x) = 0 when x = 2
(2) f 0 ≷ 0 when x ≶ 2
57
(3)
(x − 1)2 (x − 3)2 − (x − 2)(2(x − 1)(x − 3)2 + 2(x − 3)(x − 1)2 )
00
f = (−2) =
(x − 1)4 (x − 3)4
2 13
x − 4x + 3
= (6)
(x − 1)3 (x − 3)3
13
x2 − 4x + > 0 since 144 − 4(−3)(−13) = 144 + 12(−13) < 0 so
3
f 00 > 0 if x > 3, x < 1
f 00 < 0 if 1 < x < 3
(4) See sketch.
Exercise 9. f (x) = x/(1 + x2 )
(1)
(1 + x2 ) − x(2x) 1 − x2
f0 = 2 2
=
(1 + x ) (1 + x2 )2
f 0 (x) = 0 when x = ±1
(2) f 0 ≷ 0 when |x| ≶ 1
(3)
−2x(1 + x2 )2 − 2(1 + x2 )(2x)(1 − x2 ) 2x(x2 − 3)
f 00 = =
(1 + x2 )4 (1 + x2 )3
√
f 00 > 0 when x > 3
√
f 00 < 0 when 0 < x < 3
√
f 00 > 0 when − 3 < x < 0
√
f 00 < 0 when x < − 3
(4) See sketch.
Exercise 10. f (x) = (x2 − 4)/(x2 − 9)
(1)
2x(x2 − 9) − (x2 − 4)(2x) −10x
f0 = = 2
(x2 − 9)2 (x − 9)2
f 0 (0) = 0
(2) f 0 ≷ 0 when x ≶ 0, x 6= ±3
(3)
(x2 − 9)2 − 2(x2 − 9)(2x)x (x2 + 3)
f 00 = (−10) = (30)
(x2 − 9)2 (x2 − 9)3
f 00 ≷ 0 when |x| ≷ 3
(4) See the sketch.
Exercise 11. f (x) = sin2 x
(1) f 0 = 1 − sin x x= π
2 + 2πn f 0 (x) = 0
(2) f 0 > 0 if x 6= π2 + 2πn
(3)
−π π
f 00 > 0 when+ 2πn < x < + 2πn
00
f = − cos x 2 2
00 π 3π
f < 0 when + 2πn < x < + 2πn
2 2
(4) See sketch.
1 2 1
Exercise 14. f (x) = 6x + 12 cos 2x
(1) f 0 = 31 x + − sin6
2x
f 0 (0) = 0
0
(2) f ≷ 0 when x ≷ 0
(3) f 00 = 13 − cos32x = 1−cos
3
2x
A = xy
A
P = 2(x + y) = 2(x + )
x
A
P 0 = 2(1 − 2
)=0
x√
x= A
4A √
P 00 = 3 > 0 for x > 0 so x = A minimizes P
x
Exercise 2.
A = xy L = 2x + y
dA L L
A = x(L − 2x) = Lx − 2x2 =⇒ = L − 4x = 0 when x = y=
dx 4 2
00 L
A = −4 so x = maximizes A
4
Exercise 3.
√
A dL −A A √ √
A = xy L = 2x + y = 2x + = 2 + 2 = 0 when x = √ y= 2 A
x dx x 2
r
2A A
L00 = 3 > 0 for x = so x minimizes L
x 2
Exercise 4. f = x2 + y 2 = x2 + (S − x)2
f 0 = 2x + 2(S − x)(−1) = −2S + 4x =⇒ x = S
2
f 00 = 4 > 0 so x = S2 minimizes f
Exercise 5. x2 + y 2 = R > 0
59
f =x+y
−x
f 0 = 1 + y0 = 0 = 1 + =0 =⇒ y = x
y
−1 − y 02
f 00 = y 00 = for y > 0, f 00 < 0 so that f is max. when y = x
y
2x + 2yy 0 = 0
−x
Note that y0 = 1 + y 02 + yy 00 = 0 =⇒ yy 00 = −1 − y 02
y
x + yy 0 = 0
Exercise 6.
Exercise 7.
p
(x + L2 − x2 )2 = A
p −x L
A0 = 2(x + L2 − x2 )(1 + √ ) = 0 when L2 − x2 = x2 or x = √
L2 − x2 2
r
L L2 2L
so then the side of the circumscribing and area-maximized square is √ + L2 − =√
2 2 2
Exercise 8.
p p
A = (2x)(2 R2 − x2 ) = 4x R2 − x2
−x2
2
R − 2x2
p R
A0 = 4( R2 − x2 + √ )=4 √ =⇒ x = √
R 2 − x2 R 2 − x2 2
R R
since A0 ≷ 0 when x ≶ √ , so A is maximized at x = √
2 2
2R
√ 2R
2x = √
2
; 2 R 2 − x2 = √
2
so then the rectangle that has maximum size is a square.
Exercise 9. Prove that among all rectangles of a given area, the square has the smallest circumscribed circle.
√ √
A0 = (2x)(2 r2 − x2 ) = 4x r2 − x2 (fix the area to be A0 )
A0 2
A2
4x = r2 − x2 =⇒ x4 − x2 r2 + 160 = 0
dr
=⇒ 0 = 2xr2 + x2 2r
− 4x3
dx
dr r p r
= 0 (for extrema) =⇒ x = √ and r2 − x2 = √
dx 2 2
We could argue that we had found a minimum because at the “infinity” boundaries, the circumscribing circle would be
infinitely large.
Exercise 10. Given a sphere of radius R, find the radius r and altitude h of the right circular cylinder with the largest lateral
60
surface area 2πrh that can be inscribed in the sphere.
2
h
R2 = + r2
2
p p
4(R2 − r2 ) = 4πr R2 − r2
A = 2πrh = 2πr
−r2
2
R − 2r2
p
dA R
= 4π R2 − r 2 + √ = 4π √ =⇒ r = √
dr R2 − r 2 R2 − r 2 2
√
=⇒ h = 2R
Exercise 11. Among all right circular cylinders of given lateral surface area, prove that the smallest circumscribed sphere has
√
radius 2 times that of the cylinder.
πr2 p
R + R2 − r 2
V =
3 √
2
π (2R R2 − r2 + 2R2 − 3r2 )
dV π p r (−r)
= 2rR + 2r R − r + √
2 2 = r √ =0
dr 3 R2 − r 2 3 R2 − r 2
√
2 2R 4R
=⇒ r = ; h=
3 3
61
√
2 2R
Considering the geometric or physical constraints, since limV →∞ V = limh→∞ V = 0, so then r = 3 must maximize
V.
Exercise 15. Find the rectangle of largest area that can be inscribed in a semicircle, the lower base being on the diameter.
p
A= R 2 − x2 x
p −x2 R R
A0 = R 2 − x2 + √ = 0 =⇒ x = √ ; h= √
2
R −x 2 2 2
Exercise 16. Find the trapezoid of largest area that can be inscribed in a semicircle, the lower base being on the diameter.
1 p
h(2 R2 − h2 + 2R)
A=
2
dA p 2 −h
= R − h2 + R + h √
dh R2 − h2
√
dA 3R
= 0 =⇒ h =
dh 2
√ r
5 3R2 p 3 R
=⇒ A = R − h = 2 R2 − R2 = 2 = R
2 2
8 4 2
Exercise 17. An open box is made from a rectangular piece of material by removing equal squares at each corner and turning
up the sides. Find the dimensions of the box of largest volume that can be made in this manner if the material has sides (a)
10 and 10; (b) 12 and 18
(1)
(x − 2r)(Y − 2r)r = (xy − 2rx − 2ry + 4r2 )r = xyr − 2r2 x − 2r2 y + 4r3 = V
dV
= xy − 4rx − 4ry + 12r2 = 0
pdr p
4(x + y) ± 16(x + y)2 − 4(12)xy (x + y) ± x2 + y 2 − xy
=⇒ r = =
2(12) 6
2
d V
= −4x − 4y + 24r = −4(x + y) + 24r
dr2
We can plug in our expression for r into the second derivative of V , the volume of the box, to find out that we want
to pick the “negative” root from r, in order to maximize the box volume.
Then for x = 10; y = 10, we have r = 53 , so that the box dimensions are 53 × 20 20
3 × 3 .
(2) 12 and 18√ √ √
=⇒ 5 − 7 × 2 + 2 7 × 8 + 2 7
Exercise 18. If a and b are the legs of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is 1, find the largest value of 2a + b.
p a 2
L = 2a + b = 2a + 1 − a2 2
L0 = 0 =⇒ = 1 − a2 =⇒ a = √
−a 2 5
L0 = 2 + √
1−a 2
√ −a
!
1 − a2 − √1−a 2
a
1
2
00
L = (−1) 2
= (−1) 2 3/2
< 0 (so a = √ maximizes L )
1−a (1 − a ) 5
x2 l0
Exercise 19. 2 + 600 gallons per hour. l0 = 300 mi x = constant speed. x = time spent. K = gas cost = 0.30.
62
2K Kx D
C = gas cost + driver labor cost = l0 x + 600 + x
r
2K + D √
dC −2K K D dC
dx =0
= l0 2
+ − 2 = 0 −−−−→ x = 10 6
dx x 600 x K
d2 C
−2 2(2K + D)
= l 0 (−2K − D) = l 0 >0
dx2 x3 x3
r
2K + D √
Thus, C is minimized if x = 10 6
K
√ √ √ √ √ !
2K + D K K 2K + D10 6 √ √
=⇒ Cmin = (300) √ + = 3 2 6 + 10D
10 6 600
(4) D = 3, x = 60 C = 27.00
(5) D = 4, x = 60 C = 32.00
x
Exercise 20. y = x2 +1 Suppose the rectangle starts at x0 on the x axis. Then its y coordinate intersecting the curve, and thus
x0
the height of rectangle, must be y0 = x20 +1
s
1 1
=⇒ x0 = ± −1
2y0 (2y0 )2
s
1
x2 − x1 = −4
y02
where x2 − x1 is going to be the base of the rectangle. The volume of the cylinder, V , which is obtained from revolving the
rectangle about the x axis, is going to be
! s
1
q
V = πy02 (x2 − x1 ) = πy02 2 − 4 = πy0 1 − 4y02
y0
! !
dV y0 1 − 8y02 1
q
=π 2
1 − 4y0 + p (−8y0 ) = π p =⇒ y0 = √
dy0 2 1 − 4y0 2 1 − 4y0 2 2 2
We could argue that V is maximized, since the “infinite” boundaries would yield a volume of 0 (imagine stretching and
squeezing the rectangle inside the curve).
π
Then Vmax = π 18 2 =
4
Exercise 21. Draw a good diagram. Note how the right triangle that you folded is now reflected backwards , so that this
Note that we will obtain a minimum crease because by considering the “physical infinite” boundary, we could make a big
crease along the vertical half of the paper or the horizontal half of the paper.
63
So, isolating l, the length of the crease, and then taking the derivative,
w0 w0
l= = csc (α) sec2 (α)
2 sin (α) cos2 α 2
dl w0
− cot α csc α sec2 α + csc α2 sec α sec α tan α =
=
dα 2
w0 −C 1 1 1 1 S w0 −1 2
= + 2 = +
2 S S C2 S C2 C 2 S2C C3
dl
dα =0 1 1
−−−−→ sin α = √ or tan α = √
3 2
where α is the angle of the crease. The corresponding minimum length of the crease will be
√
w0 1 9 3
l= =
2 √1 2 2
33
Exercise 22.
(1) Consider the center of the circle O, the apex of the isosceles triangle that makes an angle 2α, A, and one of its other
vertices, B. Draw a line segment from O to B and simply consider the two triangles making up one half of the
isosceles triangle. Find all the angles.
Angle AOB is π − 2α by the geometry or i.e. inspection of the figure. The complement of that angle is 2α.
Beforehand, we can get the length of the isosceles triangle leg from the law of cosines.
cos (π − 2α) = − cos (2α)
s = R + R − 2R cos (π − 2α) + 2R2 (1 + cos (2α)) = 2R2 (2 cos2 α) = 4R2 cos2 α
2 2 2 2
s = 2R cos α
The constraint equation is
(8) P = 4R cos α + 2R sin (2α)
So then
P 0 = 4R(− sin α) + 4R cos (2α) = 0 =⇒ cos 2α = sin α
q
− 21 ± 14 − 4(1)(− 12 ) 1
sin α = = >0
2(1) 2
√
=⇒ P = 3 3R
√
P = 3 3 is a max because
Look at the “boundary conditions” imposed on P by the physical-geometry. α = 0, triangle is completely flattened,
α = π, triangle “completely disappears.”
(2) I had originally thought to Reuse the constraint equation, Eqn. ( ??). This is wrong!
Think about the problem directly and for what it actually is; less wishful thinking.
Consider a fixed perimeter L and imagine L to be a string that can be stretched into an isoceles triangle. A “trivial”
isoceles triangle is a collapsed triangle with two sides of length L/2 only. Then the radius of the disk needs to be L/4.
Consider a general isosceles triangle with 2α as the vertex angle and isosceles sides of h. The perimeter for this
triangle, P , is then
P = 2h + 2h sin α = 2h(1 + sin α)
P
=⇒ h =
2(1 + sin α)
h
= R cos α
2
64
We could try to extremize this equation.
dR
(4 cos α + 2 sin (2α)) + R(−4 sin α + 4 cos (2α)) = 0
dα √
dR 1 2
= 0 =⇒ cos (2α) = sin α =⇒ sin α = √ cos α = √
dα 3 3
3P
R= √ √
4 2( 3 + 1)
However, this is the minimized R, minimized radius for the smallest circle fitting a particular isosceles triangle of a
fixed perimeter. We want to smallest circle with a radius big enough to fit all the possible triangles. Thus R = L4
Exercise 23. The constraint equation on perimeter is
W π
P = 2h + W + π = 2h + W (1 + )
2 2
Then intensity function, “normalized” is given by
2
Wp W2
π W 1 3π 2
I = Wh + = − − W
2 2 2 2 2 16
So then
dI P 3π P
= −W − W = 0 =⇒ W =
dW 2 8 2 + 3π
4
−A1/7 A
f (x = 1/7
= 5 <0
6 6x
Thus, A > 0.
2x7 − A
df
= 10x − 5Ax−6 = 5 =0
dx x6
1/7
A
x=
2
d2 f
2
= 10 + 30Ax−7 = 10 + 3 − A = 70 > 0
dx2 A
A 1/7
Thus x = 2 minimizes f for A > 0.
1/7 A
A 5 2 +A
f (x = )= = 24
2 A 5/7
2
7/2
24
=⇒ A = 2
7
3
Exercise 27. Consider f (x) = − x3 + t2 x over 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
1 1
f (0) = 0, f (1) = − + t2 =⇒ f (1) ≷ 0 if t2 ≷
3 3
f 0 (x) = −x2 + t2 = 0
=⇒ x2 = t2 but x ≥ 0, so x = |t|
1 2
f (x2 = t2 ) = − t2 (x) + t2 x = t2 x > 0 for 1 ≥ x ≥ 0
3 3
So the minimum isn’t in the interior of [0, 1]. It’s on the end points.
1 −1 1
m(t) = 0 for |t| > m(t) = + t2 for |t| <
3 3 3
Exercise 28.
(1)
|t − x|
E(x, t) =
x
|t − x|
M (t) = max as x = a → x = b
x
(
t−x
|t − x| x if t ≥ x
= x−t
x x if t < x
( t
d |t − x| − 2 if t ≥ x
= tx
dt x x2 if t < x
Now t, x ≥ a > 0 (this is an important, given, fact ). So x = t should be a relative minimum.
So the maximum occurs at either endpoints
t−a b−t
= E(a, t), = E(b, t)
a b
|t−x|
By monotonicity on [a, t) , (t, b], and having shown the relative minimum of x at x = t, the maximum occurs
at x = a or x = b, depending upon the relationship E(a, t) ≷ E(b, t).
66
(2)
( (1 ab
t−a t−a b−t b+a if t > 2a+b
a if a > b i.e. t ab > 2 dM a
M (t) = b−t b−t t−a
= −1 ab
b if b > a
dt b if t < a+b 2
dM 2ab 2ab
Since dt ≷ 0 when t ≷ a+b , M is minimized for t =
a+b
x
Exercise 8. f (x, y) = √ .
x2 +y 2
1 −x2 y2 −3y 2 x
fx = p + = fxx =
x2 + y 2 (x2 + y 2 )3/2 (x2 + y 2 )3/2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2
2
−xy x − 2y 2
fy = 2 fyy = (−x)
(x + y 2 )3/2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2
!
(x2 + y 2 )3/2 − x 23 (x2 + y 2 )1/2 (2x)
fxy = (−y) =
(x2 + y 2 )3 2y −3y 2 y (−y)(−2x2 + y 2 )
fyx = + 2 =
−2x2 + y 2
(x2 2
+y ) 3/2 2
(x + y ) 5/2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2
= (−y)
(x2 + y 2 )5/2
Exercise 9.
(1)
z = (x − 2y)2
√ √
zx = 2(x − 2y) = 2 z x(2z) − 4zy = (x − 2y)2 z = 2z
√
zy = 2(x − 2y)(−2) = −4 z
(2)
z = (x4 + y 4 )1/2
1 √
zx = 2x3 x(2z) − 4zy = (x − 2y)2 z = 2z
z
2y 3
zy =
z
Exercise 10.
xy y −4x2 y y 3 − 3x2 y
f= , f x = + =
(x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )3 (x2 + y 2 )3
So
−6xy(x2 + y 2 )3 − 3(x2 + y 2 )2 (2x)(y 3 − 3x2 y)
fxx = =
(x2 + y 2 )6
12xy(x2 − y 2 )
=
(x2 + y 2 )4
By label symmetry,
12xy(x2 − y 2 ) 12yx(y 2 − x2 )
fxx + fyy = + =0
(x2 + y 2 )4 (x2 + y 2 )4
67
5.5 Exercises - The derivative of an indefinite integral. The first fundamental theorem of calculus, The zero-derivative
theorem, Primitive functions and the second fundamental theorem of calculus, Properties of a function deduced from
properties of its derivatve.
Review the fundamental theorems of calculus, Thm. 5.1 and Thm. 5.3. Note the differences between the two.
Theorem 17 (First fundamental theorem of calculus).
Let f be integrable on [a, x] ∀x ∈ [a, b]
Let c ∈ [a, b] and
Z x
(9) A(x) = f (t)dt if a ≤ x ≤ b
c
√ q √
Exercise 6. 2 23 x3/2 + 1 2 3/2
2 3x = 2x3/2
Rb √
a
f= 2(b3/2 − a3/2 )
Exercise 7. f = x3/2 − 3x1/2 + 72 x−1/2 ;
x6
Exercise 9. P = −3 cos x + 3
3 7/3
Exercise 10. P = 7x − 5 sin x
Exercise 13.
(R x (
x 4 3
(2t)2 dt if x ≥ 0 if x ≥ 0 2x2
Z
(t + |t|) dt = 2 0 = 3x = (x + |x|)
0 0 if x < 0 0 if x < 0 3
Z x x
1 1
−t cos t + sin t − t2 = sin x − x cos x − x2
t sin t − t =
0 2 0 2
So c = 0.
Rx R1 x16 x18
Exercise 17. For f (x) = −x2 f (x) + 2x1 5 + 2x1 7 (found by taking the derivative of 0
f = x
t2 f + 8 + 9 + C,)
Suppose that f = 2x15 .
x16 x18 1 x16 x18
=− +− +
=⇒ + +C
8 9 9 8 9
1
=⇒ C =
9
Rx
Exercise 18. By plugging in x = 0 into the defined f (x), f (x) = 3 + 0 1+sin t 2
2+t2 dt, we get for p(x) = a + bx + cx ,
a=3
Continuing on,
1 + sin x (cos x)(2 + x2 ) − 2x(1 + sin x)
f0 = ; f 00 =
2 + x2 (2 + x2 )2
1 1 1
f 0 (0) = = b f 00 (0) = + 2c; c =
2 2 4
Exercise 19.
1 x 1 x 2
Z Z
f (x) = (x − t)2 g(t)dt = (x − 2xt + t2 )g(t)dt =
2 0 2 0
Z x Z x Z x
1
= x2 g − 2x tg + t2 g
2 0 0 0
Z x 2 Z x
x 1
f0 = x g + g(x) − tg − x(xg(x)) + x2 g(x) =
2 2
Z0 x Z x 0
=x g− tg
Z x0 0
Z x
00
f = g + xg − xg = g f 00 (1) = 2
0 0
000 000
f =g f (1) = 5
Exercise 20.
Rx
(1) ( (1 + t2 )−3 dt)0 = (1 + x2 )−3
R0x2
(2) ( 0 (1 + t2 )−3 dt)0 = (1 + x4 )−3 (2x) = (1+x
2x
4 )3
R x2 3x2
(3) ( x3 (1 + t ) dt) = (1 + x ) (2x) − (1 + x6 )−3 (3x2 ) =
2 −3 0 4 −3 2x
(1+x4 )3 − (1+x6 )3
69
Exercise 21.
!0
x2
t6 x12 x1 8
Z
f 0 (x) = dt = (2x) − 3x2
x3 1 + t4 1 + x8 1 + x12
Exercise 22.
(1)
f (x) = 2x(1 + x) + x2 = 2x + 3x2
f (2) = 16
R
b(x)
(2) d
dx a(x)
f (t)dt = f (b)b0 − f (a)a0
Exercise 23.
Z a
a3 − 2a cos a + (2 − a2 ) sin a = f 2 (t)dt
0
3x2 − 2 cos x + 2x sin x + −2x sin x + (2 − x2 ) cos x = 3x2 − x2 cos x = f 2 (x)
√
f (x) = x 3 − cos x
√
f (a) = a 3 − cos a
t2
Exercise 24. f (t) = 2 + 2t sin t
(1)
f 0 = 2t + 2 sin t + 2t cos t f 0 (π) = 2π − 2π = 0
(2)
f 00 = 2 + 2 cos t + 2 cos t + −2t sin t = 2 + 4 cos t − 2t sin t
π
f 00 =2−π
2
(3) f 00 3π
2 = 0
2
(4) f 5π 2 = 25π
8 + 5π
2
(5) f (π) = π2
Exercise 25.
70
(1)
df 1 + 2 sin πt cos πt
= = v(t)
dt 1 + t2
2π(cos (2πt))(1 + t2 ) − 2t(sin (2πt))
a(t) =
(1 + t2 )2
4π
a(t = 2) = a(t = 1) = =π
4
(2) v(t = 1) 21
(3) v(t) = π(t − 1) + 12 ; t > 1
(4)
Z t Z t 2 t
1 πt 1 πt2 t π 1
f (t) − f (1) = v(t)dt = π(t − 1) + = − πt + t = + −πt + + −
1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2
Exercise 26.
(1)
f 00 (x) > 0 ∀x f 0 (0) = 1; f 0 (1) = 0
Z 1
f 00 (t)dt = f 0 (1) − f 0 (0) = 0 − 1 < 0
0
R1
Thus, it’s impossible, since f 00 (x) > 0, so 0
f 00 (t)dt > 0
(2)
Z 1 π πx πx 1
3− sin dx = 3x + cos =3−1=2
0 2 2 2 0
3x2 2 πx
f (x) = + sin +C
2 π 2
(3) f 00 (0) > 0 ∀x f 0 (0) = 1; f (x) ≤ 100 ∀x > 0
Z b Z k
f 00 (t)dt = f 0 (b) − f 0 (a); f 0 (t)dt = f (k) − f (c)
a c
Z b
f 00 = f 0 (b) − f 0 (0) = f 0 (b) − 1 ≷ 0 if b ≷ 0
0
Z k
(f 0 (b) − 1)db = f (k) − f (c) − (k − c) > 0 if k > c > 0
c
f (k) − f (c) > k − c f (x) ≤ 100 is untrue for all x > 0
f (k) − f (0) > k − 0
f (100) − f (0) > 100
Z b
1
f 00 = f 0 (b) − f 0 (a) ≥ 6(b − a) = 3 since b − a =
a 2
Z a
f 00 = f 0 (a) − f 0 (0) = f 0 (a) ≥ 6(a − 0) = 6a
0
1 0
If a = , f (1/2) ≥ 3
2
Then by intermediate value theorem, with f being continuous and f 0 (0) = 0, f 0 (1/2) ≥ 3, f 0 must take on the value of 3
somewhere between 0 and 3. Thus there is an interval [a, b] of length 1/2 where f 0 ≥ 3.
71
5.8 Exercises
R √- The Leibniz1 notation3/2
for primitives, Integration by substitution.
Exercise 1. 2x + 1dx = 3 (2x + 1) .
R √ 2x 4
Exercise 2. x 1 + 3x = 9 (1 + 3x)3/2 + − 135 (1 + 3x)5/2
Exercise 3.
√ 2x2 (x + 1)3/2 8x(x + 1)5/2 16(x + 1)7/2
Z
x2 x + 1 = − +
3 15 105
since
3/2 0
2
4x(x + 1)3/2
2x (x + 1)
= x2 (x + 1)1/2 +
3 3
5/2 0
8(x + 1)5/2
8x(x + 1) 4
= x(x + 1)3/2 +
15 3 15
0
16(x + 1)7/2 8(x + 1)5/2
=
105 15
Exercise 4.
2x(2 − 3x)1/2 4(2 − 3x)3/2
Z
xdx
√ = +
2 − 3x −3 −27
Z 1/3
xdx
√ = −2/9 − 4/27 − (8/9 − 32/27) = −2/27
−2/3 2 − 3x
Exercise 5.
((x + 1)2 + 1)−2
Z
(x + 1)dx
=
((x + 1)2 + 1)3 −4
Exercise 6.
Z Z
1
sin3 x = sin x(1 − cos2 x) = − cos x + cos3 x
3
Exercise 7.
Z
3 4/3 3 7/3 3 3
x1/3 (1 + x) = x + x = (z − 1)4/3 + (z − 1)7/3
4 7 4 7
sin−2 x
Exercise 8. −2
π/4
(4−sin 2x)3/2 33/2 −8
Exercise 9. −3 = −3
0
(1−x6 )1/2
Exercise 14. −3
Exercise 15.
Z Z
4 9/4 4 5/4 4 4
t(1 + t)1/4 dt = (x − 1)x1/4 dx = x − x = (1 + t)9/4 − (1 + t)5/4
9 5 9 5
(x2 + 1)−3/2 dx =?
R
Exercise 16.
0 √ √
x2 + 1 − x2 / x2 + 1
x 1
√ = = 2
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 (x + 1)3/2
Exercise 17.
72
3 1 1
(8x3 + 27)5/3 = (8x3 + 27)5/3
5 24 40
3
Exercise 18. 2 (sin x − cos x)2/3
Exercise 19.
1
2 du
Z Z
xdx
p = √
=
1 + x2 + (1 + x2 )3/2 u + u3/2
Z
1 du
= √ √ = 2(1 + u1/2 )1/2 =
2 u 1 + u1/2
p
= 2(1 + 1 + x2 )1/2 + C
Exercise 20.
(x2 − 2x + 1)1/5 dx −(x − 1)2/5
Z Z Z
= dx = − (x − 1)−3/5 dx = −5/2(x − 1)2/5
1−x x−1
Rb R b+c
Exercise 21. Thm. 1.18. invariance under translation. a f (x)dx = a+c f (x − c)dx.
y = kx
Z b Z kb
1 y
f (x)dx = f dy
dy = kdx a k ka k
Exercise 22.
t
x Z x/a
up u=
a
F ,1 = du
a 0 (u + 12 )q
2 dt
du =
a
x 1Z x (t/a)p dt
F ,1 = q =
a a 0 t 2
+ 1 2
a
Z x
tp
= a−p−1+2q 2 2 q
dt = a−p−1+2q F (x, a)
0 (t + 1 )
Exercise 23.
1
1
u=
t
Z
dt
= F (1) − F (x) −1 −1
1 + t2 du = 2 dt, 2 du = dt
Z xx t u
dt
= F (x) − F (1) Z x
dt
Z 1/x
−du
1 1 + t2 = =
Z 1/x 1 1+t 2
1 u 1 + u12
2
dt 1
2
=F − F (1) Z 1/x
du
Z 1
dt
1 1+t x =− =
u2+1 t 2+1
1 1/x
Exercise 24.
1 0 1 u=1−x
Z Z Z
xm (1 − x)n dx = − (1 − u)m (un )du = (1 − x)m xn dx using
0 1 0 x=1−u
Exercise 25.
73
m
sin 2x
= 2−m sinm 2x
cosm x sinm x =
2
Z π Z π/2 Z π Z π
2
m −m m −m 1 m −m−1
m
cos x sin xdx = 2 sin 2xdx = 2 sin xdx = 2 sinm xdx =
0 0 0 2 0
Z −π/2 π Z π/2 Z π/2
= −2−m−1 sinm − x dx = 2−m−1 cosm xdx = 2−m cosm xdx
π/2 2 −π/2 0
Exercise 26.
(1)
Z π Z 0 Z π
u=π−x xf (sin x)dx = (π − u)f (sin (π − u))(−du) = (π − u)f (sin u)du =
0 π 0
Z π Z π
x=π−u
=π f (sin x)dx − xf (sin x)dx
Z π 0 Z 0π
π
=⇒ xf (sin x)dx = f (sin x)dx
0 2 0
(2)
π π
π π sin x π π
Z Z Z Z
x sin x x sin x sin x
dx = 2 = 2 dx = 2 dx =
u = cos x 0 1 + cos2 x 0 2 − sin x 2 0 2 − sin x 0 1 + cos2 x
Z −1 Z 1 Z 1
du = − sin xdx π du π du dx
=− = =π
2 1 1 + u2 2 −1 1 + u2 −1 1 + x2
Exercise 27.
x = sin u Z 1 Z π/2 Z π/2
2 n− 21 2 n− 12
(1 − x ) dx = (cos u) cos udu = cos2n udu
dx = cos u 0 0 0
5.10 Exercises
R - Integration by Parts.
Exercise 1. x sin x = −x cos x + sin x
x
sin 2x = − x cos 2x sin 2x
R R
Exercise 6. x sin x cos xdx = 2 4 + 8
sin2 x = cos2 x
R R R
Exercise 7. sin x sin x = − sin x cos x +
−1
sin2 xdx = x
R
4 sin 2x + 2
Exercise 8.
u = sinn−1 x
Z Z
sinn xdx = − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos2 x
dv = sin xdx
Z Z
sinn x = − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x(1 − sin2 x) =
Z Z
= − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x − (n − 1) sinn x
−1 (n − 1)
Z Z
sinn x = sinn−1 x cos x + sinn−2 x
n n
Exercise 9.
74
(1)
−1 −1
Z Z
1 1
sin2 x =
sin x cos x + 1= sin x cos x + x
2 2 2 2
Z π/2
π
sin2 xdx =
0 4
R π/2 4 π/2 π/2
(2) 0 sin x = −1 3
+ 34 0 sin2 x = 3π
R
4 sin x cos x 0
16
R π/2 6 5 π/2
R 4 5π
(3) 0 sin x = 6 0 sin x =
32
Exercise 10.
(1)
−1 −3
Z Z
2 1 2 1
sin3 xdx = sin2 x cos x + sin x = − sin 2x cos x − cos x = cos x + cos 3x since
3 3 6 3 4 12
−3 1 −3 1
cos x + cos 3x = cos x + (cos x cos 2x − sin 2x sin x) =
4 12 4 12
3 1 −2 1
= − cos x + (cos x(1 − 2 sin2 x) + −2 sin2 x cos x) = cos x − sin2 x cos x
4 12 3 3
(2)
−1 −1 −1
Z Z
3 3 x sin 2x 3x 3 sin 2x
sin4 xdx = sin3 x cos x + sin2 x = sin3 x cos x + ( − )= sin3 x cos x + −
4 4 4 4 2 4 4 8 16
1 1 1 sin 2x 1
Now sin 4x = (2 sin 2x cos 2x) = (sin x cos x(1 − 2 sin2 x) = − sin3 x cos x
32 32 8 16 4
−1 3 3x 3 sin 2x 3x 1 1
=⇒ sin x cos x + − = − sin 2x + sin 4x
4 8 16 8 4 32
(3)
Z Z Z
sin5 xdx = sin4 x sin xdx = − cos x sin4 x + cos2 x4 sin3 x =
Z Z Z Z
= − cos x sin4 x + 4( sin3 x − sin5 x) = − cos x sin4 x + 4 sin3 x − 4 sin5 x
Z Z
5 sin dx = − cos x sin x + 4 sin3 x
5 4
−3
Z
1
5 sin5 dx = − cos x(1 − cos2 x)2 + 4( cos x + cos 3x)
4 12
1
= − cos x(1 − 2 cos2 x + cos4 x) + −3 cos x + cos 3x
3
1
= − cos x + 2 cos3 x − cos5 x − 3 cos x + (cos x cos 2x − sin x sin 2x) =
3
1 10 cos3 x
= −4 cos x + 2 cos3 x − cos5 x + (4 cos3 x − 3 cos x) = −5 cos x + − cos5 x
Z 3 3
2 cos 3x 1
sin5 xdx = − cos x + − cos5 x
3 5
My solution to the last part of this exercise conflicts with what’s stated in the book.
Exercise 11.
(1)
x2
Z Z Z 2
x sin 2x x cos 2x
x sin2 xdx = ( sin2 x)x − (sin2 t) = − − + =
2 4 4 8
x2 x sin 2x cos 2x
= − −
8 4 Z8
x sin 2x
we had used sin2 x = −
2 4
75
(2)
−3x
Z Z
x 3 1
x sin3 x = cos x + cos 3x − − cos x + cos 3x =
4 12 4 12
−3x x 3 − sin 3x
= cos x + cos 3x + sin x +
4Z 12 4 36
−3 1
sin3 x = cos x + cos 3x
4 12
(3)
x3 x2 sin 2x 1 3
Z Z Z
2 2 x sin 2x
2 x sin 2x x sin 2x
x sin xdx = x − − 2x − = − − x + =
2 4 2 4 2 4 3 2
x3 x2 sin 2x 1 −x cos 2x sin 2x
= − + + =
6 4 2 2 4
x3 x2 sin 2x x cos 2x sin 2x
= − − +
6 4 4 8
Exercise 12.
Z Z Z
n
cos xdx = cos n−1
x cos xdx = cos x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x sin2 x =
n−1
Z Z
= cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x − (n − 1) cosn x
cosn−1 x sin x
Z
n−1
Z
=⇒ cosn x = + cosn−2 x
n n
Exercise 13.
sin 2x
(1) cos2 x = + 12 x
R
5
2
cos x sin x
(2) cos3 x = + 23 3 1
R
3 sin x = 4 sin x + 12 sin 3x since
1 1 1 1
sin 3x = (sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x) = sin x cos2 x + sin x(2 cos2 x − 1) =
12 12 6 12
1 1
= sin x cos2 x − sin x
3 12
(3)
cos3 x sin x 3 cos3 x sin x
Z
1 1 3 3
cos4 xdx = + x + sin 2x = x+ sin 2x +
4 4 2 4 8 16 4
sin 4x = 2 sin 2x cos 2x = 4 sin x cos x(2 cos2 x − 1) = 8 sin x cos3 x − 2 sin 2x then
Z
3 1 1
cos4 xdx = x + sin 2x + sin 4x
8 4 32
Exercise 14.
x2
Z p p Z
2 2
1 − x dx = x 1 − x + √ dx
1 − x2
x2 x2 − +1
Z Z Z p 1
√ dx = √ =− 1 − x2 + √
1−x 2 2
1−x +1−1 1 − x2
2 2
x =x −1+1
Z p Z
1 p 1 1
=⇒ 2 2
1 − x dx = x 1 − x + √
2 2 1 − x2
Exercise 15.
76
(1)
Z Z Z
(a2 − x2 )n dx = x(a2 − x2 )n − n(a2 − x2 )n−1 (−2x)xdx = x(a2 − x2 )n + 2n x2 (a2 − x2 )n−1 dx
Z Z Z
2 2 2 n−1 2 2 2 2 2 n−1
x (a − x ) dx = ((x − a ) + a )(a − x ) dx = −(a2 − x2 )n + a2 (a2 − x2 )n−1 dx
x(a2 − x2 )n 2a2 n
Z Z
2 2 n
=⇒ (a − x ) dx = + (a2 − x2 )n−1 dx
2n + 1 2n + 1
(2)
x(a2 − x2 ) 2a2 −x3
Z
(a2 − x2 )dx = + x= + a2 x
3 3 3
x(a2 − x2 )5/2 a2 5
Z Z
2 2 5/2
(a − x ) dx = + (a2 − x2 )3/2 dx
6 6
x(a2 − x2 )3/2 3a2
Z Z
2 2 3/2
(a − x ) dx = + (a2 − x2 )1/2 dx
4 4
Z Z r x 2 Z
(a2 − x2 )1/2 =a 1− dx = a2 cos2 θdθ = x
a sin θ =
! a
dx
Z r x 2
2 1 + cos 2θ 2 θ sin 2θ 2 x 1x cos θdθ =
=a =a + = a arcsin + 1− a
2 2 4 a 2a a
Z ap π πa2
a2 − x2 = a2 −0 =
0 2 2
Z a 2
2
3a πa 3πa4
(a2 − x2 )3/2 dx = =
0 4 2 8
Z a
5a2 3πa4
5
(a2 − x2 )5/2 dx = = πa6
0 6 8 16
Rx
Exercise 16. In (x) = 0
tn (t2 + a2 )−1/2 dt
(1)
Z n−2 2
(t + a2 )
Z
t
In (x) = (t2 + a2 )1/2 tn−1 −
(n − 1)tn−2 (t2 + a2 )1/2 = tn−1 (t2 + a2 )1/2 − (n − 1)
(t + a2 )1/2
2
tn−2
Z p
(n)In = xn−1 (x2 + a2 )1/2 − a2 (n − 1) = x n−1
x2 + a2 − (n − 1)a2 In−2
(t2 + a2 )1/2
√
(2) n = 5; x = 2; a = 5.
Z 2 2 √
I1 (2) = x(x2 + 5)−1/2 dx = (x2 + 5)1/2 = 3 − 5
0 0
Z 2
5I5 (2) = t5 (t2 + 5)−1/2 dt = 25−1 (4 + 5)1/2 − 5(5 − 1)I3 (2) = 48 − 20I3 (2)
0
2
√ √
3I3 (2) = 2 4 + 5 − 5(3 − 1)I1 (2) = 12 − 10(3 − 5)
√ √
1 10 5 168 40 5
I5 (2) = (48 − 20(−6 + )) = −
5 3 5 3
Exercise 17.
Exercise 18.
77
sinn+1 x sinn x n sinn−1 x
Z Z Z
n sin x
m+1
dx = sin x n+1
dx = m
−
cos x cos x m cos x m cosm−1 x
sinn+1 x sinn x sinn−1 x
Z Z
n
=⇒ dx = −
cosm+1 x m cosm x m cosm−1 x
Exercise 19.
cosm+1 x m cosm−1 x
Z Z Z
cos xdx m 1 m
cos x dx = = cos x n − =
sinn+1 xsin n+1
x −n sin x −n sinm x
cosm x −m cosm−1 x
Z
= n +
−n sin x n sinn−1 x
cos1+1 x −1 cos1 x 1
Z Z Z
cot2 x = = − dx = − cot x − x
sin1+1 x 1 sin1 x 1
cos3+1 x 1 cos3 x cos3−1 x −1 −1
Z Z Z
4
cot xdx = 3+1 = − 3 − 3−1 = cot3 x − (− cot x − x) = cot3 x + cot x + x
sin x 3 sin x sin x 3 3
Exercise 20.
(1)
Z 2 Z 1
00
tf (t)dt = 2 tf 00 (2t)dt n=2
0 0
(2)
Z 1 Z 2 Z 2
1 1 2 1
xf 00 (2x)dx = tf 00 (t)dt = tf 0 (t)|0 − f 0 (t)dt = (2f 0 (2) − (f (2) − f (0))) = 4
0 2 0 2 0 2
Exercise 21.
(1) Recall Theorem 5.5, the second mean-value theorem for integrals:
Z b Z c Z b
f (x)g(x)dx = f (a) g(x)dx + f (b) g(x)dx
a a c
b Z c Z b
φ0 (t)
Z
1 0 1
sin φ(t) dt = φ (t) sin φ(t) + φ0 (t) sin φ(t) =
a φ0 (t) φ0 (a) a φ0 (b) a 1 1
where ≥ 0 ∀t ∈ [a, b]
1 c 1 4 m φ (t)
= 0 cos φ(t)|a + 0 (cos φ(b) − cos φ(a)) ≤
φ (a) φ (b) m
(2) φ(t) = t2 ; φ0 (t) = 2t > 2a if t > a
Z x
2
4
sin t dt ≤ = 2a
2a
a
g 0 (x) = nxn−1 f (x) + xn f 0 (x) ; g 0 (0) = 0 especially if n ∈ Z+ (just note that if negative integer values are included,
g 0 (0) easily blows up)
Ph j n!
g j (x) = k=0 k (n−k)! x
n−k j−k
f (x)
If j < n , then g j (0), since each term contains some power of x
If j ≥ n,
n
j
X j n!
g (x) = xn−k f (j−k) (x)
k (n − k)!
k=0
j j!
g (0) = f (j−n) (0)
(j − n)!
78
If j = n, g n (0) = n!
Exercise 2.
5
X
P (x) = aj xj
j=0
5
P (0) = 1 = a0
X
0
P (x) = jaj x j−1
P 0 (0) = 0 = a1 a1 = a2 = 0
j=1 00
P (0) = 0 = 2(1)a2
5
X
P 00 (x) = j(j − 1)aj xj−2
j=2
P (x) = a5 x5 + a4 x4 + a3 x3 + 1 P (1) = a5 + a4 + a3 + 1 = 2
0
=⇒ P (x) = 5a5 x + 4a4 x + 3a3 x 4 3 2
P 0 (1) = 5a5 + 4a4 + 3a3 = 0
P 00 (x) = 20a5 x3 + 12a4 x2 + 6a3 x P 00 (1) = 20a5 + 12a4 + 6a3 = 0
Solve for the undetermined coefficients by Gauss-Jordan elimination process
5 4 3 a5 0 5 4 3 0 1 0 −15
20 12 6 a4 = 0 20 12 6 0 = 0 1 10
1 1 1 a3 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 6
=⇒ a5 = 6 a4 = −15 a3 = 10 P (x) = 6x5 − 15x4 + 10x3 + 1
nπ nπ
Exercise 3. If f (x) = cos x and g(x) = sin x, Prove that f (n) = cos (x + 2 ) and g (n) (x) = sin (x + 2 )
(
nπ sin x(−1)j+1 if n = 2j + 1
f (n) (x) = cos (x + )=
2 cos x(−1)j if n = 2j
(
nπ cos x(−1)j if n = 2j + 1
g (n) (x) = sin (x + )=
2 sin x(−1)j if n = 2j
f (x) = cos x
f (2j) (x) = cos x(−1)j
f 0 (x) = − sin x
f (2(j+1)) (x) = (cos x(−1)j )0 = cos x(−1)j+1
f 00 (x) = − cos x
f (2j+1) (x) = sin x(−1)j+1
f 000 (x) = sin x
f (2j+3) (x) = (sin x(−1)j+1 ) = sin x(−1)j+2
f 0000 (x) = cos x
g(x) = sin x
g (2j) (x) = sin x(−1)j
0
g (x) = cos x
g (2(j+1)) (x) = (sin x(−1)j )00 = sin x(−1)j+1
g 00 (x) = − sin x
g (2j+1) (x) = cos x(−1)j
g 000 (x) = − cos x
g (2j+3) (x) = (cos x(−1)j+1 )
g 0000 (x) = sin x
Exercise 4.
79
h0 (x) = f 0 g + f g 0 (n)
n
X n (k) (n−k)
h = f g
h00 (x) = f 00 g + 2f 0 g 0 + f g 00 k=0
k
n
X n
h(n+1) = f (k+1) g (n−k) + f (k) g (n−k+1) =
k
k=0
n−1
X n
(1) (n) (n+1)
= f g + fg + f (k+1) g (n−k) + f (k) g (n−k+1) + f (n+1) g + f (n) g (1)
k
k=1
n n−1
!
(1) (n) (n+1)
X n! (k) (n−k+1)
X n!
=f g + fg + f g + f (k) g (n−k+1) +
(n − k + 1)!(k − 1)! (n − k)!k!
k=2 k=1
Exercise 5.
(1)
f 2 + g 2 = f (−g 0 ) + gf 0
Y = f 2 + g2 Y 0 = 2f f 0 + 2gg 0 = 2(gf + 2g(−f )) = 0 =⇒ Y = C
Y = C = f 2 + g2 f (0) = 0; g(0) = 1 =⇒ C = 1
(2)
h = (F − f )2 + (G − g)2
= f 0 (x) = g(x), g 0 (x) = −f (x); f (0) = 0; g(0) = 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
h = 2(F − f )(F − f ) + 2(G − g)(G − g ); h (0) = 2(0) + 2(0) = 0
= 2(F − f )(G − g) + 2(G − g)(−F + f ) = 0 ∀x
h(x) = C =⇒ h(x) = (F (x) − f (x)) + (G(x) − g(x))2 2
h(0) = 0 so C = 0
=⇒ F = f ; G = g
df
Exercise 6. du 2x = 3x2 f 0 (4) = 3x
2 = 3 where we had used the substitution
u = x2 u = 4; x = 2
dg 64
Exercise 7. du = u3/2 ; g(u) = 52 u5/2 g(4) = 25 25 =
5
Exercise 8.
Z x Z c Z x
sin t 1 1
dt = sin tdt + sin tdt =
0 t+1 0+1 0 x+1 c
1c x −1
= − cos t|0 + − cos t|c = − cos c + 1 + (cos x − cos c) =
x+1 x+1
−x cos c + x − cos c + 1 − cos x + cos c x(1 − cos c) + (1 − cos c)
= = >0
x+1 x+1
1 2
Exercise 9. y = x2 is the curve for C. y = 2x is the curve for C1 .
80
Z b
1 1
(x2 − x2 ) = b3 P : (b, b2 )
0 2 6
Assume C2 is of the form kx2
c b kc2 = b2
(k − 1) 3
Z Z
2 2 2 2 1
(kx − x ) + (b − x ) = c + b2 (b − c) + − (b3 − c3 ) b2
0 c 3 3 k=
c2
(b2 − c2 )c b3 c3 2b3 2 2 2
=⇒ + b3 − cb2 − + = − cb = b2 (b − c)
3 3 3 3 3 3
Now A(A) = A(B)
2 2 1 4
=⇒ b (b − c) = b3 =⇒ b = c
3 6 3
16 2
so then kx2 = x
9
Exercise 10.
h2
(
if x is rational
(1) |Q(h) − 0| = f (h)
h =
|h|
.
0 if x is irrational
For now, consider 0 < h < δ; let δ(; h = 0) =
(
= h if x is rational
f (h)
|Q(h) − 0| =
<
h 0 if x is irrational
(2)
f (h) − f (0)
− 0 = =⇒ f 0 (0) = 0
h
−2
cos 5x + − 3x 3
R
Exercise 11. (2 + 3x) sin bxdx = 5 5 cos 5x + 25 sin 5x
4
Exercise 12. 3 (1 + x2 )3/2
1
(x2 −1)10 −310
Exercise 13. 20 = 20
−2
Exercise 14.
1 1
−(6x + 7)−1 −(6x + 7)−2
−1
Z
1 6x + 7 + 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 (6x + 7)3
dx =
3 6
+
6 = 3 − 13 6
+ +
42 (6)132
+
(6)49
=
0 0
37
=
8281
(1+x5 )6
x4 (1 + x5 )5 dx =
R
Exercise 15. 30
Exercise 16.
1 u=1−x
Z
x4 (1 − x)20 dx =
0 x=1−u
Z 0 Z 1 Z 1
=− (1 − u)4 u20 du = (1 − u)4 u20 du = (1 + 4(−u) + 6u2 + −4u3 + u4 )u20 du =
1 0 0
121 −412 2 6123 −4124 125
= + + + + =
21 22 23 24 25
1
=
265650
Make sure to check your arithmetic.
R2 2
Exercise 17. 1
x−2 sin x1 dx = cos x1 1 = cos 12 − cos 1
81
sin (x − 1)1/4 dx
R
Exercise 18.
u = (x − 1)1/4 Z Z Z
1 1 1
1/4
=⇒ sin (x − 1) dx = (sin u)4u du = 4 u3 sin udu
3
du = (x − 1)−3/4 dx = dx
Z 4 4 u3
u3 sin udu = −u3 cos u + 3u2 sin u + 6u cos u + 06 sin u
= −(x − 1)3/4 cos (x − 1)1/4 + 3(x − 1)1/2 sin (x − 1)1/4 + 6(x − 1)1/4 cos (x − 1)1/4 − 6 sin (x − 1)1/4
sin (x − 1)1/4 dx =
= −4(x − 1)3/4 cos (x − 1)1/4 + 24(x − 1)1/4 cos (x − 1)1/4 + 12(x − 1)1/4 sin (x − 1)1/4 − 24 sin (x − 1)1/4
R√ R√ 2u3/2 −2
du
u1/2 −3 (1 + 3 cos2 x)3/2 ,
R
Exercise 20. 1 + 3 cos2 x sin 2xdx = 1 + 3 cos2 x2 sin x cos xdx = = −9 =
9
where we had used this substitution:
du = −6 cos x sin xdx
2
u = 1 + 3 cos x du
= 2 cos x sin xdx
−3
R2
Exercise 21. 0
375x5 (x2 + 1)−4 dx
2 5
(u2 − 2u + 1) 375 5
Z Z Z
375 375 1 2 1
u = x2 + 1 du(u − 1)2 u−4 = du = du − 3+ 4 =
0 2 2 1 u4 2 1 u2 u u
du = 2xdx =⇒ 5
375 −1 1 1 = 64 = 26
(u − 1)2 = x4 = + 2+ 3
2 u u −3u 1
R1
Exercise 22. 0
(ax + b)(x2 + 3x + 2)−2 dx = 3
2
1
−1 −1 1
Since = + = 23 ,
x2 +3x+2 6 2
0
then if a = 9/2, b = 27
2 , we’ll obtain 3/2
R1
Exercise 23. In = 0 (1 − x2 )n dx
Z 1 Z 1
2 n 1
x2 ) n 0 xn(1 − x2 )n−1 (−2x)dx =
In = (1 − x ) dx = x(1 − −
0 0
2n
Z 1 Z 1 =⇒ In = In−1
=2 x2 n(1 − x2 )n−1 dx = 2n ((x2 − 1) + 1)(1 − x2 )n−1 dx = 2n + 1
0 0
= 2nIn−1 − 2nIn
Z 1 1 1
2x3
Z
1 5 8
I2 = (1 − x2 )2 dx = dx(1 − 2x + x ) =2 4
x− + x =
0 0 3 5 0 15
6 8 16
I3 =
7 15 35
8 128
I4 = I3 =
9 315
10 256
I5 = I4 =
11 693
Rx
Exercise 24. F (m, n) = 0
tm (1 + t)n dt; m > 0, n>0
82
x Z x m+1
tm+1 n t xm+1 (1 + x)n n
n(1 + t)n−1 dt =
F (m, n) = (1 + t) − − F (m + 1, n − 1)
m+1 0 0 m+1 m+1 m+1
(m + 1)F (m, n) + nF (m + 1, n − 1) = xm+1 (1 + x)n
Z x Z x 12 x
11 1 1 12 t t13 x12 x13
F (11, 1) = t (1 + t) dt = t 1+t = + = +
0 0 12 13 0 12 13
12
x13
x
11F (10, 2) + 2 + = x11 (1 + x)2
12 13
x13 x12 x11
F (10, 2) = + +
13 6 11
R π/4
Exercise 25. f (n) = 0
tann xdx
(1)
Z b Z b Z c
Use this extremely important fact: f g = f (b) g + f (a) g
a c a
Z π/4 Z π/4 Z π/4
n n
f (n + 1) = tan x tan x = tan x < tann x = f (n)
0 c 0
(2)
Z π/4 Z π/4 Z π/4
f (n + 2) + f (n) = tann x tan2 x + tann x = tann x(sec2 x) =
0 0 0
π/4
tann+1 x 1
= =
n + 1 0 n+1
(3)
1
f (n + 2) + f (n) = < f (n + 1) + f (n) < 2f (n)
n+1
1
= f (n − 2) + f (n) > f (n − 1) + f (n) > 2f (n)
n−1
1 1
=⇒ < 2f (n) <
n+1 n−1
Rπ
Exercise 26. f (0), f (π) = 2 0
(f (x) + f 00 (x)) sin xdx = 5
Z π Z Z Z
00 0 0 0
f sin x = f sin x − f cos x = − f cos x = −f cos x − f sin x
0
Z π Z Z
(f + f 00 ) sin xdx = f sin x + −(f (π)(−1) − f (0)) − f sin x = 2 + f (0) = 5 =⇒ f (0) = 3
0
Exercise 27.
π/2 π/2
1 π sin x
1 − cos x
Z Z Z Z
sin x cos x sin 2x cos x
dx = dx = dx = − =
0 x+1 0 2x + 2 2 0 x+2 2 x+2 (x + 2)2
1 1 1 4+π A
= + −A = −
2 π+2 2 4(π + 2) 2
Exercise 28.
Z √ Z √
dx 2 a + bx 2 a + bx
√ = +
x a + bx bx b x2
Z √ 2 Z 2
3/2 3/2
2√ √
3b (a + bx) 3b (a + bx)
Z
a + bx a 2 a b
= + = a + bx +b + a + bx +
x x x2 3b x 3b x2 x
√
√
Z Z
a + bx dx
=⇒ =a √ + 2 a + bx
x x a + bx
83
Exercise 29.
Exercise 30.
Exercise 31.
Z √ Z √ r √ Z
dx ax + b n2 ax + b ax + b 2 ax + b 2n ax + b
√ = 2 n
+ n+1
= n
+ √ =
n
x ax + b ax ax ax + b ax a x n+1 ax + b
√ Z Z
2 ax + b 1 2nb 1
= n
+ 2n √ + √
ax n
x ax + b a x n+1 ax + b
√
b 2n
Z Z
dx 2 ax + b a
=⇒ (1 − 2n) √ − = √
xn ax + b axn xn+1 ax + b
√
− ax + b (2n − 3)a
Z Z
1 1
√ = − √
xn ax + b (n − 1)bxn−1 (2n − 2)b xn−1 ax + b
Exercise 32. I derived the formulas for this and Exercise 33 by doing the following trick.
(C m+1 S 1−n )0 = (m + 1)C m (−S 2−n ) + C m+2 (1 − n)S −n = −(m + 1)C m S 2−n + (1 − n)C m S −n (1 − S 2 ) =
= −(m + 1 + 1 − n)C m S 2−n + (1 − n)C m S −n = −(m − n + 2)C m S 2−n + (1 − n)C m S −n
−(C m+1 S 1−n ) (m − n + 2)
Z Z
=⇒ C m S −n = − C m S 2−n
n−1 n−1
Exercise 33.
(C m−1 S 1−n )0 = (m − 1)C m−2 (−S 2−n ) + (1 − n)C m S −n
= −(m − 1)C m−2 (S −n )(1 − C 2 ) + (1 − n)C m S −n =
= −(m − 1)C m−2 S −n + (m − 1)C m S −n + (1 − n)C m S −n
Z Z
m−2 −n
C m−1 1−n
S = −(m − 1) C S + (m − n) C m S −n
Since we didn’t specify what Q has to be, we find that, in general, any Q is P plus some “amount” of the homoge-
neous solution, ke3x .
(2) If Q(x) is a given polynomial, and suppose P is a polynomial solution to P 0 (x) − 3P (x) = Q(x). Suppose R is
another polynomial solution such that R0 (x) − 3R(x) = Q(x). Then just like above, P − R = ke3x . If we wanted
polynomial answers of finite terms, then k must be zero. Thus, there’s at most only one polynomial solution P .
(4) Pn (x + 1)− = Pn (x) = nxn−1 is true for n = 1, 2, by quick inspection (and doing some algebra mentally).
Z Z
0 0
Pn+1 = (n + 1)Pn =⇒ Pn+1 = (n + 1) Pn
Z x+1 Z x
Pn+1 (x + 1) − Pn+1 (x) = Pn+1 (a1 ) + (n + 1) Pn (t) − (Pn+1 (a2 ) + (n + 1) Pn (t))
a1 a2
a1 = 1; a2 = 0; so Pn+1 (1) − Pn+1 (0) = 0 (from previous problems)
Z x+1 Z x
Pn+1 (x + 1) − Pn+1 (x) = (n + 1)( Pn (t) − Pn (t)) =
1 0
=⇒ Z x Z x
= (n + 1) Pn (t + 1) − Pn (t) = (n + 1) ntn−1 = (n + 1)xn
0 0
(5)
k 0 k
Pn+1 Pn+1 (k) − Pn+1 (0)
Z Z
Pn = =
0 0 n + 1 n+1
Pn (x + 1) − Pn (x) = nxn−1
Pn (x + 1) − Pn (x)
= xn−1
n
k−1
X Pn+1 (x + 1) − Pn+1 (x) k−1
X k−1
X Pn+1 (r + 1) − Pn+1 (r)
= xn = =
x=1
n+1 x=1 r=1
n+1
=⇒
k−1
X Pn+1 (k) − Pn+1 (0)
= rn = (telescoping series and Pn+1 (1) = Pn+1 (0) )
r=1
n+1
(6) This part was fairly tricky. A horrible clue was that this part will rely directly on the last part (because of the way
Px−1 Rx
this question is asked), which gave us j=1 j n = 0 Pn (t)dt = Pn+1 (x)−P n+1
n+1 (0)
.
Use induction. It can be easily verified, plugging in, that Pn (1 − x) = (−1)n Pn (x) is true for n = 0 . . . 5.
Assume the nth case is true.
Z x Z 1−x Z 1−x
Pn (t)dt = −Pn (1 − u)du = − Pn (u)(−1)n du
0 1 1
(since Pn (1 − x) = (−1)n Pn (x), assumed nth case is true)
u=1−t Z 1−x
du = −dt = (−1) n+1
Pn (t)dt =
1
Z 1 Z 1−x
= (−1)n+1
Pn (t)dt (since Pn = 0 )
0 0
Pn+1 (1 − x) − Pn+1 (0) Pn+1 (x) − Pn+1 (0)
=⇒= (−1)n+1 =
n+1 n+1
=⇒ Pn+1 (1 − x) = (−1)n+1 Pn+1 (x)
In the second to last and last step, we had used (−1)n+1 Pn+1 (0) = Pn+1 (0). For n + 1 even, this is definitely true.
If n + 1 was odd,
Doing some algebra for the first five cases, we can show that P2j−1 (0) = 0 for j = 2, 3. Assume the jth case is
86
P2j−1
true. Since P2j−1 is a polynomial and P2j−1 (0) = 0, then the form of P2j−1 must be P2j−1 = k=1 ak xj . Using
0
Pn+1 = (n + 1)Pn ,
Z x 2j−1
XZ x 2j−1 x
k
X 1 k+1
P2j (x) − P2j (0) = 2j P2j−1 = 2j ak t = 2j ak t =
0 0 k+1 0
k=1 k=1
2j−1 2j k
X ak k+1 ak−1 x
X
= 2j x = 2j + P2j (0)
k+1 k
k=1 k=2
2j+1
!
Z x X 2jak−2 xk
X ak−1 k
P2j+1 (x) − P2j+1 (0) = (2j + 1) (2j) t + P2j (0) = (2j + 1) + (2j + 1)P2j (0)x
0 k k(k − 1)
k=2 k=3
|f 0 (0)| + |f 0 (a)| ≤ ma
6.9 Exercises - Introduction, Motivation for the definition of the natural logarithm as an integral, The definition
of the logarithm. Basic properties; The graph of the natural logarithm; Consequences of the functional equation
L(ab) = L(a) + L(b); Logarithm referred to any positive base b 6= 1; Differentiation and integration formulas involv-
ing logarithms;Logarithmic differentiation.
Exercise 1.
(1)
x x
log x = c + (ln |t|)|e = c + ln |x| − 1 =⇒ ln =c−1
|x|
c=1
(2)
1+a 1+b (1 + a)(1 + b) 1+x
f (x) = ln + ln = ln = ln
1−a 1−b (1 − a)(1 − b) 1−x
1+x (1 + a)(1 + b) 1 + a + b + ab
=⇒ = =
1−x (1 − a)(1 − b) 1 − b − a + ab
a+b
x=
1 + ab
Exercise 2.
ln x2 + ln 2−x = 0 = ln 1 = ln x2 2−x =⇒ x = 2
√ √
(4) log ( x + x + 1) = 1
√ √ √
x+1=e− x =⇒ x + 1 = e2 − 2 xe + x
2 2
√ e −1
2 xe = e2 − 1 =⇒ x =
2e
Exercise 3.
ln x
f=
x
1 − ln x f 0 < 0 when x > e f 0 > 0 when 0 < x < e
f0 =
x2
1 2 for x3 > 0, 2 ln x − 3 > 0 =⇒ f 00 (x) < 0 (concave), when 0 < x < e3/2 ;
x x − 2x ln x
−2 2 ln x − 3
00
f = 3 − = f 00 (x) > 0 (convex), when x > e3/2
x x4 x3
1 √ √ √ √
f = √ (ln ( a + x b) − ln ( a − x b))
2 ab
√
√ √ √
1 1 −x b
f 0 = f rac12 ab √ √ b− √ √ (− b) = √
a+x b a−x b a(a − bx2 )
f 0 = sin (ln x) − cos (ln x) + (cos (ln x) + sin (ln x)) = 2 sin (ln x)
log 2 xdx
R
Exercise 17.
x log2 xdx
R
Exercise 19.
0
x2 ln2 x
2 2 1
= x ln x + x ln x
2 x
2 2
x ln x x ln x x2
2
Z
=⇒ x log2 x = − −
2 2 4
R e2 −1 dt
Exercise 20. 0 1+t
Z e3 −1
dt e3 −1
= ln (1 + t)|0 =3
0 1+t
R
Exercise 21. cot xdx
Z
cos x
dx = ln | sin x|
sin x
xn log (ax)dx Solve the problem directly.
R
Exercise 22.
89
xn+1
Z Z Z Z
xn log ax = xn log a + xn log x = log a + xn log x
n+1
n+1 Z n+1 n+1
xn+1
Z
x x 1 x
xn ln x = ln x − = log x −
n+1 n+1x n+1 (n + 1)2
n+1 n+1
xn+1
Z
x x
=⇒ xn log ax = log a + log x −
n+1 n+1 (n + 1)2
x2 log2 xdx
R
Exercise 23.
1−e2 1−e−2
ln (1 − t)
Z
1 2
dt = − (ln (1 − t)) = −2
0 1−t 2 0
√log |x|
R
Exercise 26. dx
x 1+log |x|
(1)
1
f0 = 1 −
x xg 0 = f 0
1 1 1
g0 = − 2 = f 0
x x x
so then if f 0 > 0, g 0 > 0; f 0 < 0, g0 < 0
For f 0 < 0 0<x<1 f0 > 0 x>1 f 0 (1) = g 0 (1) = 0
f (1) = g(1) = 0
x − 1 − ln x > 0 since f (1) = 0 is a rel. min.
1
0 < ln x − 1 + since g(0) is a rel. min.
x
(2) See sketch.
log (1+x)
Exercise 29. limx→0 x =1
Rx
(1) L(x) = 1 1t dt ; L0 (x) = x1 ; L0 (1) = 1
(2) Use this theorem.
90
Theorem 19 (Theorem I.31).
If 3 real numbers a, x, and y satisfy the inequalities
y
a≤x≤a+
n
∀ n ≥ 1, n ∈ Z, then x = a
1 1
1− < ln x < x − 1 =⇒ 1 − < ln x + 1 < x
x x+1
x ln x + 1 ln (1 + x)
1− < <1 =⇒ =1
1+x x x
p p
r= =⇒ f (ap/q ) = f ((a1/q )p ) = pf (a1/q ) = f (a)
q q
since
f (a) = f (a); f (a2 ) = f (aa) = 2f (a) If f (a) = f ((a1/q )q) = qf (a1/q )
1
f (ap+1 ) = f (ap ) + f (a) = (p + 1)f (a) then f (a1/q ) = f (a)
q
R |x| 1
Exercise 31. ln x = 1 t dt
R |x| 1
(1) ln x = 1 t dt From this definition, then for n partitions, a0 = 1, a1 = 1 + b−1
n , . . . , an = b = x
b−a b−1
so if ak = 1 + k b−1
n = n ; n
n n
X ak − ak−1 X ak − ak−1
< log x <
ak ak−1
k=1 k=1
1
(2) log x is greater than the step function integral consisting of rectangular strips within x and less than rectangular strips
covering over x1
(3) ak = 1 + k =⇒ aka−a k−1
k−1
= k1
n n n+1 n
X 1 X 1 X1 X 1
< ln (n + 1) < =⇒ < ln (n + 1) <
1+k k k k
k=1 k=1 k=2 k=1
n n−1
X 1 X1
=⇒ < ln (n) <
k k
k=2 k=1
Exercise 32.
1
(1) L(x) = ln b ln x = logb x
loga x = c logb x =⇒ loga a = 1 (There must be a unique real number s.t. L(a) = 1 )
1
loga x = logb x =⇒ logb x = logb a loga x
logb a
loga x
(2) Changing labels for a, b: logb x = loga b
loge e 1 1
log10 e = =⇒ loge 10 = = ' 0.43429
loge 10 log10 e 2.302585
R xy Rx
Exercise 34. Given x
f (t)dt = B(y) f (2) = 2, , We Want A(x) = 1
f (t)dt
91
Z xy
f (t)dt = B(xy) − B(x)
x
Z xy
d d dB(xy) dB(x)
f (t)dt = (B(xy) − B(x)) = y− = f (xy)y − f (x) = 0
dx x dx d(xy) dx
f (x)
=⇒ f (xy) =
y
Z x Z x Z x
t f (2)
A(x) = f (t)dt = f ((2) )dt = dt = 4 ln x
1 1 2 1 (t/2)
R xy Rx Ry
Exercise 35. Given 1
f (t)dt = y 1
f (t)dt + x 1
f (t)dt, and letting F be the antiderivative of f ,
=⇒ k − 3 = ky − 3y − kxy + kx + 3xy − 3x
y(3 − k) + xy(k − 3) + k − 3 + (3 − k)x = 0 =⇒ k = 3
=⇒ f (x) = 3 ln x + 3
Exercise 36.
Exercise 1.
1 3 1 5 1 7 1 9
!
4/3 1 3 3 3 3
ln = ln 2 ' 2 + + + + ' 0.693146047
2/3 3 3 5 7 9
1
The error for m = 5, x = 3 is
1 11
11
5 13
3
≤ R5 (x) ≤
11 2 11
1+x
Exercise 2. ln 1−x = ln 32 = ln 3 − ln 2
92
1
x=
5
m=5
1 (1/5)3 (1/5)7 (1/5)9
1+x
ln =2 + + + = 0.405465104
1−x 5 3 7 9
11
(1/5)11 9 15
' 0.000000002 < R5 (x) ≤ ' 0.000000004
11 4 11
log 3 ' 1.098611
=⇒
1.098611666 < log 3 < 1.098612438
1+ 19
1 10
= ln 54 = ln 5 − 2 ln 2
Exercise 3. x = 9 ln 1− 19
= ln 8
For m = 2
1 5 1 5
!
1 9 9
2 + + = 0.2231435
9 3 5
1 7 17 1 7
9 9 9
' 0.00000003 < R3 (x) ≤ 8' 0.000000063
7 7 9
1.609437 < log 5 < 1.609438
1+ 16
1 7
Exercise 4. x = 6 ln 1− 16
= ln 5 = ln 7 − ln 5.
For m = 3,
1 3 1 5
!
1+x 1 6 6
ln '2 + + = 0.336471193
1−x 6 3 5
1
2(3)+1
6
= 0.00000051
2(3) + 1
The error bounds are
1 2(3)+1
2 − 16
6
= 0.000001123
2(3) + 1 1 − 16
1.945908703 < ln 7 < 1.945910316
Exercise 5.
0.6931460 < ln 2 < 0.6931476
ln 7 = 1.945909
ln 3 = 1.098614
ln 8 = 3 ln 2 = 2.0794404
ln 4 = 1.386293
ln 9 = 2 ln 3 = 2.197228
ln 5 = 1.609436 ln 6 = ln 2 + ln 3 = 1.791700
ln 10 = ln 5 + ln 2 = 1.302577
6.17 Exercises - The exponential function, Exponentials expressed as powers of e, The definition of ex for arbitrary
real x, The definition of ax for a > 0 and x real, Differentiation and integration formulas involving exponentials.
Exercise 1. f 0 = 3e3x−1
2
Exercise 2. 8xe4x
2
Exercise 3. −2xe−x
√
1 x
Exercise 4. √
2 x
e
−1 −1/x
Exercise 5. x2 e
Exercise 6. ln 22x
2
Exercise 7. (2x ln 2)2x
93
Exercise 8. cos xesin x
2
Exercise 9. −2 cos x sin xecos x
1 log x
Exercise 10. xe
x
Exercise 11. ex ee
ex x
Exercise 12. ee (ex ee )
xex dx = xex − ex
R
Exercise 13.
x2 ex = x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex
R
Exercise 15.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
x x √1 e x x
(2 x) − 2e x = 2( xe x − e x )
R R
Exercise 17. e =e (2 x) − x
=e
2
x3 e−x .
R
Exercise 18.
2 2 2
x2 e−x = −2x3 e−x + 2xe−x
2 2
e−x = −2xe−x
2 2
1 2 −x2 2 1 2 2 2
x2 e−x + e−x
(x e + e−x )0 = 2xe−x + −2x3 e−x + −2xe−x =
−2 −2 −2
Rb
Exercise 19. ex = b + a
et dt = b + ex − ea , ea = b.
Exercise 20.
Z
A= eax cos bxdx
Z
B= eax sin bxdx
eax b sin bxeax eax
Z
b
A= cos bx − − = cos bx + B =⇒ aA + bB = eax cos bx + C
a a a a
eax
Z ax
e ax
B= sin bx − b cos bx =⇒ aB + bA = e sin bx + C
a a
1
A= 2 (aeax cos bx + beax sin bx)
a + b2
−beax cos bx + aeax sin bx
B=
a 2 + b2
Exercise 21.
f0
ln f = x ln x; = ln x + 1; f 0 = xx (ln x + 1)
f
Exercise 22.
f0 1 1 x2 2 2
ln = + x2 (2xe ), f 0 = 1 + ex + 2(1 + x)xex
f 1+x 1+e
ex −e−x
Exercise 23. f = ex +e−x .
94
ln f = ln (ex − e−x ) − ln (ex + e−x )
f0 1 1
= x −x
(ex + e−x ) − x (ex − e−x )
f e −e e + e−x
2
e − e−x
x
f0 = 1 −
ex + e−x
a a x
Exercise 24. f 0 = (xa )0 + (ax )0 + (aa )0 .
a a x
f1 = xa f2 = ax f3 = a a
ln f1 = aa ln x ln f2 = xa ln a ln f3 = ax ln a
f10 aa f20 f30
= = axa−1 ln a = (ln a)2 ax
f1 x f2 f3
a a x
f10 = xa −1 a
a f20 = ax +1 a−1
x ln a f30 = (ln a)2 ax+a
a a x
=⇒ f 0 = xa −1 a
a + ax +1 a−1
x ln a + (ln a)2 ax+a
Exercise 25.
ef = ln (ln x);
0 f 1 1
fe =
ln x x
0 1 1 1
f =
ln (ln x) ln x x
√
Exercise 26. ef = ex + 1 + e2x
e2x
(ef )f 0 = ex + √
1 + e2x
√ x 2x
2x
1+e e +e ex
f0 = √ √ =√
1 + e2x (ex + 1 + e2x ) 1 + e2x
Exercise 27. ln f = xx ln x
f0 xx
= (xx )0 ln x + = (xx (ln x + 1)) ln x + xx−1
f x
x xx
f 0 = xx+x (ln x + 1) ln x + xx +x−1
f0 1 ln x
= ln (ln x) + −2
f ln x x
x
0 (ln x) 1 2 ln x
f = ln x ln ln x + −
x ln x x
Exercise 31.
95
ln f1 = cos x ln sin x ln f2 = sin x ln cos x
f10 2
cos x f20 − sin2 x
= − sin x ln sin x + = cos x ln cos x +
f1 sin x f2 cos x
3
cos x ln sin x sin3 x ln cos x
f10 = − sin x cos x(ln sin x)2 + f20 = sin x cos x(ln cos x)2 −
sin x cos x
3 3
cos x ln sin x − sin x ln cos x
=⇒ f = sin x cos x(−(ln sin x)2 + (ln cos x)2 ) + +
sin x cos x
1
Exercise 32. ln f = x ln x
f0 −1
f = x2 ln x + 1
x2 =⇒ f 0 = −x1/x−2 ln x + x1/x−2
1 −2
Exercise 33. ln f = 2 ln x + 3 ln (3 − x) − ln (1 − x) + 3 ln (3 + x)
f0 2 −1 −1 2 1
= + − −
f x 3(3 − x) 1 − x 3 3 + x
x(3 − x)1/3 x (3 − x)−2/3
2
x2 (3 − x)1/3 2 x2 (3 − x)1/3
0 1
f =2 + − + −
(1 − x)(3 + x)2/3 3 (1 − x)(3 + x)2/3 (1 − x)2 (3 + x)2/3 3 (1 − x)(3 + x)5/3
4 2 2 3
x(18 − 12x + 3 x + 3 x )
=
(1 − x)2 (3 + x)5/3 (3 − x)2/3
Pn
Exercise 34. ln f = i=1 bi ln (x − ai )
n n n
f0 X bi
0
X bj Y
= =⇒ f = (x − ai )bi
f i=1
x − ai j=1
x − aj i=1
Exercise 35.
Taking the exponential is a well-defined inverse function to log so taking the log of both sides of the definition, we
get log ax = x log a
(2) (ab)x = ax bx
log y
log y = x log a =⇒ x = = loga y
log a
Exercise 37. Let f (x) = 1 x
2 (a + a−x ) if a > 0.
1
f (x + y) = (ax+y + a−(x+y) )
2
1 x+y
f (x + y) + f (x − y) = a + a−(x+y) + ax−y + a−(x−y)
2
1 x 1 x+y
f (x)f (y) = (a + a )(a + a−y ) =
−x y
a + a−x−y + a−(x−y) + a(x−y)
4 4
Exercise 38.
f = Kekx
Exercise 40. Let f be a function defined everywhere on the real axis. Suppose also that f satisfies the functional equation
Exercise 12.
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 1 + 2 sinh2 x
6.22 Exercises - Derivatives of inverse functions, Inverses of the trigonometric functions.
Exercise 1.
p 1
(cos x)0 = − sin x = − 1 − cos2 x D arccos x = √ −1<x<1
− 1 − x2
Exercise 2.
sin2 x + cos2 x
(tan x)0 = sec2 x = = tan2 x + 1
cos2 x
1
D arctan x =
1 + x2
Exercise 3.
(sin2 x + cos2 x) 1
(cot x)0 = − csc2 x = − = −(1 + cot2 x) =⇒ arccotx = −
sin2 x 1 + x2
Exercise 4.
p
(sec y)0 = tan y sec y = sec2 y − 1 sec y; | sec y| > 1 ∀y ∈ R
If we choose to restrict y such that 0 ≤ y ≤ π, then (sec y)0 > 0. Then we must make sec y → | sec y|.
Darcsecx = √1
|x| x2 −1
Exercise 5.
p
(csc y)0 = − cot x csc x = − csc y( csc2 y − 1)
−π π
Let y such that < y < (csc y) < 0
2 2
1
Darccscx = √
−|x| x2 − 1
Exercise 6.
x
(xarccotx)0 = arccotx −
1 + x2
0
1 1x
ln (1 + x2 ) =
2 (1 + x2 )
Z
1
arccotx = xarccotx + ln (1 + x2 ) + C
2
Exercise 7.
x
(xarcsecx)0 = arcsecx + √
|x| x2 − 1
1+ √ x
√ x2 −1 x>1
0 |x+ x2 −1|
x p x
2
ln |x + x − 1| = = √
|x| x |x| x2 − 1
−1+ √x2 −1
− |x+√x2 −1| x < −1
Z
x p
=⇒ arcsecxdx = xarcsecx − log |x + x2 − 1| + C
|x|
99
2j+1 √
Take a note of this exercise. When dealing with (∓x2 ± 1) 2 ; j ∈ Z; try x ± x2 ± 1 combinations. It’ll work out.
Exercise 8.
x
(xarccscx)0 = arccscx + √
−|x| x2 − 1
0 1 x
1 + = √x12 −1 x>1
x p √ √
2 x2 −1
ln |x + x2 − 1| = x+−1x −1
|x| √ 2 x < −1
x −1
Z
x p
=⇒ arccscx = xarccscx + ln |x + x2 − 1|
|x|
Exercise 9.
2x arcsin x
(x(arcsin x)2 )0 = (arcsin x)2 + √
1 − x2
p 0 −x
1 − x2 arcsin x = √ arcsin x + 1
1 − x2
Z p
(arcsin x)2 = x(arcsin x)2 + 2 1 − x2 arcsin x − 2x
Exercise 10.
0
− arcsin x1 1
2
arcsin x − √
=
x x x 1 − x2
I would note how x is in the denominator of the second term. Again, reiterating,
p −x
( 1 − x2 ) 0 = √
1 − x2
p p
(y ± ±1 ∓ x2 )(y ∓ ±1 ∓ x2 ) = y 2 − (±1 ∓ x2 )
Multiply by its “conjugate.” As we see, choose y appropriately to get the desired denominator (that’s achieved after differen-
tiation). Here, pick y = 1.
√ √
−x(1 − 1 − x2 ) −(1 − 1 − x2 )
p
0 1 −x
2
(ln (1 + 1 − x )) = √ √ = √ = √
1 + 1 − x2 1 − x2 1 − x2 (x2 ) x 1 − x2
1 − √1 − x2 arcsin x
Z
arcsin x
=⇒ = ln − +C
x2 x x
Exercise 11.
(1)
1 −1 1 −1
D arccotx − arctan = 2 − =0
x x +1 1+ 1 2 x2
x
Exercise 13.
−1 −1 1
f0 = r √ =√
2 2 1 + 2x − x2
1 − 1−x
√
2
Exercise 22.
p 1 1
f 0 = (arccos 1 − x2 )0 = p =−
− 1 − (1 − x2 ) |x|
Exercise 23.
0 1 2 2 2 1
f = 2 = = =
(1 − x)2 (1 − x)2 + (1 + x)2 (1 − 2x + x2 + 1 + 2x + x2 ) 1 + x2
1+x
1+ 1−x
4x(arccos x2 )−3
0 2 −3 −1
f = −2(arccos x ) √ (2x) = √
1 − x2 1 − x4
Exercise 25.
101
!
0 1 −1 −1 1
f = q = √
arccos √1x 1− 1 2x3/2 2 arccos √1
x
x3 − x2
x
dy x+y
Exercise 26. dx = x−y .
0
y0 x − y
y 0 1 1 1 1
arctan = 2 = ln (x2 + y 2 ) = (2x + 2yy 0 )
x 1 + xy x2 2 2 (x + y 2 )
2
x+y
=⇒ y 0 =
x−y
Exercise 27.
1
ln y = ln (arcsin x) − ln (1 − x2 )
2
y0
1 1 1 1 1 x
= √ − 2
(−2x) = √ +
y arcsin x 1−x 2 21−x arcsin x 1 − x 2 1 − x2
arcsin x
y=√
1 − x2
√
1 − x2 + x(arcsin x)
0 1 (arcsin x)x
y = 2
+ 2 3/2
=
1−x (1 − x ) (1 − x2 )3/2
p 3
ln y 0 = ln ( 1 − x2 + x arcsin x) − ln (1 − x2 )
2
y 00
1 −x x 3 (−2x)
0
=√ √ + arcsin x + √ −
y 2
1 − x + x arcsin x 1−x 2 1−x 2 2 1 − x2
√
arcsin x y 0 3x arcsin x ( 1 − x2 + x arcsin x)(3x)
y 00 = y 0 √ + 2
= 2 3/2
+
1 − x + x arcsin x 1 − x
2 (1 − x ) (1 − x2 )3/2
Exercise 28.
1 1 − 1 − x2 + x4 x4
f0 = − 1 + x 2
= = ≥ 0 ∀x
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
x3
since f (0) = arctan 0 − 0 + 0 = 0, arctan x > x − , ∀x > 0
3
Exercise 29.
Z
dx x
√ , a 6= 0 =⇒ arcsin
a2−x 2 a
Exercise 30.
Z Z
dx dx x+1
p
2 − (x + 1)2
=
√
r 2 = arcsin √2
2 1 − x+1
√
2
Exercise 31.
Z
dx 1 x
= arctan
x 2 a a
a2 1+ a
Exercise 32.
√
dx 1 bx
√ 2 = √ arctan √
ba a
a(1 + √ba
a
)
Exercise 33.
1
2 x−
Z Z
dx 4 dx 2 2
= = √ arctan √
1 2
2
7 7
x− 2 + 4 √2 x − 21
+1 7 7
7
102
Exercise 34.
0
x2 arctan x x2 1
1 1
= x arctan x + 2
= x arctan x + 1−
2 2 1+x 2 1 + x2
0
1 1 1
(x − arctan x) = 1−
2 2 1 + x2
Z
1
x arctan x = x arctan x + − (x − arctan x)
2
Exercise 35.
0
x3 x3 −1
arccos x = x2 arccos x + √
3 3 1 − x2
p p x3
(x2 1 − x2 )0 = 2x 1 − x2 + − √
1 − x2
3
((1 − x2 )3/2 )0 = (−2x)(1 − x2 )1/2 = −3x(1 − x2 )1/2
2
x3
Z
1 p 9
x2 arccos x = arccos x − x2 1 − x2 − (1 − x2 )3/2
3 3 2
Exercise 36.
0
x2 (arctan x)2
2 2 1 2 1
= x(arctan x) + x arctan x = x(arctan x) + 1 − arctan x
2 1 + x2 1 + x2
0
(arctan x)2
arctan x
=
2 1 + x2
x
(x arctan x)0 = arctan x +
1 + x2
x2 (arctan x)2 ln (1 + x2 ) (arctan x)2
Z
x(arctan x)2 dx = − x arctan x − +
2 2 2
Exercise 37.
√
1 10
(arctan x) = √
1+x 2 x
√
√ 0 √ √
x 1 1 1
(x arctan x) = arctan x + = arctan x + √ −√
2(1 + x) 2 x x(1 + x)
√ √ 1/2 0
√
(x arctan x + arctan x + −x ) = arctan x + 0
√ √ √
Z
arctan x = x arctan x + arctan x − x1/2
Exercise 40.
103
xearctan x
Z
(1 + x2 )3/2
0
earctan x −xearctan x earctan x
√ = +
1 + x2 (1 + x2 )3/2 (1 + x2 )3/2
arctan x 0 arctan x
xe e x2 earctan x xearctan x earctan x xearctan x
√ =√ +− + = +
1 + x2 1 + x2 (1 + x2 )3/2 (1 + x2 )3/2 (1 + x2 )3/2 (1 + x2 )3/2
arctan x 0
earctan x xearctan x
1 xe
√ −√ =
2 1 + x2 1 + x2 (1 + x2 )3/2
xearctan x earctan x
1
√ +√ +C
2 1+x 2 1 + x2
Exercise 42.
0
x(1 + x2 )−1 x2
1
Since − = 2 2
−
2 (1 + x ) 2(1 + x2 )
x2 −x
Z
1
dx = + arctan x
(1 + x2 )2 2(1 + x2 ) 2
Exercise 44.
arccotex
Z
dx
ex
−ex
(arccotex )0 =
1 + e3x
e−x (−1)ex e2x
−x x 0 −x x −x x
− (e arccote ) = e arccote + = e arccote + − 1 −
1 + e2x 1 + e2x
2e2x
(ln (1 + e2x ))0 =
1 + e2x
1
(−e−x arccotex + x − ln (1 + e2x ))0 = e−x arccotex
2
Exercise 45.
Z r Z Z
a+x a+x q 1a x dx = a arcsin x + − a2 − x2
p
dx = √ dx = +√
a−x a2 − x2 2 a2 − x2 a
1 − xa
Exercise 46.
104
√ √
Z Z p
x − a b − xdx = bx − ab − x2 + axdx =
Z s
a2 + b2
a+b a+b 2ab
= − x− x− + − =
2 2 4 4
v
s 2 2 Z u !2
x − a+b
a−b a−b
Z
a+b u
2
= − x− = t 1− a−b
dx =
2 2 2 2
2 Z p
a−b
= 1 − u2 =
2
2 arcsin 2x−(a+b)
a−b a−b 2x − (a + b) p
= + (a − b)2 − (2x − (a + b))2
2 2 2(a − b)2
Since, recall,
0 √
1 − x2
arcsin x 1 p 1 1 1 x(−2x) p
+ x 1 − x2 = √ + + √ = 1 − x2
2 2 2 1 − x2 2 4 1 − x2
Z
dx
Exercise 47. Wow! p
(x − a)(b − x)
x − a = (b − a) sin2 u
dx = (b − a)(2) sin u cos udu
b − x = (a − b) sin2 u + b − a = (b − a)(cos2 u)
r
(b − a)(2) sin u cos udu x−a
Z Z
dx
p = √ √ = 2u = 2 arcsin
(x − a)(b − x) b − a cos u b − a sin u b−a
6.25 Exercises - Integration by partial fractions, Integrals which can be transformed into integrals of rational func-
tions. R 1 1
2x+3
R
Exercise 1. (x−2)(x+5) = x−2 + x+5 = ln (x − 2) + ln (x + 5)
xdx
R
Exercise 2. (x+1)(x+2)(x+3)
A B C
+ + = A(x2 + 5x + 6) + B(x2 + 4x + 3) + C(x2 + 3x + 2)
x+1 x+2 x+3
1 1 1 A 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 −1/2
=⇒ 5 4 3 B = 1 =⇒ 5 4 3 1 = 1 0 2
6 3 2 C 0 6 3 2 0 0 1 −3/2
A = −1/2, B = 2, C = −3/2
−1 −3
=⇒ ln (x + 1) + 2 ln (x + 2) + ln (x + 3)
2 2
x 2 −1
R R
Exercise 3. (x−2)(x−1) = x−2 + x−1 = 2 ln x − 2 − ln (x − 1)
x4 +2x−6
R
Exercise 4. x3 +x2 −2x dx
105
x4 + 2x − 6 3(x2 − 2)
3 2
=x−1+ 3 (do long division)
x + x − 2x x + x2 − 2x
3(x2 − 2) x2 − 2
Z Z
1
x−1+ = x2 − x + 3
x(x + 2)(x − 1) 2 x(x + 2)(x − 1)
2
x −2 −1/3
Z Z
1 1/3 1 1
= + + = ln x + ln x + 2 − ln x − 1
x(x + 2)(x − 1) x x+2 x−1 3 3
1 2
=⇒ x − x + 3 ln x + ln x + 2 − ln x − 1
2
8x3 +7
R
Exercise 5. (x+1)(2x+1)3 dx
8x3 + 7 A B C D
3
= 3
+ 2
+ +
(x + 1)(2x + 1) (2x + 1) (2x + 1) (2x + 1) (x + 1)
8x3 + 7 = A(x + 1) + B(2x2 + 3x + 1) + (4x3 + 8x2 + 5x + 1)C + D(8x3 + 12x2 + 6x + 1)
0 0 4 8 A 8 1 0 0 0 12
0 2 8 12 B 0 1 0 0 −6
=⇒ 1 3 5 6 C = 0 =⇒
|
1 0 0
1 1 1 1 D 7 0 1 1
A = 12, B = −6, C = 0, D = 1
−6 −6(2x + 1)−2 6(2x + 1)−1
Z
12 1
+ + = + + ln (x + 1)
(2x + 1)3 (2x + 1)2 x+1 2 2
4x2 +x+1
R
Exercise 6. (x−1)(x2 +x+1)
4x2 + x + 1 A Bx + C
2
= + 2 =⇒ A(x2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 1) = 4x2 + x + 1
(x − 1)(x + x + 1) x−1 x +x+1
1 1 A 4
=⇒ 1 −1 1 B = 1 =⇒ A = 2, B = 2, C = 1
1 0 −1 C 1
Z
2 2x + 1
=⇒ + = 2 ln |x − 1| + ln |x2 + x + 1|
x − 1 x2 + x + 1
x4 dx
R
Exercise 7. x4 +5x2 +4
x4 5x2 +4
Doing the long division, x4 +5x2 +4 =1+− (x2 +1)(x2 +4)
Ax + B Cx + D 5x2 + 4
2
+ 2 = 2
x +1 x +4 (x + 1)(x2 + 4)
It could be seen that A + C = 0, 4A + C = 0 so A = C = 0
−1
B+D =5 B=
3
4B + D = 4 16
D=
3
2
−1/3
Z Z
5x + 4 16/3 1
=⇒ 1 − 2 =x− + = x + arctan x + 4/3 arctan x/2 + C
(x + 1)(x2 + 4) x2 + 1 x2 + 4 3
x+2 1 2 1 1
R R R
Exercise 8. x(x+1) dx = x+1 + x(x+1) = ln |x + 1| + 2 x − x+1 = − ln |x + 1| + 2 ln x
dx A Bx+C Dx+E
R R
Exercise 9. x(x2 +1)2 = x + (x2 +1) + (x2 +1)2
106
A(x4 + 2x2 + 1) + x(Bx + C)(x2 + 1) + Dx2 + Ex A(x4 + 2x2 + 1) + Bx4 + Cx3 + Bx2 + Cx + Dx2 + Ex
=
x(x2 + 1)2 x(x2 + 1)2
=⇒ A = 1; B = −1; D = −1; C = 0; E = 0
−x −x ln |x2 + 1| (x2 + 1)−1
Z
1
+ 2 + 2 = ln x + − +
x x + 1 (x + 1)2 2 2
dx
R
Exercise 10. (x+1)(x+2)2 (x+3)3
x
R
Exercise 11. (x+1)2 dx
x A B x = A(x + 1) + B
= + =⇒
(x + 1)2 x + 1 (x + 1)2 A = 1; B = −1
Z
1 −1 1
+ 2
dx = ln x + 1 + +C
x + 1 (x + 1) x+1
dx dx
= A B C
R R R
Exercise 12. x(x2 −1) = x(x−1)(x+1) x + x−1 x+1
1
A(x2 − 1) + Bx(x + 1) + Cx(x − 1) = Ax2 − A + Bx2 + Bx + Cx2 − Cx =⇒ A = −1, B = = C
2
−1
Z
1/2 1/2 1 1
+ + = − ln x + ln |x − 1| + ln |x + 1|
x x−1 x+1 2 2
2
x2 dx
Exercise 13. x2x+x−6
dx
R R
= (x+3)(x−2)
The easiest way to approach this problem is to notice that this is an improper fraction and to do long division:
x2 6−x
x2 +x−6 = 1 + x2 +x−6
−x = (A + B)x − 2A + 3B
6 = A(x − 2) + B(x + 3) 2A = 3B
A B
+ =⇒ −6 6
x+3 x−2 A= ; B= 3B B = −2/5
5 5 A= =⇒
2 A − 3/5
−6/5 −3/5 −2/5 −9
Z
6/5 4
=⇒ 1+ + + + = ln |x + 3| + ln |x − 2| + x + C
x+3 x−2 x+3 x−2 5 5
x+2 x−2+4 4
= ln |x − 2| + −4(x − 2)−1
R R R
Exercise 14. (x−2)2 = (x−2)2 = ln |x − 2| + (x−2)2
dx
R
Exercise 15. (x−2)2 (x2 −4x+5)
A B
Consider the denominator with its x2 −4x+5. Usually, we would try a partial fraction form such as x−2 + (x−2)2 + x2Cx+D
−4x+5 ,
but the algebra will get messy. Instead, it helps to be clever here.
1 1 1 1
= = −
(x − 2)2 (x2 − 4x + 4 + 1) (x − 2)2 ((x − 2)2 + 1) (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2 + 1
Z Z
dx 1 1
=⇒ = − = −(x − 2)−1 − arctan (x − 2) + C
(x − 2)2 (x2 − 4x + 5) (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2 + 1
R (x−3)dx R (x−3)dx
Exercise 16. x3 +3x2 +2x = x(x+2)(x+1)
(x − 3)dx
Z Z Z
1 1
= + −3
x(x + 2)(x + 1) (x + 2)(x + 1) x(x + 2)(x + 1)
1 −1 1
= +
(x + 2)(x + 1) x+2 x+1
1 A B C
= + +
x(x + 2)(x + 1) x x+2 x+1
107
Now to solve for A, B, C in the last expression, it is useful to use Gaussian elimination for this system of three linear
equations:
1 1 1 A 0
3 1 2 B = 0
2 0 0 C 1
1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1/2
3 1 2 0 = 0 0 1 −1
2 1 1 0 0 1/2
1 1/2 1/2 −1
=⇒ = + +
x(x + 2)(x + 1) x x+2 x+1
=⇒ − ln |x + 2| + ln |x + 1| + −3/2 ln x + −3/2 ln |x + 2| + 3 ln |x + 1| = −5/2 ln |x + 2| + 4 ln |x + 1| − 3/2 ln x
1
R
Exercise 17. Use partial fraction method to integrate (x2 −1)2 . Then build the sum.
A B C D
+ + +
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)2 (x − 1) (x + 1)
(x2 − 1)(x − 1) = x3 − x2 − x + 1
Now
(x2 − 1)(x + 1) = x3 + x2 − x − 1
=⇒ (x2 − 1)(x + 1) − (x2 − 1)(x − 1) = 2x2 − 2
x2 + 2x + 1
x2 − 2x + 1
=⇒ (summing the above two expressions we obtain) 2x2 + 2
−1 1/4 1/4 1/4
+ + +
x − 1 x + 1 (x − 1)2 (x + 1)2
Z
dx 1 x + 1 1 x
= ln +−
(x2 − 1)2 4 x − 1 2 x2 − 1
Exercise 18. Use the method of partial fractions, where we find that
− 32 x − 31 2
Z Z Z
(x + 1) x+1 3
dx = dx = + =
x3 − 1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) x2 + x + 1 x − 1
1 2
= − ln |x2 + x + 1| + ln |x − 1|
3 3
where we had used the following partial fraction decomposition for the given integrand
Ax + B C x+1
+ = 3
x2 + x + 1 x − 1 x −1
Ax2 + Bx − Ax − B + Cx2 + Cx + C = x + 1
2Ax + B − A + 2Cx + C = 1 (where we used the trick to take the derivative of the above equation)
=⇒ A = −C B−A−A=1
2 2 1
−B + C = 1; A= ,C= B=−
−3 3 2
x4 +1
R
Exercise 19. x(x2 +1)2
Exercise 21.
1 − x3 x3 − 1 x2
Z Z Z Z
1
=− = − + =
x(x2 + 1) x(x2 + 1) x2 + 1 x(x2 + 1)
Z Z
1 1 −x
=− 1− 2 + + =
x +1 x x2 + 1
= −x + arctan x + ln x − ln |x2 + 1| + C
Exercise 22.
Z Z Z
dx 1 1 1/2 1/2
4
= 2 2
= 2
− 2 =
x −1 x +1 x −1 x −1 x +1
Z
1 1/2 1/2 1/2
= − − 2 =
2 x−1 x+1 x +1
1 1 1
= ln (x − 1) − ln (x + 1) − arctan x + C
4 4 2
Z
dx
Exercise 23.
x4 + 1
To do the complex algebra for the desired Gaussian elimination procedure, I treated the complex numbers as vectors and
added them and rotated them when multiplied.
109
1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 -
41
& - . % 0 2- 2 % 0 2- 2 % - ↑
= = = 4 =
↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 14 %
. % & - 1 0 0 2& 2 - 1 0 4 - 1 0 1 14 .
1
1 -
41
1 &
=
41
1 %
4
1 14 .
1 i3π
e( A= )
4 4
1 i3π
B = − e( ) 1/4e( i3π −1/4e(i 3π 1/4e(i π4 ) −1/4e(i π4 )
4 ) 4 )
Z
=⇒ 4 4 =⇒ + + +
π
1 π 3π
x + e(i 4 ) 3π
x − e(i 4 ) x + e(i 4 ) x − e(i π4 )
C = e(i )
4 4
−1 π
D= e(i )
4 4
1 3π 3π 3π 3π π π π π
e(i ) ln (x + e(i )) − e(i ) ln (x − e(i )) + e(i ) ln (x + e(i )) − e(i ) ln (x − e(i ))
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
After doing some complex algebra,
x2 + √2x + 1
!
1 1 1
=⇒ √ ln √ − 2 arctan √ − 2 arctan √
4 2 x2 − 2x + 1 2x − 1 2x + 1
The computation could be done to do the derivative on this, so to check our answer and reobtain the integrand.
Is there a way to solve this without complex numbers?
x2 dx
R
Exercise 24. (x2 +2x+2)2
x2 dx x2 + 2x + 2 − 2x − 2
Z Z Z
1
= = + (x2 + 2x + 2)−1
(x2 + 2x + 2)2 (x2 + 2x + 2)2 x2 + 2x + 2
Z Z
1 1
= = arctan (x + 1)
x2 + 2x + 2 (x + 1)2 + 1
x2 dx
Z
1
= arctan (x + 1) + 2 +C
(x2 + 2x + 2)2 x + 2x + 2
4x5 −1
R
Exercise 25. (x5 +x+1)2 dx
4x5 − 1
Z
=⇒ dx = −x(x5 + x + 1)−2
(x5 + x + 1)2
dx
R
Exercise 26. 2 sin x−cos x+5 (good example of the use of half angle substitution )
1
sec2 x2 dx
Z Z Z
dx dx C2
= 1 = =
2 sin x + − cos x + 5 4SC + −C 2 + S 2 + 5 C2
4T − 1 + T 2 + 5(1 + T 2 )
x
u = tan
sec2 x2 dx sec2 x2 dx
Z Z Z
2du 2
= = = (where x )
6T 2 + 4T + 4 6(T + 31 )2 + 10
6(u + 13 )2 + 10 sec2 2
3 3 du = dx
2
3(tan x2 + 13 )
Z
3 du 1
= 9(u+ 31 )2
= √ arctan √
5 +1 5 5
5
110
x
u = tan
R dx 2
Exercise 27. (0 < a < 1) Again, using the half-angle substitution, x ,
1+a cos x sec2 2
du = dx
2
sec2 x2 dx
Z Z Z
1 dx 1 dx 1
1 = 1 2 2
= 1 2 x 2
=
a a + cos x a a +C −S a a sec 2 + 1 − T
sec2 x2 dx
Z Z Z
1 1 2du 2 du
= 1 = = 2 =
+ 1 + T 2 ( a1 − 1) 1 2 1 −1
a a a +1+u
1+a
q
a 1−a
a 1 + u 1+a
q
1−a !
2 arctan 1+a u 2
r
1−a x
q ==⇒ √ arctan tan
1+a 1−a 1 − a2 1+a 2
1+a
dx
R
Exercise 28. 1+a cos x Half-angle substitution.
sec2 x2 dx
Z Z Z
dx dx
= = =
1 + a cos x 1 + a(C 2 − S 2 ) sec2 x2 + a(1 − T 2 )
u = tan θ/2 = T Z Z Z
2du du 2 du
=⇒ = = 2 = a+1 =
2 1 2 2 2
du = sec θ/2 dθ 1 + T + a(1 − T ) (1 − a)T + (1 + a) 1−a 2
u − a−1
2
Z
2 1 1 q1
= q − q =
1−a u − a−1 a+1 a+1
u + a−1 2 a−1 a+1
r r r !
a−1 1 a+1 a+1
= ln (u − ) − ln (u + ) =
a+1 1−a a−1 a−1
q
x a+1
−1 tan 2 − a−1
= √ ln q
a2 − 1 tan x + a+1 2 a−1
sin2 x
R
Exercise 29. 1+sin2 x
dx
s2
Z 2
s +1−1
Z Z
dx
dx = dx = x + −
1+s 2 1+s 2
1 + sin2 x
sec2 xdx
Z Z Z Z Z Z
dx dx 2dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
= = = = = 2 =
1 + sin2 x 1 + 1−cos 2x
1 − cos32x
2 2
1 − c −s
3 − cos 2x sec2 x − 1−T
2
3 3 3
3 3
Z Z Z
u = tan x 2 du 2 du du
=⇒ = = 2 = √ =
3 2
1+u − 1−u2 3 + 43 u2 1 + ( 2u)2
du = sec2 xdx 3 3
1 √
= √ arctan 2 tan x
2
Z
sin2 x 1 √
=⇒ dx = x − √ arctan ( 2 tan x)
1 + sin2 x 2
It seems like for here, when dealing with squares of trig. functions, “step up” to double angle.
dx
R
Exercise 30. a2 sin2 x+b 2 cos2 x (ab 6= 0) Take note, we need not change the angle to half-angle or double-angle.
111
1 1 1 1 sec2 sec2
= 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 =
a2 s2 2
+b c 2 2 2
a (1 − c ) + b c2 2 2
a + (b − a )c2 2
a (1 + (kc) ) 2 2
a (sec +k ) a (1 + T 2 + k 2 )
√
1/a2 du 1 + k2
u = tan x du u
=⇒ = = u2
= arctan √
a2 (1 + u2 + k 2 ) (1 + k 2 )(1 + 1+k 2)
a2 (1 + k 2 ) 1 + k2
du = sec2 xdx
Z
dx 1 a tan x
=⇒ = arctan
a2 sin2 x + b2 cos2 x ab b
dx
R
Exercise 31. (a sin x+b cos x)2 (a 6= 0)
Note it’s a good idea to simplify, cleverly, your constants as much as you can.
Z Z
dx 1 dx
2
= 2
(a sin x + b cos x) a (sin x + k cos x)2
Thus, only one constant, k, is only worried about.
1 1 1/c2 sec2
2
= 2 2 2
= 2 2
= =
(s + kc) s + 2ksc + k c t + 2kt + k (t + k)2
u = tan x du
=⇒ =
(u + k)2
du = sec2 xdx
−1
Z
1 1
=⇒ = 2
a2 (s + ab c)2 (a tan x + ab)
Again, note, we need not always step up or step down a half angle in the substitution.
θ
Exercise 32. Note that we have a rational expression consisting of single powers of sin and cos. Then use the tan 2 substitution.
Z Z Z Z
sin x 2CS CS T
= = =
1 + cos x + sin x 1 + 2CS + C 2 − S 2 C(S + C) (T + 1)
u = tan θ/2
C = cos x/2
where 2
S = sin x/2 du = sec θ/2dθ
Z Z 2
u 2du 2udu
=
(u + 1) u2 + 1 (u2 + 1)(u + 1)
A Bu + C
+ 2
u+1 u +1
Au + A + Bu2 + Cu + Bu + C = u
2
1 1 1
A = −B C + B = 1 A + C = 0 =⇒ C = ; B = ; A = −
2 2 2
Z 1
−1/2 (u + 1) −1
Z
u + 1
2 + 2 2 du = +
u+1 u +1 u + 1 u2 + 1
1
= − ln |u + 1| + ln |u2 + 1| + arctan u =
2
1 x
= − ln | tan x/2 + 1| + ln | sec2 x/2| +
2 2
1 π 1 π
=⇒ − (ln |2|) + ln |2| + = − ln |2| +
2 4 2 4
R√
Exercise 33. 3 − x2 dx
112
−x2 + 3 − 3
Z Z Z Z p Z
p p x(−x) p p 1
(x)0 3 − x2 dx = x 3 − x2 − √ = x 3 − x2 − √ = x 3 − x2 − 3 − x2 + 3 √
3−x 2 3−x 2 3 − x2
Z p p √ Z
1
=⇒ 2 3 − x2 = x 3 − x2 + 3 r 2
1 − √x3
Z p
xp 3 x
=⇒ 3 − x2 = 3 − x2 + arcsin √
2 2 3
√ 1 = −(3 − x2 )1/2 + C.
R
Exercise 34.
3−x2
dx
0
x 1 −1 1
arccos √ =√ q = −√
3 3 1− x 2 3 − x2
3
p 0 p −x2
x 3 − x2 = 3 − x2 + √
3 − x2
√
x 3 − x2 3 x
+ − arccos √
2 2 3
√ Rq
3−x2 3
R
Exercise 35. x dx = x2 − 1dx.
√
3
= sec θ
√ x
3 cos θ = x
√
dx = − sin θ 3
Z p √ Z √ √ Z
2
sec θ − 1(− sin θ) 3 = tan θ sin θ(− 3) = − 3 (sec θ − cos θ) =
√ √
= − 3 ln | sec θ + tan θ| + 3 sin θ =
√
√ 3 r3 √ r x2
= − 3 ln + − 1 + 3 1 −
x x 2 3
Rq
Exercise 36. 1 + x1 dx
r !0 r r
1 1 x −1 1 −1/2
x 1+= 1+ + q = 1+ + √
x x 2 1+ 1 x x x2 + x
x
0
x + 21
1 p 2 1 1
ln x + + x + x = 1
√ 1+ √ =√
2 x+ 2 + x +x2 2
x +x 2
x +x
Z r
1 1 1 1 p
=⇒ 1+ dx = x 1 + + ln x + + x2 + x
x x 2 2
Exercise 37.
p p x2
(x x2 + 6)0 = x2 + 5 + √
x2 + 5
p
0 1 x 1
2
(ln (x + x + b)) = √ 1+ √ =√
2
x+ x +b 2
x +b 2
x +b
Z p
1 p p
x2 + 5 = x x2 + 5 + 5 ln (x + x2 + 5)
2
Exercise 38.
113
0
x + 12
1 p 2 1 1
ln (x + + x + x + 1) = √ 1 + √ =√
2 x + 12 + x2 + x + 1 x2 + x + 1 x2 + x + 1
x + 12 − 21
Z Z
x 1 1 p
√ = √ = (x2 + x + 1)1/2 − ln (x + + x2 + x + 1)
2
x +x+1 2
x +x+1 2 2
The trick is to note how I formed a “conjugate-able” sum from x2 + x + 1’s derivative.
Exercise 39.
Z Z Z
dx dx 2dx
√ = q = q
x2 + x x+ 1 2
− 1
2 x + 21
2
−1
2 4
p 0
ln (2(x + 1/2))2 − 1 + 2(x + 1/2) =
!
1 2(x + 1/2)2
=p 2+ p =
(2(x + 1/2))2 − 1 + 2(x + 1/2) (2(x + 1/2))2 − 1
2
=p
(2(x + 1/2))2 − 1
Z
dx 1 p
2−1 +C
q = ln 2 x + + (2(x + 1/2))
2 2
x + 12 − 14
Exercise 40.
Z x
log t
f (x) =
1 t+1
Z 1 Z x
1 x log t − ln (u) −1
f = dt = 1 du =
x 1 t+1 1 u +1
u2
1
Z x
ln (u) u=
= du t
1 u+u
2 1
du = − 2 dt
t
Z x Z x x
1 t ln t + ln t ln t (ln t)2 (ln x)2
f (x) + f = dt = dt = =
x 1 t(t + 1) 1 t 2 1 2
1 1
f (2) + f = (ln 2)2
2 2
Exercise 2. Take the derivative of both sides, using the (first) fundamental theorem of calculus.
sin x sin x
2f f 0 = f (x) ; =⇒ 2f 0 =
2 + cos x 2 + cos x
At this point, it could be very easy to evaluate the integral by guessing at the solution.
sin x ln |2 + cos x|
(− ln 2 + cos x)0 = =⇒ f = − +C
2 + cos x 2
114
Otherwise, remember that for rational expressions involving single powers of sin and cos, we can make a u = tan θ/2
substitution.
x
u = tan
2 C = cos x/2, S = sin x/2
2 x
2du = sec dx
Z Z 2 Z
sin x 2SCdx 2T 2du
dx = = =
2 + cos x 2 + C2 − S2 2 sec2 x/2 + 1 − T 2 sec2 x/2
Z Z
udu T T
=4 2 2
=2 2
− 2
(1 + u )(3 + u ) T +1 T +3
2
1 2 1 2 T +1 2
=2 ln T + 1 − ln T + 3 = ln = ln
2 2 T2 + 3 4 + 2 cos x
x sin2 x2 1 − cos x
where tan2 = =
2 cos2 x2 1 + cos x
Exercise 3.
ex ex (x − 1) ex (x − 1)
Z Z Z
dx = ex − xdx = ex − dx . . .
x x2 x
No way.
R π/2 3/2
Exercise 4. 0
ln (ecos x )dx = − cos x|0 = 1.
Exercise 5.
(1)
√
f = 4x + 2x(x + 1)(x + 2)
1 4(x + 2) 1
ln f = ln = (ln (4x + 2) − ln x − ln (x + 1) − ln (x + 2))
2 x(x + 1)(x + 2) 2
f0
1 4 1 1 1 7
= − − − f 0 (1) = −
f 2 4x + 2 x x+1 x+2 12
s
1 4x + 2 4 1 1 1
=⇒ f 0 = − − −
2 x(x + 1)(x + 2) 4x + 2 x x+1 x+2
(2)
Z 4 Z 4
4x + 2 (2x + 1)
π dx = 2π dx =
1 x(x + 2)(x + 1) 1 x(x + 2)(x + 1)
4
1 3 25
= 2π ln x + − ln |x + 2| + ln |x + 1| = πln
2 2 1 8
since we can find the antiderivative through partial fractions:
A B C 2x + 1
+ + =
x x+2 x+1 x(x + 2)(x + 1)
A(x2 + 3x + 2) + B(x2 + x) + C(x2 + 2x) = 2x + 1
1 1 1 A 0 0 1 0 −3/2
3 1 2 B = 2 =⇒ 0 0 1 1
2 0 0 C 1 1 0 0 1/2
Exercise 6.
115
(1)
Z x
1
Z x
et if x > 0
log x = dt F (x) = dt; t
1 t 1 t e > 1 for t > 0
If 0 < x < 1
x Z 1 Z 1 t
−1
Z
1 e
log x = dt = dt > − = F (x)
1 t x t x t
(1)
ex = F (x) − F (0); F (x) = ex + F (0) =⇒ F (0) = 1 + F (0)
0 6= 1. False.
(2)
Z x2
d 2
f (t)dt = f (x2 )(2x) = −(2x) ln 2ex ln 2
f (x) = − ln 2ex ln 2
dx 0
Z x2 x2 2
− ln 2eln 2 dt = − et ln 2 0 = −ex ln 2 + 1
0
(3)
x
f (x) = 2f (x)f 0 (x); =⇒ f (x) = + C
2
Z x 2 x
x2
1 t
t + c dt = + ct = + cx
0 2 4 0 4
x2
f 2 (x) − 1 = + Cx + C 2 − 1
4
x
=⇒ C = ±1, f (x) = + ±1
2
Exercise 8.
(1)
f (x + h) − f (x) f (x)f (h) − f (x) f (x)(hg(h))
= = = f (x)g(h)
h h h
0
g(h) → 1 as h → 0 so =⇒ f (x) = f (x)
116
(2) Since for f (x) = ex , we defined ex such that f 0 = f , if
(ex + g)0 = ex + g 0 = ex + g
=⇒ ex + g = Cex =⇒ g = (C − 1)ex but f 0 (0) = 1 so g = ex
Exercise 9.
(1)
g(2x) = 2ex g(x)
g(3x) = ex g(2x) + e2x g(x) = ex 2ex g + e2x g = 3e2x g
(2)
Assume g(nx) = ne(n−1)x g
g((n + 1)x) = ex g(nx) + e(n+1)x g(x) = nenx g(x) + enx g = (n + 1)enx g
(3) From g(x + y) = ey g(x) + ex g(y),
g(0) = g(0) + g(0) =⇒ g(0) = 0
Exercise 10.
Exercise 11.
f0 g0
(ln (f g))0 = + =⇒ (f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0
f g
0 0
f f0 g0 f 0 g − g0 f f
ln = − =⇒ 2
=
g f g g g
R1 et
Exercise 12. A = 0 t+1
dt
(1)
a
e−t
Z
dt
a−1 t − a − 1
0 Z 0 t−a Z 1 t
e−t−a
Z
e −a e
u=t−a =⇒ dt = − dt = −e = −e−a A
−1 t−1 1 −t − 1 0 t + 1
R1te t2 R1 1
2 due
u 1
(2) 0 t2 +1
dt = 0 u+1 = A
2
R1 et −et
1 −e1R1 −et
(3) 0 (t+1)2
dt = (t+1) − +1+A
0 t+1
=
0 2
R1 t et
(4) 0 e ln (1 + t)dt = et ln (1 + t) − 1+t
R
= e ln 2 − A
Exercise 13.
117
(1) p(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 ; f (x) = ex p(x) p0 = c1 + 2c2 x p00 = 2C2
0 x 0
f =f +e p
n
X n x n! n!
f (n) (x) = e (p(x))j = f + ex (c1 + 2c2 x) + + ex (2c2 )
j=0
j (n − 1)! (n − 2)!2!
So for m = 3, then f (n) (0) = a0 + na1 + n(n − 1)a2 + n(n − 1)(n − 2)a3
Exercise 15.
n n Z 1 Z 1X n
X n 1 X n n k+m
(−1)k = (−1)k tk+m dt = (−1)k t dt =
k k+m+1 k 0 0 k
k=0 k=0 k=0
Z 1 n Z 1
m
X n k
= t (−t) dt = tm (1 − t)n dt =
0 k 0
k=0
Z 0 Z 1
m n
=− (1 − u) u du = (1 − u)m un du =
1 0
Z 1 m Z 1
X m j n
X
j m
= 6m (−u) u du = (−1) tj+n dt
0 j=0
j j=0
j 0
u1 − t
du = −dt
Rx
Exercise 16. F (x) = 0
f (t)dt
(1) (R x
x
(2t)2 dt = 43 x3 if t, x ≥ 0
Z
2
F (x) = (t + |t|) = R0x
0 0
0dt = 0 if t, x < 0
(2) (R x
x
(1 − t2 )dt if |t| ≤ 1
Z
F (x) = f (t)dt = R0x =
0 0
(1 − |t|)dt if |t| > 1
1 3 x x3
(t − 3Rt 0 = x − 3
if |x| ≤ 1
2 x x2 1
3 + 1R (1 − t)dt = x − 2 + 6
= if x > 1
−2
x x2 1
if |x| ≥ 1
3 + −1 (1 + t)dt = x + 2 − 6 if x < 1
118
(3) f (t) = e−|t|
Z x Z x
F (x) = f (t)dt = e−|t| dt =
0 0
(R x 0
e−t dt = e−t |x = 1 − e−x if x ≥ 0
= R0x x
0
et dt = et |0 = ex − 1 if x < 0
2
(4) f (t) = max. of 1 and t
R x
Z x 0 1dt
=x if |x| ≤ 1
Rx 2
F (x) = f (t)dt = 1 + 1 t dt if x > 1 =
0 Rx
− 0 f if x < −1
x
if |x| ≤ 1
x 3
= 1 + 13 t3 1 = x3 + 32 if x > 1
−1 0 1 3 x x3
2
− x t2 + − −1 1 =
R R
3 t −1 −1= + if x > 1
3 3
Ra
πf 2 = π f 2 = a2 + a.
R
Exercise 17. 0
0 r
x2 + x
2x + 1
=
π π
Z a
2x + 1 a
= x2 + x 0 = a2 + a
for
0 π
(1)
p
ec = ex + e2x + 1
√
ec − e−c ex + e2x + 1 − ex +√1e2x +1
= =
2 √ 2
e2x + 2ex e2x + 1 + e2x + 1 − 1 3
= √ = ex =
2(ex + e2x + 1) 4
x = ln 3 − 2 ln 2
119
(2)
√
ec − e−c ex − e2x − 1 − ex −√1e2x −1
= =
2 √ 2
e2x − 2ex e2x − 1 + e2x − 1 − 1
= √
2(ex − e2x − 1)
ex −1 1 3
= √ = ex − c =
+ ex − e2x − 1 e 4
=⇒ x = ln 5 − 2 ln 2
Exercise 20.
log3 5 log2 5
= = log2 5
log2 3 (log2 3)2
=⇒ 1 = log2 3 False
(3) Use induction
√
n = 1 1−1/2 < 2 1
1 √
n = 21 + √ < 2 2
2
n+1 n
X X 1
k −1/2 = k −1/2 + p <
k=1 k=1
(n + 1)
n + 1 case p !
√ (n + 1) 1
<2 n p +p
(n + 1) (n + 1)
Now (n + 21 )2 = n2 + n + 1
2 > n2 + n, certainly. So then
1 p 2 p
n+ > n + n =⇒ n + 1 > n2 + n
2
n+1
X √
=⇒ k −1/2 < 2 n + 1
k=1
(4)
ex + e−x − ex + e−x
f = (cosh x − sinh x − 1) = − 1 = e−x − 1 < 0 for x > 0
2
False.
π
Exercise 21. For 0 < x < 2,
π
(sin x)0 = cos x > 0 for 0 < x <
2
π
(x − sin x)0 = 1 − cos x ≥ 0 for 0 < x <
2
(x − sin x)(x = 0) = 0 =⇒ sin x < x
Exercise 22.
1 1 x+1
< if 0 < x < t < x + 1
t t t
Z x+1 Z x+1
1 x+1 1 x+1 1
dt = ln (x + 1) − ln x; = So ln <
x t x t x x x
Exercise 23.
120
(x − sin x)0 = 1 − cos x ≥ 0 ∀x > 0
since (x − sin x)(x = 0) = 0; (x − sin x)0 (x = 0) = 0, then x − sin x > 0 in general for x > 0
x3 0 x2
(sin x − x − ) = cos x − 1 + > 0 ∀x > 0
6 2
x3
=⇒ x − < sin x < x
6
Exercise 24. (xb + y b )1/b < (xa + y a )1/a if x > 0, y > 0 and 0 < a < b
y n 1/n
(xn + y n )1/n = x(1 + x ) . Without loss of generality, assume x < y.
Exercise 25.
(1)
Z x x
e−t t = −te−t − e−t 0 = −xe−x − e−x + 1
0
(2)
Z t x
Z Z
t2 e−t dt = −t2 e−t 0 − −e−t (2t)dt = −x2 e−x + 2 te−t dt =
0
= −x2 e−x + −2xe−x − 2e−x + 2
(3)
Z x Z x Z x
3 −t x
−t3 e−t 0 2 −t 3 −x
t2 e−t dt =
t e dt = −3
t (−e )dt = −x e + 3
0 0 0
x2
3 −x −x x
= −x e + 3(2)(e ) e − 1 − x −
2!
(4) Assume the induction hypothesis, that
x n
xj
Z X
tn e−t dt = n!e−x ex −
0 j=0
j!
x n
xj
Z Z
x X
tn+1 e−t dt = −tn+1 e−t 0 − (n + 1)t(−e−t ) = −xn+1 e−x + (n + 1)n!e−x ex −
0 j=0
j!
n+1
X xj
= (n + 1)!e−x ex −
j=0
j!
Exercise 26. Consider the hint a1 sin x + b cos x = A(a sin x + b cos x) + B(a cos x − b sin x). Solve for A, B in terms of
121
a1 , b1 , a, b. Matching up term by term the coefficients for sin and cos separately,
Aa2 − abB = aa1 −Aab + Bb2 = −a1 b
Ab2 + Bab = b1 b Aab + Ba2 = ab1
aa1 + bb1 ab1 − a1 b
A= B=
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
So if not both a, b = 0 ,
A(a sin x + b cos x) + B(a cos x − b sin x)
Z Z
a1 sin x + b1 cos x
= =
a sin x + b cos x a sin x + b cos x
= Ax + B ln |a sin x + b cos x| + C
Exercise 27.
(1)
1
f 0 (x2 ) =
x
df
= u−1/2
du
f (x2 ) = 2x − 1
(2)
1 x2 1
f 0 (sin2 x) = 1 − sin2 x f 0 (u) = 1 − u f = u − u2 + C =⇒ f (x) = x − +
2 2 2
(3)
1 x3 1
f 0 (sin X) = (1 − sin2 x) f (u) = u − u3 + C f (x) = x − +
3 3 3
(4)
( (
1 for x ≤ 1 1 for 0 < x ≤ 1
f 0 (ln x) = = ln x
x for x > 1 e x>1
(
y for y < 0
f (y) = y
e − 1 for y > 0
Exercise 28.
(1)
xZ
dt
Li(x) = if x ≥ 2
ln t
Z x 2 Z x
x 1 −1 x dt 2
Li(x) = −2 − 2
dt = + 2
−
ln x ln 2 2 (ln x) ln x 2 (ln x) ln 2
(2)
Z x 2
x 2 2 x −2 −2 X 2(j − 1)!
Li(x) = − − + − dt C2 = +−
ln x ln x (ln 2)2 (ln x)2 a (ln t)3 ln x j=2
(ln 2)j
n−1 Z x n
x X k!x x −(n + 1)dt 1 X 2(j − 1)!
Li(x) = + + n! − Cn = −2 −
ln x
k=1
lnk+1 x lnn+1 x 2 lnn+2 t ln 2 j=2 (ln 2)j
n Z x
x X k!x dt 1
n+1
X 2(j − 1)!
Li(x) = + k+1
+ (n + 1)! (n+1)+1 Cn+1 = −2 −
ln x ln x 2 ln t ln 2 j=2 (ln 2)j
k=1
122
(3)
u = ln t
Z x
dt 1
Li(x) = du = dt
2 ln t t
eu du = dt eu = t
ln x
et dt
Z
Li(x) =
ln 2 t
(4)
1
c=1+ ln 2
2
x−1 Z x−1 2u
e2(u+1) du
Z
e
= e2 du =
c−1 u c−1 u
Z 2(x−1)
t = u + 1 =⇒ 1 3 et
= e2 t dt =
2 2(c−1)
3 2
= e2 Li(e2(x−1) )
(5)
f (x) = e4 Li(e2(x−2) ) −e2 Li(e2(x−1) )
e2x e2x
0 2x 1
Z x 2t
e
Z x
e 2t =⇒ f (x) = + − = e
= − t−2 t−1 t2 − 3t + 2
c t − 2 c (t − 1)
Exercise 29. f (x) = log |x| if x < 0. ∀x < 0 ∃ uniquely ln |x| since f 0 = 1
x < 0 ∀x < 0.
Then
(1) −g is strictly increasing on [c, d]
(2) −g is continuous on [c, d]
Rx
Exercise 30. f (x) = 0
(1 + t3 )−1/2 dt if x ≥ 0.
(1)
1
f 0 (x) = √ > 0 for x > 0
1 + x3
(2)
1 p 3x2
g 0 (x) = = 1 + x 3 g 00 (x) = √
f 0 (x) 2 1 + x3
7.4 Exercises - Introduction, The Taylor polynomials generated by a function, Calculus of Taylor polynomials. Use
the following theorems for the following exercises.
Theorem 22 (Properties of Taylor polynomials, Apostol Vol. 1. Theorem 7.2.). (1) Linearity Tn (c1 f +c2 g) = c1 Tn (f )+
c2 Tn (g)
(2) Differentiation (Tn f )0 R= Tn−1 (f 0 )
x
(3) Integration. If g(x) = a f (t)dt
Rx
Tn+1 g(x) = a Tn f (t)dt
Theorem 23 ( Substitution Property, Apostol Vol. 1. Theorem 7.3. ). Let g(x) = f (cx), c is a constant.
(12) Tn g(x; a) = Tn f (cx; ca)
This theorem is useful for finding new Taylor polynomials without having to find the jth derivatives of the desired function.
123
Theorem 24. Pn is a polynomial of degree n ≥ 1.
Let f, g be 2 functions with derivatives of order n at 0.
(13) f (x) = Pn (x) + xn g(x)
where g(x) 7→ 0 as x 7→ 0.
Then Pn = Tn (f, x = 0).
Exercise 3.
n
X f (j) (a)
Tn f (x) = (x − a)j
j=0
j!
x x ln a
a =e
x 0
(a ) = (ax ) ln a
(ax )(n+1) = (ax (ln a)n )0 = ax (ln a)n+1
n
X (ln a)j
Tn (ax ) = xj
j=0
j!
Exercise 4.
0 00
(−1)2 2
1 −1 1
= 2
; =
1+x (1 + x) 1+x (1 + x)3
(n+1) 0
(−1)n n! (−1)n+1 (n + 1)!
1
= =
1+x (1 + x)n+1 (1 + x)n+2
X n
1
Tn = (−1)j xj
1+x j=0
Exercise 5. Use Theorem 7.4. . Theorem 7.4 says for f (x) = Pn (x) + xn g(x), Pn (x) is the Taylor polynomial.
n 2 n+1 n
1 X
(x2 )j + (x ) X
2j xn xn+2
= = x +
1 − x2 j=0
1 − x2 j=0
1 − x2
n
x X
2j+1 (x2n+3 )
= x +
1 − x2 j=0
1 − x2
n
x X
T2n+1 = x2j+1
1 − x2 j=0
Exercise 6.
n n n
xj+1 xj
1 1 X X X
(ln (1 + x))0 = Tn = (−x)j Tn (ln 1 + x) = (−1)j = (−1)j+1
1+x 1+x j=0 j=0
j + 1 j=1 j
Exercise 7.
r !0 r r
1+x 1−x 1−x 1 1 1
log = 2
= =
1−x 1 + x 1 + x (1 − x) (1 + x)(1 − x) 1 − x2
r n n r !
x2j+1
Z Z X
1 1+x 2j
X 1+x
= log so x = = T2n+1 ln
1 − x2 1−x j=0 j=0
2j + 1 1−x
Exercise 8.
!
n n
1 X 1 j X xj
1 1/2 1 1
Tn = Tn = Tn 1
= ( x) =
2−x 1 − x/2 2 1− 2 x 2 j=0 2 j=0
2j+1
7.8 Exercises - Taylor’s formula with remainder, Estimates for the error in Taylor’s formula, Other forms of the
remainder in Taylor’s formula. We will use Theorem 7.7, which we learn in the preceding sections, extensively.
Theorem 25. If for j = 1, . . . , n + 1, m ≤ f (j) (t) ≤< ∀t ∈ I, I containing a,
(x − a)n+1 (x − a)n+1
(14) m ≤ En (x) ≤ M if x > a
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
n+1
(a − x) (a − x)n+1
(15) m ≤ (−1)n+1 En (x) ≤ M if x < a
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
Z x
1
(16) En (x) = (x − t)n f (n+1) (t)dt
n! a
(x)2n+1 (−x)2n+1
En (x) ≤ if x > 0; (−1)2n+1 E2n (x) ≤ (+1)
(2n + 1)! (2n + 1)!
|x|2n+1
=⇒ E2n (x)| ≤
(2n + 1)!
Exercise 2.
n
X (−1)k x2k
cos x = + E2n+1 (x) | cos(j) (x)| ≤ 1
(2k)!
k=0
2n+2
x (−x)2n+2
E2n+1 (x) ≤ ; (−1)2n+2 E2n+1 (x) ≤ (1)
(2n + 2)! (2n + 2)
2n+2
|x|
=⇒ |E2n+1 (x)| ≤
(2n + 2)!
Exercise 3.
n−1
X (−1)k x2k+1
arctan x = + E2n (x)
2k + 1
k=0
n−1 k 2k+1 n−1
(−1)k (2k)!x2k+1
X (−1) x (2k)! X
= =⇒ f (2k+1) (0) = (−1)k (2k)!
2k + 1 (2k)! (2k + 1)!
k=0 k=0
f (2n+1) (0)x2n+1 (−1)n (2n)!x2n+1 (−1)n x2n+1 x2n+1
= = ≤
(2n + 1)! (2n + 1)! 2n + 1 2n + 1
Note how jth derivative (arctan x)(j) changes sign with each differentiation for f (2j+1) (0). Then we can always pick a
small enough closed interval with a = 0 as a left or right end point to make the f (2j+1) (0) value the biggest for f (2j+1) (t).
125
Exercise 4.
(1)
x3 x3 x √ √
x2 = sin x = x − =⇒ + x2 − x = x − −3 + 15 x − (−3 − 15)
6 6 6
√
x = 15 − 3
(2)
r 3
r5
Z
1 r 3 1
E4 (r; 0) = (r − t)4 cos tdt > 0 sin r − r2 = 0 + E4 (r) ≤ < = = 4
<
4! 0 5! 5! 5(2)(5)(4)(3)(2)1 (5)(4)(2)5 200
Exercise 5.
r3
arctan r − r2 = r − − r2 + E4 (r; 0) = 0 + E4 (r; 0)
3
1 r M (r5 ) r5
Z
7
E4 (r, 0) = (x − t)4 f (5) (t)dt ≤ = 0.065536 <
4! 0 5! 5! 100
1 1 Z 1
1 + x30 x30 − x60 1 − x30
Z Z
30
dx = 1+ dx = 1 + x dx =
0 1 + x60 0 1 + x60 0 1 + x60
1
1 31 c
=1+c x =1+
31 0 31
R 1/2 1
Exercise 7. 0 1+x4 dx.
∞ n−1
1 X
4 j
X
= (−x ) = (−x4 )j + En = 1 + −x4 + x8 . . .
1 + x4 j=0 j=0
16 x4n+1 1
≤ En (x; 0) ≤ (x4 )n+1
17 (n + 1)! (n + 1)!
Z 1/2 1 4n+5
2 1
=⇒ En =
0 (n + 1)! 4n + 5
Z 1/2 5
1 1 −1 1
' +
0 1 + x4 2 5 2
0.493852 < 0.49375 < 0.493858
Exercise 8.
(1)
1 x3
0≤x≤ sin x = x − + E4 (x)
2 3!
5
M |x|5 sin 13 |x|5 1 12
|E4 (x)| ≤ = ≤
5! 5! 5!
126
(2)
x6
sin x2 = x2 − + E4 (x2 )
6
√
2 √2/2
1 3 x7 √
Z
2
2 1 1
sin x = x − = 2 −
0 3 42 0 12 42(16)
√
2
E4 (x2 ) ≤
64(5!)
Z √22 √
55 1
sin x2 ≤ 2 + = 0.1159
0 672 64(5!)
Exercise 9.
x3 x5 (1)x7
sin x = x −
+ E6 (x; 0) ≤
6 5! 7!
sin x x2 x4 E6 (x; 0) x2 x4 x6
=1− + + ≤1− + +
x 6 5! x 6 5! 7!
Z 1
sin x 1 1 1 1 1
dx = 1 − + + = 0.9461 + = 0.9461 + 0.0000283
0 x 3 6 5(5!) 7(7!) 7(7!)
(1)
(tan A + tan B) 2 tan α 2/5
tan (A + B) = ; A = B = α; tan 2α = = = 5/12
1 − tan A tan B 1 − tan2 α 24/25
2(tan 2α) 2(5/12) 10/12 120 π
tan 4α = 2 = 2
= = A = 4α, B = −
1 − tan (2α) 1 − (5/12) 119/144 119 4
π 120 119
π tan 4α + tan − 4 +− 1
tan (4α − ) = tan β = = 119 120 119 =
4 1 − tan 4α tan − π4 1 − 119 (−1) 239
1 π 1
4 arctan = + arctan This is incredible.
5 4 239
(2)
6−1
X (−1)k x2k+1
T11 (arctan x) = + E2(6) (x)
2k + 1 x2(6)+1
k=0 ; |E2(6) (x)| ≤
2(6) + 1
−x3 x5 x7 x9 x11
=x+ + − + − ...
3 5 7 9 11
1
=⇒ 3.158328957 < 16 arctan < 3.158328958
5
(3)
1
T3 (arctan x); x =
239
1
−0.016736304 < −4 arctan < −0.016736304
239
(4)
3.141592625
3.158328972 − 0.016736300 = 3.141592672
7.11 Exercises - Further remarks on the error in Taylor’s formula. The o-notation; Applications to indeterminate
forms.
Exercise 1.
x2 (ln 2)2
2x = exp x ln 2 = 1 + (x ln 2) + + o(x2 )
2!
Exercise 2.
127
cos 1(x − 1)3
x(cos x) = ((x − 1) + 1)(cos x) = (x − 1) cos 1 + (− sin 1)(x − 1)2 − + cos 1+
2
cos 1(x − 1)2 sin 1(x − 1)3
+ (− sin 1)(x − 1) − + =
2 3!
cos 1 2 sin 1 − 3 cos 1
= cos 1 + (cos 1 − sin 1)(x − 1) + − sin 1 − (x − 1) + (x − 1)3 + o(x − 1)3
2 3!
(x − x2 )3 (x − x2 )5
sin (x − x2 ) = (x − x2 ) − + + o(x − x2 )5 =
3! 5!
1 3 1
= (x − x2 ) − x − 3x4 + 3x5 − x6 + x5 − 5x6 + 10x7 − 10x8 + 5x9 + x1 0 =
6 120
2 1 3 1 4 61 5 25 6
= (x − x ) − x − x + x − x
6 2 120 120
Exercise 4.
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3
log x = log (1 + (x − 1)) = (x − 1) − +
2 3
−1
=⇒ a = 0; b = 1, c =
2
Exercise 5.
1 2
x + o(x3 )
1 − cos x =
1 2
cos x = 1 − x2 + o(x3 ) as x → 0
2 1 − cos x 1 o(x3 )
2
= +
x 2 x2
1 − cos x 1 1 − cos x 1
since = + o(x), → as x → 0
x2 2 x2 2
1 x4 2
cos x = 1 − x2 + + o(x5 ) =⇒ cos 2x = 1 − 2x2 + x4 + o(x5 )
2 4! 3
1 − cos 2x − 2x2 − 23 x4 − o(x5 ) −2 2
= = − o(x) → − as x → 0
x4 x4 3 3
Exercise 6.
3
sin ax ax − (ax) 4
3! + o(x ) a
lim = lim 2
=
x→0 sin bx x→0 bx + o(x ) b
Exercise 7.
(2x)3
sin 2x (2x) + 3! + o(x4 ) 2
lim = lim =
x→0 cos 2x sin 3x x→0 (2x)2 (2x)4 (3x)3 3
1− 2! + 4! + o(x5 ) (3x) − 3! + o(x4 )
Exercise 8.
sin x − x 1
lim = −
x→0 x3 6
Exercise 9.
ln 1 + x x − o(x) 1
lim 2x
= lim =
x→0 e −1 x→0 2x + o(x) 2
Exercise 10. Don’t do the trig. identity.
2
x2
2
1 − cos x 1− 1− 2! + o(x2 ) 1 − (1 + x2 + o(x2 ))
lim = lim x3
= lim =1
x→0 x tan x x→0 x x+ 6! + o(x3 ) x→0 x2 + o(x2 )
Exercise 11.
128
3
x + − x6 + o(x4 )
lim x3
=1
x→0 x− 3
Exercise 12.
ex ln a − 1 x ln a + o(x)
lim = lim = ln a/b
x→0 ex ln b − 1 x→0 x ln b + o(x)
Exercise 13.
(x−1)2 3
(x − 1) − 2 + (x−1)
3 + o(x − 1)4 1
lim =
x→1 (x + 2)(x + 1) 3
Exercise 14. 1 .
Exercise 15.
x2
x(ex + 1) − 2(ex − 1) x(2 + x + 2 ) − 2(x + x2 /2 + x3 /6) x3 ( 16 ) 1
lim = lim = lim =
x→0 x3 x→0 x3 x→0 x3 6
Exercise 16.
x2 x3 3
ln (1 + x) − x x− 2 + 3 + o(x ) −x
lim = lim = −1
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 x3 /2
Exercise 17.
cos x 0 + −1(x − π2 )
lim π = = −1
x→π/2 x − 2 x − π2
Exercise 19.
ex +e−x
cosh x − cos x 2 − cos x
lim = lim =
x→0 x2 x→0 x2
x2 x2
1+x+ 2 −2 1− 2 + o(x3 )
= lim = 2
x→0 x2
Exercise 20.
(4x)3 x3
3 tan 3x − 12 tan x (4x) + 3 −4 x+ 3 + o(x4 )
lim = lim (4x)3
=
x→0 3 sin 4x − 12 sin x x3
x→0 (4x) −
3! −4 x− 3! + o(x4 )
43 − 4
= −43 +4
= −2
2
Exercise 21.
ax − asinx ex ln a − esin x ln a
lim = lim =
x→0 x3 x→0 x3
(x ln a)2 (x ln a)3 sin2 x(ln a)2 sin3 x(ln a)3
1 + x ln a + 2! + 6 − 1 + sin x ln a + 2 + 3! + o(x4 )
= lim =
x→0
x3
x 3 (x2 ln a)2 (ln a)2 2 (lna)3 3
ln a(x − x − 3! )+ 2! − 2 (x ) + 6 (x − x3 ) + o(x4 ) ln a
= lim =
x→0 x3 6
Exercise 22.
sin2 x sin4 x x2 x4
cos sin x − cos x 1− 2! + 4! + o(x5 ) − 1 − 2! + 4!
lim = lim =
x→0 x4 x→0
4
x 4 4
x4
1
2 x − (x − 3 ) + x −x
2 2
4! + o(x5 ) 1
= lim =
x→0 x4 6
129
Exercise 23.
(x − 1) + o(x − 1)2
1 1 ln x
lim x → 1x 1−x = lim x → 1e 1−x ln x = exp lim x → 1 = exp lim x → 1 = e−1
1−x 1−x
Exercise 24.
1
lim (x + e2x )1/x = exp lim ln (x + e2x )
x→0 x x→0
ln (x + e2x ) ln (1 + x + e2x − 1)
lim = lim =
x→0 x x→0 x
x + e2x − 1 + o(x2 ) 3x + o(x2 )
= lim = lim =3
x→0 x x→0 x
=⇒ lim (x + e2x )1/x = e3
x→0
Exercise 25.
2
1 x+− x +o(x2 )
2
(1 + x)1/x − e e x ln (1+x) − e e x −e
lim = lim = lim =
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
x
e1− 2 +o(x) − e e(1 + − x2 + o(x)) − e −e
= lim = lim =
x→0 x x→0 x 2
Exercise 26.
1/x 1/x 2
(1 + x)1/x x− x +o(x3 )−x
1 2
lim = lim exp ln (1 + x) − 1 = lim e x2 = e−1/2
x→0 e x→0 x x→0
Exercise 27.
1
(arcsin x)0 = √
1 − x2
x
(arcsin x)00 =
(1 − x2 )3/2
1 3x2
(arcsin x)000 = 2 3/2
+
(1 − x ) (1 − x2 )5/2
1 arcsin x 1 arcsin x
exp lim 2 ln = exp lim 2 ln 1 + −1 =
x→0 x x x→0 x x
x + x3 /6 + o(x4 ) − x x2
1 1
= exp lim 2 ln 1 + = exp lim 2 ln 1 + + o(x3 ) =
x→0 x x x→0 x 6
1 x2 + o(x3 )
= exp lim 2 = e1/6
x→0 x 6
1 1
ex −1−x
x2 3
2 +o(x )
1
Exercise 28. limx→0 x − ex −1 = limx→0 x(ex −1) = limx→0 x2 +o(x3 ) =
2
Exercise 29.
1 1 (x − 1) − log x
lim − = lim =
x→1 log x x − 1 x→1 (x − 1) log x
2
(x − 1) − ((x − 1) − (x−1)
2 + o(x − 1)3 ) 1
= lim =
x→1 (x − 1)((x − 1) + o(x − 1)2 ) 2
Exercise 30.
2
x2
eax − ex − x 1 + ax + (ax)2 + o(x3 ) − 1 − x − 2 −x
lim = lim
x→0 x2 x→0 x2
if a = 2, the limit is 2
Exercise 31.
130
Rx Rx
(1) Prove 0
f (t)dt = o 0
g(t)dt as x → 0, given f (x) = o(g(x)).
Rx
f (t)dt
Consider limx→0 R0x g(t)dt .
0
Since f, g have derivatives in some interval containing 0, f, g continuous and differentiable for |t| ≤ x.
Rx A(x)−A(0)
0
f (t)dt f (0) limx→0 f (x)
x
lim = lim = = =0
x→0 limx→0 g(t)dt x→0 B(x)−B(0) g(0) limx→0 g(x)
x
We can do the second to last step since f, g have derivatives at 0 and thus are continuous about 0.
(2) Consider limx→0 exx = 0. However, limx→0 e1x = 1.
Exercise 32.
1 −g 3 (x)
= 1 − g(x) + g 2 (x) + = 1 − g(x) + g 2 (x) + o(g 2 (x))
1 + g(x) 1 + g(x)
(2)
1/x
f (x)
Exercise 33. Given limx→0 1 + x + x = e3 , use the hint.
Then
1/x
f
g(x) = e3 + o(1) = 1+x+
x
x
x e3 + o(1) = x + x2 + f (x) =⇒ f (0) = 0
x→0
−−−→ 2(3) = 2 + f 0 (0) =⇒ f 0 (0) = 4
1/x
f (x)
To evaluate limx→0 1 + x , consider a Taylor series expansion of f .
1/x 2
!1/x
0 + 0 + 4 x2 + o(x3 )
f (x) 1/x
lim 1 + = lim 1 + = lim (1 + x (2 + o(x))) =
x→0 x x→0 x x→0
1/x
= lim lim (1 + x (2 + o(y))) = lim exp 2 + o(y) = ey
y→0 x→0 y→0
131
7.13 Exercises - L’Hopital’s rule for the indeterminate form 0/0. Exercise 1.
Exercise 2.
x2 − 4x + 3 (x − 3)(x − 1)
lim 2
= lim = −2
x→3 2x − 13x + 21 x→3 (2x − 1)(x − 3)
Exercise 3.
sinh x − sin x 0 cosh x − cos x 0 sinh x + sin x cosh x + cos x 1
lim = = lim = = lim = lim =
x→0 x3 0 x→0 3x2 0 x→0 6x x→0 6 3
Exercise 4.
Exercise 5.
2 4
x − sin x 1 − cos x 2 1 − (1 − x2 + x24 + o(x4 ))
lim = lim 3 = lim 1 =
x→0+ (x sin x)3/2 x→0+ (x sin x)1/2 (sin x + x cos x)
2
3 x→0+ e 2 ln (x sin x) (x − x63 + o(x3 ) + x − x23 + o(x3 ))
x2 x4 4
2 2 − 24 + o(x )
= lim q =
3 x→0+ x3 3 2 3
x(x + 6 + o(x ))(2x − 3 x + o(x )) 3
1 x2 2
−
2 + o(x )
= lim+ q 2 24 = 2 lim 1/2 = 1
3 x→0 2
1 + x + o(x2 )(2 + −2 x2 + o(x2 )) 3 x→0+ 2 6
6 3
1
Notice in the third step how in general we deal with powers, (x sin x)1/2 , is to convert it into exponential form, e 2 ln (x sin x) ,
but it wasn’t necessary.
Exercise 7. Do L’Hopital’s first.
√ √ √ 1 √1
√ √
x− a+ x−a √
2 x
+ 1
2 x−a x2 − a2 x+a
lim √ = lim+ = lim + =
x→a+ x2 − a2 x→a √ x 2 x→a+ x3/2 x
x2 −a2
√ √ √ √
1 x2 − a2 + x1/2 x + a 1 2a 2
= lim = = √
2 x→a+ x3/2 2 a3/2 2 a
1
exp (x ln x) − x exp x ln x(ln x + 1) − 1 exp (x ln x)(ln x + 1)2 + x exp (x ln x)
lim+ = lim+ = lim =
x→1 1 − x + ln x x→1 −1 + x1 x→1+ −1/x2
= lim+ x2 exp (x ln x)(ln x + 1)2 + x exp (x ln x) = 1 + 1 = 2
x→1
Exercise 10.
x cot x − 1 x cos x − sin x cos x − x sin x − cos x − sin x
lim 2
= lim 2
= lim 2
= lim =
x→0 x x→0 x sin x x→0 2x sin x + x cos x x→0 2 sin x + x cos x
cos x cos x 1
= − lim = − lim =
x→0 2 cos x + cos x + −x sin x x→0 3 cos x − x sin x 3
Exercise 11.
Pn Pn n
k=1 xk − n k=1 kxk−1 X n(n + 1)
lim = lim = k=
x→1 x−1 x→1 1 2
k=1
Exercise 12.
√ √ a 1 1√
− b 1 1
√
1 x x x
1+ a2 2a x x
1+ b2 2b x
lim √ a arctan − b arctan = lim 3 1/2 =
x→0+ x x a b x→0+
2 x
a2 b2 (b2 + x)a2 − b2 (a2 + x)
1 1 1 1
= lim 2 − 2 = lim =
3 x→0+ a + x x b +x x 3 x→0+ (a2 + x)(x + b2 )x
1 (a2 − b2 ) 1 a2 − b2
= lim =
3 x→0+ (a2 − x)(b2 + x) 3 a2 b2
Exercise 13.
(sin 4x)(sin 3x) (2 sin 2x cos 2x)(sin 3x) 2(−2 sin 2x sin 3x + cos 2x3 cos 3x)
= = = 6 as x → 0 otherwise
x sin 2x x sin 2x 1
2 cos 2x sin 3x 4 π
→ as x →
x π 2
We used L’Hopital’s at the second to last step for x → 0.
Exercise 14.
x √ x2 √
t2 dt
Z
1 a+x 2x 2x a + x
lim √ = = √ = 1 =
x→0 bx − sin x b − cos x √1 (1 − cos x) + a + x(sin x)
0 a+t 2 a+x 2 (1 − cos x) + (a + x) sin x
√ √
a + x + 2√xa+x a
= 2 lim sin x =2 =1
x→0
2 + sin x + (a + x) cos x
a
=⇒ a = 4
Note that we had dropped the limit notation in some earlier steps and applied L’Hopital’s a number of times, and we also
rearranged the denominator and numerator cleverly at each step.
133
Exercise 16.
(1)
x x
angle ABC is
, length BC is tan
2 2
x x x
2 tan cos = 2 sin is the base length of ABC
2 2 2
x x
tan sin is the height of triangle ABC
2 2
x x 1 − cos2 x2 x x 1
=⇒ T (x) = tan sin2 = sin = tan − sin x
2 2 cos x2 2 2 2
(2)
x 1 x x x sin 2
S(x) = (π(1)) − cos (2 sin ) = −
2π 2 2 2 2 2
(3) Use L’Hopital’s theorem.
T (x) tan x2 − 21 sin x dxd 1
2 sec2 x
2 − 2
cos x
= x−sin x
−−→ 1−cos x
S(x) 2 2
x
d
dx
sec2 2 tan x2 + sin x d
dx
sec 2 x 2 x
2 tan 2 + 12 sec4 x
2 + cos x
−−→ −−→ →
sin x cos x
x→0 3
−−−→
2
Exercise 17. Use L’Hopital’s rule.
E Rt
(1 − e− L )
I(t) =
R
−t
E(−1)(e−Rt/L )
L Et
lim I(t) = lim =
R→0 R→0 1 L
Exercise 18.
c − k → 0 since c → k
k−c=u
k−u=c
A(sin kt − sin ct) A(sin (kt) − sin (k − u)t)
f (t) = 2 2
= =
c −k −u(2k − u)
A(cos (k − u)t)(t) −At cos kt
= →
−(2k − u) + u 2k
7.17 Exercises - The symbols +∞ and −∞. Extension of L’Hopital’s rule; Infinite limits; The behavior of log x and
ex for large x.
Exercise 16. Persist in using L’Hopital’s and trying all possibilities systematically.
x
−1 x
−1) ln x x ln x
−1) ln x ln x
lim+ xx = lim+ e(x = lim+ e(e = exp lim+
=
x→0 x→0 x→0 (ex ln x − 1)−1 x→0
2x ln x
− 2ex ln x + 1
1/x e
= exp lim = exp − lim =
x→0+ (−1)(ex ln x − 1)−2 (ex ln x (ln x + 1)) x→0+ ex ln x (x ln x + x)
ex ln x (ln x + 1) + e−x ln x (− ln x − 1) ex ln x − e−x ln x
= exp− lim+ = exp − lim+ 1 = 1
x→0 (ln x + 1 + 1) x→0 1 + ln x+1
Exercise 17.
134
x
x x ln x x ln x
lim+ (xx − 1) = lim+ ex ln x − 1 = lim+ ee ln x
− 1 = elimx→0+ e ln x
−1 =
x→0 x→0 x→0
lim x ln x
e x→0+ limx→0+ ln x
=e − 1 = 0 − 1 = −1
We used
lim xα log x = 0 ∀α > 0
x→0+
since
− log t
t = x1 , xα log x = tα → 0 as t → ∞.
Exercise 18.
1
!
ln (1 − ex ln 2 ) − ln 2ex ln 2
sin x ln (1−2x ) 1−ex ln 2
lim e = exp lim− = exp lim− −1 =
x→0− x→0 1/ sin x x→0
sin2 x
cos x
(sin2 x) ln 2ex ln 2
2 sin x cos x
= exp lim = exp (ln 2) lim = 1
x→0− (1 − ex ln 2 ) cos x x→0− − ln 2ex ln 2
Exercise 19.
1
lim+ e ln x ln x = e
x→0
Exercise 20. At the end, L’Hopital’s could be used to verify that indeed sin x ln sin x → 0 as x → 0.
lim esin x ln cot x = elimx→0+ sin x(ln cos x−ln sin x) = elimx→0+ − sin x ln sin x = 1
x→0+
Exercise 21. Rewrite tan into sin and cos and use L’Hopital’s.
1
lim (tan x)tan 2x = limπ etan 2x ln tan x = exp limπ (ln sin x − ln cos x) =
x→ π
4 x→ 4 x→ 4 cos 2x
1
cos x − cos1 x (− sin x) 1
= exp limπ sin x
= exp limπ = e−1
x→ 4 −2 sin 2x cos 2x x→ 4 − sin2 2x
Exercise 22.
Exercise 23. Use L’Hopital’s theorem, taking derivatives of top and bottom.
e ln x 1/x
lim exp ln x = exp e lim = exp e lim = ee
x→0+ 1 + ln x x→0 1 + ln x x→0 1/x
Exercise 24. Rewrite tan into sin and cos and take out sin since we could do the limit before doing L’Hopital’s.
(−1)
πx sin πx/2 ln (2−x) −2
lim (2 − x)tan (πx/2) = lim etan 2 ln (2−x)
= elimx→1 cos πx/2 = exp lim 2−x
= exp
x→1 x→1 x→1 π sin πx/2 π
2
Exercise 26.
(x−c)−(x+c)
1
1+c/x
x+c
ln 1−c/x 1+c/x
( 1−c/x ) (x−c)2
= exp (2c) = 4 =⇒ c = ln 2
Exercise 27.
(1 + x)c = exp (c ln (1 + x)) = exp (c(x − o(x))) = 1 + c(x − o(x)) + o(x − o(x)) = 1 + cx + o(x)
1/2 1/2
1 1
x2 1 + 2 − x2 = x2 1 + 2 − x2
x x
Let x2 = 1t . So t → 0 as x → +∞.
(1 + t)1/2 − 1 1 + 12 t − 1 + o(t) 1
=⇒ = =
t t 2
135
Exercise 28.
c
5 4 c 5 7 2
(x + 7x + 2) − x = x 1+ + 5 −x
x x
1 1
Let t = x and guess that c = 5
c
1 7 1 1/5 1
+ 4 +2 − = 1 + (7t + 2t5 ) /t − =
t5 t t t
1 + 15 (7t + 2t5 ) + o(t) − 1 7
= =
t 5
Exercise 29.
Z x
1
g(x) = xe x2 f (x) = g(t) t + dt
1 t
2 2
g 0 (x) = ex + 2x2 ex f 0 (x) = g(x) x +
1
− g(1)2;
2 2 2 2 2 x
g 00 (x) = 2xex + 4xex + 4x3 ex = 6xex + 4x3 ex
f 00 (x) = g 0 (x)(x + 1/x) + g(x)(1 − 1/x2 )
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
f 00 (x) (ex + 2x2 ex )(x + 1/x) + xex (1 − x2 ) 2xex + 2x3 ex + 2xex
= = =
00
g (x) 6xex2 + 4x3 ex2 (6xex2 + 4x3 ex2 )
4x + 2x3 1
= 3
= as x → ∞
6x + 4x 2
Exercise 30.
Z x
g(x) = xc e2x f (x) = e2t (3t2 + 1)1/2 dt
0
g 0 (x) = cxc−1 e2x + 2xc e2x
f 0 (x) = e2x (3x2 + 1)1/2 − 1
Guessing that c = 1
√ √
f 0 (x) e2x (3x2 + 1)1/2 − 1 3x(1 + 3x1 2 )1/2 − e−2x 3
= = =
g 0 (x) 2xc e2x + cxc−1 e2x 2x + 1 2
So c = 1 .
Exercise 31.
Exercise 32.
(1)
r r 2 r m
P 1+ ,P 1 + ,...P 1 +
m m m
For each year, there are the just previously shown m compoundings, so for n years,
r mn
P 1+
m
(2)
2 = ert
ln 2
= t = 11.55years
r
(3)
r mt
2P0 = P0 1 +
m
ln 2 = mt ln (1 + r/m)
ln 2 ln 2
t= = = 11.64years
m ln (1 + r/m) 4 ln (1 + 0.06/4)
136
7.17 Exercises - The symbols +∞ and −∞. Extension of L’Hopital’s rule; Infinite limits; The behavior of log x and
ex for large x. Exercise 1.
1
u=
2
x2
e−1/x u 500
1
lim = lim e−u u5 00 = lim =0 x2 =
x→0 x1000 u→∞ u→∞ eu u
1000 1
x = 5
u 00
Where we had used Theorem 7.11, which are two very useful limits for log and exp.
Theorem 26. If a, b > 0,
(log x)b
(17) lim =0
x→+∞ xa
xb
(18) lim ax = 0
x→+∞ e
Exercise 2.
1 1
sin x1
x −o x
lim = lim = 1
x→0 arctan 1 x→0 1
−o 1
x x x
1
Exercise 5. Make the substitution x = t.
t2 t4 /4! + o(t4 )
4 1 1 1 1 1
lim x cos − 1 + 2 = lim 4 cos t − 1 + = lim 4
= =
x→∞ x 2x t→∞ t 2 t→∞ t 4! 120
Exercise 6.
1
ln | sin x| sin x cos x 1 sin 2x 1 2 cos 2x
lim = lim 2 = − lim = − lim = 1
x→π ln | sin 2x| x→π sin 2x cos 2x 2 x→π sin x 2 x→π cos x
Exercise 7.
1
ln (1 − 2x) (−2) −2(cos2 πx)
1−2x
lim− = lim− 2
= lim− =
x→ 21 tan πx x→ 12 (sec πx)π x→ 12 (1 − 2x)π
2 2 cos πxπ − sin πx
=− lim =1
π x→ 12 − −2
137
Exercise 8.
Exercise 9.
ax ex ln a
lim = lim → ∞; a > 1
x→∞ xb x→∞ xb
b
x
since lim ax (in this case, ln a > 0 )
x→∞ e
Exercise 10.
8.5 Exercises - Introduction, Terminology and notation, A first-order differential equation for the exponential func-
tion, First-order linear differential equations.
The ordinary differential equation theorems we will use are
(19) y 0 + P (x)y = 0
Z x
A(x) = P (t)dt
a
(20) y = be−A(x)
Rx
Consider y 0 + P (x)y = Q(x); A(x) = a
P (t)dt.
We had done some of these problems previously, using an integration constant C, but following Apostol’s notation for
y(a) = b for initial conditions is far more advantageous and superior as we seem clearly the dependence upon the initial
conditions - so some of the solutions for the exercises will show corrections to the derived formula using Apostol’s notation
for y(a) = b initial conditions.
Rx
Exercise 1. A(x) = 0 (−3)dt = −3x
Z x
x
y = e3x e2t e−3t dt + 0 = e3x (−e−t )0 = −e2x + e3x
0
Rx −2
Exercise 2. y 0 − 2
xy = x4 . A(x) = 1 t dt = −2 ln x.
Z x Z x
2 ln x( 1x t4 e−2 ln t dt+1)
R
−A(x) A(t) 2 2
y=e Q(t)e dt + b =e =x t dt + 1 =
a 1
x2 3 x5 2x2
= −x2 + (x − 1) = +
3 3 3
0 3
Exercise 4. y + xy = x . y = 0, x = 0.
1
A(x) = x2
Z x 2
1 2 t2 −x2
t2 t2
x
y = e− 2 x t3 e 2 dt + 0 = e 2 t2 e 2 − 2e 2 =
0 0
2
2 − x2
= x − 2 + 2e
Exercise 5. y 0 + y = e2t . y = 1, t = 0.
x x
e3t
Z
y(x) = e−x e2t et dt + 1 = e−x + 1
0 3 0
A=x
e2x 2
= + e−x
3 3
Exercise 7.
2 1 2
x(x + 1)y 0 + y = x(x + 1)2 e−x =⇒ y 0 + y = (x + 1)e−x
x(x + 1)
Z x
1 1 x x+1
A(x) = − dt = ln − ln
a t t+1 a a+1
(a + 1)x
eA(x) =
a(x + 1)
Z x Z x
a(x + 1) −t2 (a + 1)t (x + 1) −t2 a(x + 1)
y= (t + 1)e dt + b = te dt + b =
(a + 1)x a a(t + 1) x a (a + 1)x
x + 1 −a2 2
a(x + 1)b
= e − e−x +
2x (a + 1)x
It’s easy to see that the last equation above goes to 0 as x → −1.
2 2 1 ab 1
y = (e−a − e−x )(1/2)(1 + )+ (1 + ) =
x a+1 x
2 2
!
1 e−a − e−x ab
lim y = + a=0
x→0 x 2 a+1
139
Exercise 8. y 0 + y cot x = 2 cos x on (0, π).
Z x
sin x A(x) sin x
A(x) = cot tdt = ln e =
a sin a sin a
Z x
sin a sin t sin a cos 2t
y= 2 cos t +b = − +b =
sin x sin a sin x 2 sin a a cos (2a) − cos (2x) sin a
y = sin x y = +
cos (2a) + cos 2x sin a 2 sin x sin x
= +
2 sin x sin x
Exercise 9. (x − 2)(x − 3)y 0 + 2y = (x − 1)(x − 2). y 0 + 2
(x−2)(x−3) y = x−1
x−3 .
Z x Z x
x − 3 a − 2
2dt 1 1 x
A(x) = =2 − dt = 2 (ln |t − 3| − ln |t − 2|)|a = 2 ln
a (t − 2)(t − 3) a t−3 t−2 a − 3 x − 2
x − 3 ≶ 03 − x x−3
If (−∞, 2), (3, +∞), =
x − 2 ≶ 02 − x x−2
If (2, 3), x − 3 < 0, but x − 2 > 0
2
a − 3 2
2
x−2 + x−2 1 1
If (−∞, 2), (3, ∞) y = b x + − a −
x−3 a − 2 x−3 x−2 a−2
2 2 2 2 Z 2 2
x−2 a − 3 x − 2 a − 3
t − 1 a − 2 3 − t
If (2, 3) y = b a − 2 + 3 − x a − 2
=
x−3 t − 3 a − 3 t − 2
2 2 Z
x − 2 a − 3 x−2 (t − 1)(3 − t)
=b + − =
3−x a−2 3−x (t − 2)2
2 2 2
x − 2 a − 3 x−2
=b + (x + (x − 2)−1 − a − (a − 2)−1 )
x − 3 a − 2 x−3
sin x
Rx
Exercise 10. s(x) = x ;x 6= 0 s(0) = 1, T (x) = 0
s(t)dt f (x) = xT (x)
f 0 = T + x(s(x)) = T + sin x
xf 0 − f = x sin x
y
y 0 − = sin x
Z x x
−1 x x
A(x) = dt = − ln , e−A(x) =
a t a a
Z x
x a bx
y= sin t + b = xT +
a a t a
1
y(0) = 0 6= 1 since P (x) = is not continuous at x = 0
x
Exercise 11.
Z x
1
f (x) = 1 + f (t)dt
x 1
Z x
1
xf (x) = x + f (t)dt =⇒ f (x) + xf 0 = 1 + f (x) =⇒ f 0 =
1 x
=⇒ f (x) = ln |x| − C
Z x
1
ln |x| − C = 1 + (ln |t| − c) dt =
x 1
f (x) = ln |x| + 1
1 x 1+C
= 1 + (t ln |t| − t − ct)|1 = ln |x| − C + =⇒ C = −1
x x
Exercise 12. Rewrite the second property we want f to have:
x
f 0x − f
1 − f (x)
Z
1
f (t)dt = =⇒ f (x) = − 2 −
1 x x x2
140
So then
1 1
f0 + x − f =−
x x
Z Z
1 1 2 1 2
A(x) = P (t)dt = t− dt = x − ln x − a − ln a
t 2 2
x2 −a2 a x a2 −x2
eA(x) = e 2 ; e−A(x) = e 2
x a
Z x
x a2 −x2 −1 t2 −a2
f (x) = e 2
2
ae 2 dt + b
a a t
Exercise 13.
v = yk
v 0 + kP v = kQ = ky k−1 y 0 + kP y k = kQ where k = 1 − n
v 0 = ky k−1 y 0
=⇒ y 0 y −n + P y 1−n = Q =⇒ y 0 + P y = Qy n
1 1 1 1 1
n= k = 1 − = ; v = y 1/2 ; v 0 + (−4)v = (2ex ) = v 0 − 2v = ex
2 2 2 Z 2 2
x
A(x) = P (t)dt = −2(x − a) = −2x
a
Z
v = e2x et e−2t dt + b = e2x −e−x + b = be2x − ex
√ √
=⇒ y = (1 + 2)2 e4x − 2(1 + 2)e3x + e2x
y(x) = b2 − 2b + 1 = 2
√
b=1+ 2
Then since v = y k , k = 1 − n,
y = (x3 + Cx)2 = x2 (x2 + C)2 ; x 6= 0
y = x2 (x2 − 1)2
Check:
y 0 = 2x(x2 − 1)2 + x3 (4)(x2 − 1)
2x2 + x4 (4)(x2 − 1) − 2x2 (x2 − 1)2 = 4x3
Check:
y 0 = (C + 2x − 2x log x − x)(−y 2 )
y 2 (−C + −2x + 2x log x + x + C + x − x log x)
1 1
y= ; x = 1 y(x = 1) = b = 2
2 2
1
y=
x(x ln x − x + 3)
√ √
Exercise 18. 2xyy 0 + (1 + x)y 2 = ex on (0, +∞), y = e when x = 1; y = − e when x = 1.
If x 6= 0, y 6= 0,
(1 + x) e2 −1
y0 + y= y
2x 2x
k = 1 − n = 2; v = y k = y 2
2ex ex
1+x 1+x
v 0 + 2P v = 2Q; v 0 + 2 v= =⇒ v 0 + v= = v 0 + Pv = Qv
2x 2x x x
Z x Z x
1+t x Rx x
Av = Pv = dt = ln + (x − a); e a Pv dt = eln x/a+x−a = ex−a
a a t a a
−x+a
Z x t x
ae e t t−a a 1 2t−a
e dt + bv = e−x+a
v= e + bv
x a t a x 2a a
a −x+a e2x−a ea
= e − + bv
x 2a 2a
s
a −x+a e2x−a ea
y=± e − + bv
x 2a 2a
Now y k = v
e2−1
1
y 2 = v = e = 11 e−1+1 − e2 + bv = bv = e
2(1)
r
2x−1
(1) bv = e =⇒ y = x1 e−x+1 e 2 − 2e + e
r
2x−1
(2) bv = e =⇒ y = − x1 e−x+1 e 2 − 2e + e
q q
2(0) −x+a
bv ae−x+a
ex
(3) If we could take a = 0, then limx→0 y = ± 2x − e−x+2a
2x + x = ± 1+x−e (1−x)+2b
2x
v 0e
= ±1
−1 0
(u + 1/v)0 = u0 +
v
v2
0
−v 1 2u 1
y 0 + P y + Qy 2 = R =⇒ u0 + 2 + P (u + ) + Q(u2 + + 2) = R
v v v v
=⇒ v 0 − P v = Q(2uv + 1)
(1) If −2 ≤ b < 1,
y 0 + y + y 2 = 2 P = 1, Q = 1, R = 2
1
v 0 + (−P − 2Qu)v = Q y = u +
v
u=1
v 0 + (−1 − 2(1)(1))v = v 0 − 3v = Q = 1
Z −3t x
e 1
v = e3x 1e−3t dt + b = e3x = be3x − 1 − e3x−3a
+ b
−3 a 3
3
y =1+
3be3x − (1 − e3x−3a )
1
b=1+
b
3
y(0) = 1 + =⇒ b2 − b − 1 = 0
3b − (1 − e−3a ) √
1± 5
b=
2
√
3 1− 5
y =1+ 3x 3x
b=
3be − (1 − e ) 2
(2)
u = −2
0 0
v + (−1 − 2(1)(−2))v = v + 3v = 1
Z x 3x
e − e3a 1 − e3a−3x
v = e−3x e3t dt + b = e−3x + be−3x = + be−3x
a 3 3
3 3 a=0 3 √
y = −2 + ; y(0) = −2 + −−→ y(0) = −2 + =⇒ b = −1 ± 2
1 − e3a−3x + 3be−3x 1 − e3a + 3b 3b
3 √
b ≥ 1 or b < −2, y = −2 + b = −1 ± 2
1 − e−3x + 3be−3x
8.7 Exercises - Some physical problems leading to first-order linear differential equations.
Exercise 3.
y0
(1) y 0 = −αy(t). y(T ) = y0 e−αT = n. n = eαT so the relationship between T and n doesn’t depend upon
1
y0 . ln e = T .
k
143
(2) f (a) = y0 e−ka ; f (b) = y0 e−kb .
f (a) f (a) 1 f (a)
= e−ka+kb =⇒ ln = −k(a − b); ln = −k
f (b) f (b) a − b f (b)
ln ff (a)
a/b
(b) t
f (t) = y0 exp ; f (a) = y0 f (b) ; =⇒
f (a) 1− a
= y0 b
a−b y0 (f (b)) a/b
b t b t
(f (a)) b−a f (a)− b−a
b−a a−b
f (a) f (a)
f (t) = = a t =
(f (b))a/b f (b) f (b) b−a f (b) a−b
b−t
f (a) b−a b−t t−a
= a−t = f (a) b−a f (b) b−a
(f (b)) b−a
b−t b − a − (b − t) t−a
w(t) = ; 1 − w(t) = =
b−a b−a b−a
Exercise 4. F = mv 0 = w0 − 43 v
w0 = 192
w0 1 1 w0
w0 v0 = − v =⇒ v 0 + v = = 32
=6=m m 8 8 m
g
Z t
t w0 t −t 8w0 t/8
v(t) = e− 8 e 8 dt + b = e 8 (e − 1) + 0 = 256(1 − e−t/8 )
0 m m
v(10) = 256(1 − e−5/4 ) = 256(1 − 37/128) = 182
12 w0
F = mv 0 = w0 − 12v v 0 + v = = v 0 + 2v = 32
m m
Z t
−2t
v(t) = e e 32dx + b = e−2t 16(e2t − e2t0 ) + b = 16(1 − e2(t0 −t) ) + be−2t
2x
t0
−2(10)
v(10) = be = 182 =⇒ b = 182e20
v(t) = 16 + 166e20−2t
So then (
256(1 − e−t/8 ) if t < 10
v(t) =
16 + 166e20−2t if t > 10
Exercise 7.
(1)
y 0 (t) = (y − M )k = ky − kM y 0 + −ky = −kM
Z
y = ekt ( −kM e−kt dt + b) = ekt (M (e−kt − 1) + b) M = 60◦
y(0) = b = 200◦
yf = ekT (M (e−kT − 1) + 200) = M + ekT (200 − M )
1 yf − M 1 1 3 1
ln = k = (ln (60) − ln (140)) = ln = (ln 3 − ln 7)
T b−M T T 7 30
ln 3−ln 7
t
y(t) = 60 + 140e 30
(2)
(ln 7 − ln 3)
y(t) = 60 + 140e−kt ; k=
30
Y − 60 (ln 140 − ln (T − 60))
ln = −kt =⇒ tf = for 60 < T ≤ 200
140 k
ln (140)−ln (30) 30
(3) tf = k = ln 7/3 ln 14
3 = 54 minutes
144
1
(4) M = M (t) = M0 − αt α = 10
Z Z t
y = ekt −kM e−kt dt + b = ekt −k(M0 − αu)e−ku du + b =
0
Z t
= −kekt (M0 e−ku − αueku )du + bekt =
0
t t !
M0 e−ku
−ku
ue −e−ku kt
= −ke −α + + be =
−k 0 −k k2 0
−kt −kt
M0 te e 1
= −kekt (1 − e−kt ) − α − 2 + 2 + bekt =
k −k k k
y(t) = −M0 ekt + M0 − αt − α/k + αekt /k + bekt = (−M0 + α/k + b)ekt + (M0 − αt − α/k) =
3 t 3
y(t) = (140 + )e−kt + (60 − − )
(ln 3 − ln 7) 10 ln 3/7
Exercise 9.
Exercise 10.
Let y be the dissolved salt (total amount of) at t time. The (total) amount of water at any given time in the tank is w = w0 + t.
There is dissolved salt in mixture that is leaving the tank at any minute. There is also salt from undissolved salt in the tank
that is “coming into” the dissolved salt, adding to the amount of dissolved salt in the mixture. Thus
y y −1 gal
y 0 (t) = (−2) +α −3 ; α=
w w 3 min
We obtained α easily by considering only the dissolving part and how it dissolves 1 pound of salt per minute if the salt
concentration, wy was zero, i.e. water is fresh.
145
−7 y 7 y
y 0 (t) = + 1; y0 = =1
3 w 3 w0 + t
7/3
P =
w +t
Z Z0
7/3 7 t 7 w0 + t
P = = ln (w0 + t)|0 = ln
w0 + t 3 3 w0
w0 +t
−7/3 Z t
w0 +u
7/3
− ln ln
y=e w0
(1)e w0
du + b =
0
7/3 Z t 7/3 ! 7/3 10/3 ! !
w0 w0 + u w0 3w0 w0 + t
= du + b = −1 +b =
w0 + t 0 w0 w0 + t 10 w0
7/3 10/3 ! !
100 3(100) 100 + 60
y= − 1 + 50 ' 54.78 lbs.
100 + 60 10 100
Z t
V (x) Rx/L
I(t) = I(0)e−Rt/L + e−Rt/L e dx
0 L
Z t
E
I(t) = I(0)e−Rt/L + e−Rt/L sin ωxeRx/L dx
L 0
Exercise 12.
(
E if 0 < a ≤ t < b
E(t) =
0 otherwise
Z t
I(t) = e−Rt/L 0 = 0 for t < a
0
Z t
E Rx/L E L Rt/L E R(a−t)
I(t) = e−Rt/L e dx = e−Rt/L e − eRa/L = 1−e L
a L L R R
E
I(b) = (1 − eR(a−b)/L )
R
for t > b, I(t) = Ke−Rt/L
Ee−Rt/L Rb Ra
=⇒ I(t) = (e L = e l ) for I(b) = I(b)
R
dx
Exercise 13. From Eqn. 8.22, dt = kx(M − x)
146
dx dx 1/kdx
= kx(M − x) = kM x − kx2 ; =⇒ 2
= dt = = dt
dt kM x − kx x(M − x)
1 1 1 ln x + − ln (M − x)
=⇒ kdt = + dx =
x M −x M M
x M k(t−ti )
M k(t − ti ) = ln ; e (M − x) = x
M −x
M eM k(t−ti ) M
x(t) = =
1 + eM k(t−ti ) 1 + e−M k(t−ti )
Exercise 14. Note that we are given three equally spaced times.
M − x2
M = x2 + x2 e−α(t2 −t0 ) ; = e−α(t2 −t0 )
x2
M − x2 x1
= e−αt2 +αt0 +αt1 −αt0 = e−α(t2 −t1 )
x2 M − x1
M − x3 x2 M − x2 x1
= e−α(t3 −t2 ) =
x3 M − x2 x2 M − x1
(M − x3 )(M − x1 )x22 = x1 x3 (M − x2 )2 = x1 x3 (M 2 − 2M x2 + x22 ) = x22 (M 2 − M (x1 + x3 ) + x1 x3 )
(x22 − x1 x3 )M 2 = M (x22 (x1 + x3 ) + −2x2 x1 x3 ) = (−x1 (x3 − x2 ) + x3 (x2 − x1 ))x2
(x3 (x2 − x1 ) − x1 (x3 − x2 ))
=⇒ M = x2
x22 − x1 x3
Exercise 15.
Z t
dx dx x
= k(t)M x − k(t)x2 = k(t)dt =⇒ M k(u)du = ln
dt M x − x2 ti M −x
x M
Rt
k(u)du
= e ti
M −x
Rt
M k(u)du
Me ti
M
x= Rt = Rt
M k(u)du −M k(u)du
1+e ti
1+e ti
Exercise 16.
(1) M = 23 92(23−3.9)−3.9(92−23)
232 −3.9(92) = 201
(2)
150(122 − 92) − 92(150 − 122) 150(30) − 92(28)
M = 122 = 122 = 216
(122)2 − 92(150) (122)2 − 92(150)
(3) Reject.
8.14 Exercises - Linear equations of second order with constant coefficients, Existence of solutions of the equation
y 00 + by = 0, Reduction of the general equation to the special case y 00 + by = 0, Uniqueness theorem for the equation
y 00 + by = 0, Complete solution of the equation y 00 + by = 0, Complete solution of the equation y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0.
Exercise 4. y 00 + 4y 0 = 0
Exercise 11. y 00 + 23 y 0 = 0 y = 1, y 0 = 1; x = 0 d = 9
4 >0
−3 3x −3x −3x
y=e 4 x
(c1 e 4 + c2 e 4 ) = c1 + c2 e 2
−2 5 −2 −3x
c2 = =⇒ y = + e 2
3 3 3
Exercise 12. y 00 + 25y = 0; y = −1, y 0 = 0, x = 3.
y = c1 sin 5x + c2 cos 5x −1 = c1 sin 15 + c2 cos 15
0
c1 = − sin 15
y = 5c1 cos 5x + −5c2 sin 5x cos2 15
1
−1c1 (sin 15 + ) = c1 c2 = − cos 15
0 = 5c1 cos 15 − 5c2 sin 15c2 sin 15 = c1 cos 15 sin 15 sin 15
v: y 00 + 4y 0 + 13y = 0
d = 10 − 4(13) = −36 =⇒ v = e−2x (b1 sin 3x + b2 cos 3x)
v(0) = b2
u(0) = 1(0 + c2 ) = c2 = 0
u = e2x c1 sin 5x v = e−2x b1 sin 3x
u0 = 2e2x c1 sin 5x + e2x c1 5 cos 5x v 0 (0) = 3b1
π 1 1 2x
u0 = 1 = 2eπ c1 (1) c1 = π u= e sin 5x
2 2e 2eπ
1
u0 (0) = π 5 5
2e v = e−2x sin 3x
5 6eπ
u0 (0) = v 0 (0) =⇒ b1 = π
6e
Exercise 16.
3x 5x 5x
y 00 − 3y 0 − 4y = 0 u 9 − 4(1)(−4) = 25 u=e 2 (c1 e 2 + c2 e − 2 )
00 0 −2x 3x −3x
y + 4y − 5y = 0 v 16 − 4(1)(−5) = 36 + b2 e v=e
) (b1 e
3x 5x
u = 2e 2 c1 (sinh )
u(0) = c1 + c2 = 0v(0) = b1 + b2 = 0 =⇒ 2
v = 2b1 e−2x (sinh (3x))
3 3x 5x −5x 3x 5 5x
u0 = c1 e 2 (e 2 − e 2 ) + 2e 2 c1 cosh v 0 = −4b1 e−2x sinh (3x) + 6b1 e−2x cosh (3x)
2 2 2
v 0 (0) = 6b1
u0 (0) = 5c1
6b1
c1 =
5
Exercise 17.
y 00 + ky = 0 Assume k > 0
√ √
d = −4(k) y = c1 sin kx + c2 cos kx
√ √ y(0) = c2 = 0
d −4k √ √ √
= = −k
2 2 y(1) = c1 sin k1 = 0 =⇒ k = nπ
k < 0; −k = κ > 0
√
κx
√
− κx
√
y = c1 e + c2 e ;y(0) = c1 + c2 = 0 y = c1 sinh κx
√
y = c1 sinh κ1 = 0 c1 = 0
so if k < 0, there are no nontrivial solutions satisfying fk (0) = fk (1) = 0
√
Exercise 18. y 00 + k 2 y = 0 d = −4k 2 < 0 2
d
= 2k
2 =k>0
149
y = c1 sin kx + c2 cos kx y(a) = b = c1 sin ka + c2 cos ka
0
y = kc1 cos kx − c2 k sin kx y 0 (a) = m = kc1 cos ka − c2 k sin ka
kb cos ka = kc1 cos ka sin ka + c2 k cos2 ka
m sin ka = kc1 cos ka sin ka − c2 k sin2 ka
kb cos ka − m sin ka
kb cos ka − m sin ka = c2 k =⇒ c2 =
k
kb kb cos ka − m sin ka
c1 sin ka = b − c2 cos ka = − cos ka =
k k
kb(1 − cos2 ka) + m sin ka cos ka kb sin2 ka + m sin ka cos ka
= =
k k
kb sin ka + m cos ka
c1 =
k
kb sin ka + m cos ka kb cos ka − m sin ka
y= sin kx + cos kx
k k
k = 0 =⇒ y = mx − ma + b
Exercise 19.
Exercise 20.
(1)
u1 (x) = ex ; u2 (x) = e−x u02 = −e−x u002 = e−x =⇒ y 00 − y = 0
150
(2)
u1 = e2x u2 = xe2x
u01 = 2e2x u02 = e2x + 2xe2x
u001 = 4e2x u002 = 2e2x + 2e2x + 4xe2x = 4e2x + 4xe2x = 4e2x (1 + x)
u002 − 4u02 + 4u2 = 0 =⇒ y 00 − 4y 0 + 4y = 0
(3)
(5)
u1 = cosh x
u01 = sinh x y 00 − y = 0
u001 = cosh x
Exercise 22.
f (0), f 0 (0) are initial conditions for y. f (0), f 0 (0) are arbitrary.
But since W (0) 6= 0, W (0) = v1 (0)v20 (0) − v2 (0)v10 (0), we can do things like
v20 (0)f (0) − v2 (0)f 0 (0) v2 (0)f 0 (0) − v10 (0)f (0)
f (0) = 0 0 v1 (0) + v2 (0)
v1 (0)v2 (0) − v2 (0)v1 (0) W (0)
8.17 Exercises - Nonhomogeneous linear equations of second order with constant coefficients, Special methods for
determining a particular solution of the nonhomogeneous equation y 00 + ay 0 + by = R.
x x x
y 00 − y 0 = 0 d = (−1)2 − 4(1)(0) = 1 yh = e 2 c1 e 2 + c2 e− 2 = c2 ex + c1
yp = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D
−1 3
yp0 = 3Ax2 + 2Bx + C y = c1 + c2 ex + x + x2
3
yp00 = 6Ax + 2B
Exercise 3. y 00 + y 0 = x2 + 2x
x x x
e− 2 c1 e− 2 + c2 e 2 = c1 e−x + c2
P = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D; P 0 = 3Ax2 + 2Bx + C P 00 = 6Ax + 2B
1
3Ax2 + 2Bx + C + 6Ax + 2B = x2 + 2x A= B=0 C=0
3
1
y = c1 e−x + c2 + x3
3
√ √
Exercise 4. y 00 − 2y 0 + 3y = x3 u = ex (c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x)
3(Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D)
1 2 8 16
2(3Ax2 + 2Bx + C) A= B= C= D=
3 3 9 27
(6Ax + 2B)
√ √ 1 2 8 16
y = C1 ex sin 2x + C2 ex cos 2x + x3 + x2 + x +
3 3 9 27
Exercise 5. y 00 − 5y 0 + 4y = x2 − 2x + 1
5x
3x −3x
yh = e 2 e 2 +e 2 = c1 e4x + c2 ex
152
p
d= 25 − 4(4) = 3
Exercise 6.
y 00 + y 0 − 6y = 2x3 + 5x2 − 7x + 2
−x −5x 5x
yh = e 2 (e 2 + e 2 ) = e−3x + e2x
p
d = 1 − 4(−6) = 5
yp = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D −6Ax3 − 6Bx2 − 6Cx − 6D
yp0 = 3Ax2 + 2Bx + C =⇒ 3Ax2 + 2Bx + C
yp00 = 6Ax + 2B 6Ax + 2B
−1 1 −7
A= B = −1 C= D=
3 2 12
1 1 7
y = C1 e−3x + C2 e2x − x3 + −x2 + x −
3 2 12
Exercise 7.
e2x
Z
1
t1 = − e−2x = x
−4 4
w = e2x (−2)e−2x − e−2x 2e2x = −4
e2x e4x
Z
t2 = e2x =
−4 −16
x 2x e2x
yp =
e +
4 −16
x e2x
y = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x + e2x +
4 −16
Exercise 8.
153
y 00 + 4y = e−2x
w = sin 2x − sin 2x(2) − 2 cos 2x cos 2x = 2
yh = c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x
cos 2xe−2x dx −1
Z Z
t1 = − = e−2x cos 2xdx (e−2x cos 2x)0 = −2e−2x cos 2x + −2e−2x sin 2x
2 2
sin 2xe−2x (e−2x sin 2x)0 = −2e−2x sin 2x + 2e−2x cos 2x
Z Z
1
t2 = = e−2x sin 2xdx
2 2
−2x 0
e sin 2x − e−2x cos 2x e−2x cos 2x − e−2x sin 2x
= e−2x cos 2x t 1 =
4 8
0 −2x
e−2x cos 2x
−2x −2x
e sin 2x + e cos 2x −2x
e sin 2x +
=e sin 2x t 2 =
−4 −8
e−2x sin 2x cos 2x − e−2x sin2 2x e−2x sin 2x cos 2x + e−2x cos2 2x e−2x
yp = + =
8 −8 8
e−2x
y = c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x +
8
Exercise 9. y 00 + y 0 − 2y = ex d2 = 1 − (4)(1)(−2) = 9
−1x
3x −3x
yh = e 2 e 2 + e 2 = ex + e−2x
(xex )0 = ex + xex
1
+(xex )00 = +(2ex + xex ) y = c1 ex + c2 e−2x + xe2
3
=⇒ 3ex + 2xex
x
3x 3x
Exercise 10. y 00 + y 0 − 2y = e2x . yh = e− 2 c1 e 2 + c2 e − 2 = c1 ex + c2 e−2x .
Exercise 12. y 00 − 2y 0 + y = x + 2xex . d = 4 − 4(1) = 0. Recall the definition to be learned for this section of exercises:
Theorem 29. Let d = a2 − 4b be the discriminant of y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0. Then every solution of this equation on (−∞, ∞)
has the form
(24) y = e−ax/2 (c1 u1 (x) + c2 u2 (x))
(1) If d = 0 then u1 = 1, u2 = x √
(2) If d > 0, u1 = ekx ; u2 = e−kx , k = 2d
√
−d
(3) If d < 0, u1 = cos kx, u2 = sin kx, k = 2
154
yh = ex (c1 + c2 x) = c1 ex + c2 xex
−xex (2xex ) 2x3
Z x
e (2xex )
Z
t1 = 2x
= t2 = = x2
e −3 e2x
W (x) = ex (ex + xex ) − (xex )(ex ) = e2x
2x3 x x3 ex
yp = e + x3 ex =
−3 3
x3 ex
y= + c1 ex + c2 xex
3
e−x
Exercise 13. y 00 + 2y 0 + y = x2
Exercise 15. y 00 − y = 2
1+ex
Z −x 2
e 1+ex e−x
Z
t1 = − = =
−2 1 + ex
−e−x
Z Z Z
1 1 −x 1 −x
= − = −e − = −e + = −e−x + ln (1 + e−x )
ex 1 + ex 1 + ex e−x + 1
Z x 2
e 1+ex
t2 = = − ln |1 + ex |
−2
y = −1 + ex ln (1 + e−x ) + −e−x ln (1 + ex ) + c1 ex + c2 e−x
ex
Exercise 16. y 00 + y 0 − 2y = 1+ex
155
√
−1± 12 −4(−2)
Discriminant: 2 = −2, 1 =⇒ yh = c1 ex + c2 e−2x =⇒ W = ex (−2)e−2x − e−2x ex = −3e−x
Z e−2t et t
−1
Z
1+e 1 1
t1 = − = = ln (1 + e−x )
−3e−t 3 1 + et 3
Z e t et t
e3t u=et −1
Z Z 2
1+e 1 u du
t2 = = −−−→ =
−3e−t −3 1 + et 3 1+u
−1 −u −1 −1 1 2
Z Z
1
= u+ = u + −1 + = ( u − u + ln u + 1)
3 u+1 3 u+1 3 2
−1 2x ex −1
= e + + ln (ex + 1)
6 3 3
−1 x −1 e−x e−2x
y1 = e ln (1 + e−x ) + + − ln (ex + 1) + c1 ex + c2 e−2x
3 6 3 3
Exercise 17. y 0 + 6y 0 + 9y = f (x); where f (x) = 1 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2. f (x) = 0 for all other x.
d = 36 − 4(1)(9) = 0
−3x
yh = e (c1 + c2 x) = c1 e−3x + c2 xe−3x
W (x) = e−3x (e−3x − 3xe−3x ) − (xe−3x )(−3e−3x ) = e−6x
Rx 3t x
e3t −3xe3x +e3x
−te
a < 1 < x 1
−te 3t
dt = 3 + 9 = 9 + 92 e3
R2 6 6 3
1 6
2e3
t1 (x) = a < 1 < 2 < x 1 −te3t dt = −6e9+e + 2e9 = −5e 9 + 9
x
3t
x 3x 3x 3a
e3a
−te3t dt = −te + e3t 9 = −xe + e9 + ae3 −
1 < a < x < 2 R
a 3 3 9
a
Z −3t Z Z x
e f (t) 3t 1 3x
e3t = e − e3a
t2 (x) = −6t
= e f (t) =
e 3
a 3x
e3x
−3x −3xe + x
y1 = e +C +
9 3
1
y = c1 e−3x + c2 xe−3x + when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2; otherwise y = yh
9
The key to this problem is to apply the integration directly on the ODE itself, not to go the other way around by differenti-
ating the supposed particular solution.
Z x Z x Z x
d2 y
Rx
dt sinh (k(x−t))
−−0−−−−−−−−−−→ dt 2 (t) sinh (k(x − t)) − k 2 dty(t) sinh (k(x − t)) = dtR(t) sinh (k(x − t))dt
0 dt 0 0
Z x Z
y 00 sinh (κ) = −y 0 (0) sinh (kx) − y 0 cosh (κ)(−k) =
0
Z
0
= −y (0) sinh (kx) + k(y(x) − y(0) cosh (kx) + k y(t) sinh (κ)) =
Z
= −y 0 (0) sinh (kx) + ky(x) − ky(0) cosh (kx) + k 2 y(t) sinh (κ)
Again, note that if L(yp ) = yp00 + k 2 yp = R(x), L(yp + yh ) = R(x) + 0 = R(x), so y1 = yp + yh is also a particular
solution.
Z x Z x Z x
d2 y
Rx
0
dt sin k(x−t) 2
−−−−−−−−−−→ dt sin k(x − t) 2 + k dt sin k(x − t)y = R(t) sin k(x − t)
0 dt 0 0
Z x x
d2 y
Z
dt sin k(x − t) 2 = −y 0 (0) sin (kx) + k y 0 (t) cos (k(x − t))dt =
0 dt 0
Z x
0
= −y (0) sin (kx) + k(y(x) − y(0) cos (kx) − k y(t) sin (k(x − t))dt) =
Z 0x
= ky(x) − ky(0) cos (kx) − y 0 (0) sin (kx) − k 2 y(t) sin (k(x − t))dt
0
1 x y 0 (0) sin (kx)
Z
=⇒ y(x) = dtR(t) sin k(x − t) + y(0) cos (kx) +
k 0 k
−y 0 (0)
We can add yh with c1 = −y(0), c2 =
k
1 x
Z
y1 = dtR(t) sin k(x − t)
k 0
Now for y 00 + 9y = sin 3x, then k = 3,
1 x
Z
y1 = sin 3t sin 3(x − t)dt
3 0
Z x
sin 3t(sin 3x cos 3t − cos 3x sin 3t)
0
Z x Z x
s(6t) −1
sc = dt = (c(6x) − 1)
0 0 2 12
Z x Z x x
1 − cos (6t) x sin (6t) x sin (6x)
s2 = = − = 2 − 12
0 0 2 2 12 0
1 −1 x sin (6x) sin 3x x cos 3x
y1 = sin 3x (cos (6x) − 1) − cos 3x − = −
3 12 2 12 18 6
157
It could be shown with some computation that this particular solution satisfies the ODE without having to add or subtract
parts of a homogeneous solution.
Exercise 20. y 00 + y = sin x
(xs)0 = s + xc
−2
00
−2
(xs)00 + 4(xs) = 2c − xs + 4xs = 2c + 3xs (c)00 + 4c = 3c =⇒ c +4 c = −2c
(xs)00 = 2c + −xs 3 3
2
=⇒ yh = xs − c
3
2
y = x sin x − cos x + c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x
3
158
Exercise 24. y 00 − 3y 0 = 2e2x sin x Guessing and stitching together the solution seems easier to me.
(e2x c(3x))00 = 4e2x c(3x) + −12e2x s(3x) − 9e2x c(3x) = −5e2x c(3x) − 12e2x s(3x)
(e2x s(3x))00 = 4e2x s(3x) + 12e2x c(3x) + −9e2x s(3x) = −5e2x s(3x) + 12e2x c(3x)
L(e2x c(3x) − 3e2x s(3x)) = −40e2x cos (3x)
e2x cos (3x) − 3e2x sin (3x)
y = c1 sin x + c2 cos x +
−40
8.19 Exercises - Examples of physical problems leading to linear second-order equations with constant coefficients.
In exercises 1-5, a partcile is assumed to be moving in simple harmonic motion, according to the equation y = C sin (kx + α).
The velocity of the particle is defined to be the derivative y 0 . The frequency of the motion is the reciprocal of the period.
(Period = 2π/k, frequency = k/2π )
Exercise 1. Find the amplitude C if the frequency is 1/π and if the initial values of y and y 0 (when x = 0) are 2 and 4,
respectively.
k 1
frequency =
= =⇒ k = 2
2π π
y(x = 0) = C sin α y(x = 0) 1 1
0 =⇒ 0 = tan α =
y (x = 0) = C cos α y (x = 0) k 2
π √
α = and C = 2 2
4
Exercise 2. Find the velocity when y is zero, given that the amplitude is 7 and the frequency is 10.
y = C sin (kx + α) k
0 C=7 = 10 =⇒ k = 20π
y = Ck sin (kx + α) 2π
−α −α
y(x = ) = 0 =⇒ y 0 (x = ) = 140π
k k
Exercise 3.
y = A cos (mx + β)
y = A cos (mx + β) = A cos β cos (mx) − A sin β sin (mx)
=⇒ k = m (since x is arbitrary )
y = C sin kx + α = C cos α sin kx + C sin α cos kx
−A sin β = C cos α π π
=⇒ tan α = ± cot β = ∓ tan − β = tan (β − )
A cos β = C sin α 2 2
π
=⇒ α = β − and |C| = |A|
2
2π
Exercise 4. T = 4π
y 0 = −C sin (x + α) = ±v0
q
v02 + y02 = C 2 sin2 (x + α) + C 2 cos2 (x0 + α) = C 2 =⇒ C = v02 + y02
Exercise 6.
y 0 = −kC sin (kx + α)
y = C cos (kx + α)
y(0) = C cos (α) = 1 y 0 (0) = −kC sin (α) = 2
y 00 (0) −12 √
y 00 (0) = −k 2 C cos (α) = −12 = −k 2 = =⇒ k = 2 3
y(0) 1
y 0 (0) −kC sin (α) 2 −π
= = = 2 = −k tan (α) =⇒ α =
y(0) C cos (α) 1 6
2π
Exercise 7. k = 3 y = −C sin (kx)
2πx
y = −C sin ; C>0
3
Exercise 8. Let’s first solve the homogenous equation.
y 00 + y = 0
Z x
− cos t(1)
yh = C1 sin x + C2 cos x t1 = = sin x
0 −1
x
W (x) = −S 2 − C 2 = 1
Z
(sin t)(1)
t2 = = (cos x − 1)
0 −1
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π otherwise, for x > 2π, t1 = 0, t2 = 0
y1 = sin2 x + cos2 x + (1 − cos x) y(0) = 0 = c2
0
y (x) = C1 cos x + sin x y 0 (0) = c1 = 1
y = sin x + (1 − cos x)
=⇒ I(t) = sin t + (1 − cos t) 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Exercise 9.
(1) Consider large t. Then I(t) = F (t) + A sin (ωt + α) → A sin (ωt + α)
I = AS(ωt + α) = A(S(ωt)C(α) + C(ωt)S(α))
I 0 = ωAC(ωt + α) = ωA(C(ωt)C(α) − S(ωt)S(α))
I 00 = −ω 2 AS(ωt + α) = −ω 2 A(S(ωt)C(α) + C(ωt)S(α))
I 00 + RI 0 + I = I 00 + I 0 + I =
= A((−ω 2 C(α) + −ωS(α) + C(α))S(ωt) + (−ω 2 S(α) + ωC(α) + S(α))C(ωt)) = S(ωt)
−ω
=⇒ tan (α) =
1 − ω2
1 − ω2
C=√
With tan α = −ω
and the trig identities t2 +1 = sec2 , 1
= sec2 , and S 2 +C 2 = 1, we can get 1 − ω2 + ω4
1−ω 2 C2 −ω
S=√
1 − ω2 + ω4
Note that the sign of S is fixed by tan.
1 D
A(−ω 2 C(α) + −ωS(α) + C(α))S(ωt) = S(ωt) =⇒ A = =
(1 − ω 2 )C(α) − ωS(α) (1 − ω 2 )2
− ω(−ω)
1
=⇒ A = √
ω4 − ω2 + 1
160
We could immediately see that ω = √12 , f = 2π1√2 will maximize A.
(2) We could have, from the beginning, considered the problem with any R, in general.
A((−ω 2 C(α) + −RωS(α) + C(α))S(ωt) + (−ω 2 S(α) + ωRC(α) + S(α))C(ωt)) = S(ωt)
−ωR
S(α) = p
−ωR (ωR) + (1 − ω 2 )2
2
tan α =
1 − ω2 1 − ω2
C(α) = p
(ωR)2 + (1 − ω 2 )2
1 1
=⇒ A = =p
−ω 2 C(α) − ωRS(α) + C(α) (ωR) + (1 − ω 2 )2
2
d
(ωR)2 + (1 − ω 2 )2 = ω 4 + ω 2 (−2 + R2 ) + 1 −−→ 4ω 3 + 2ω(−2 + R2 ) = 2ω(2ω 2 + (−2 + R2 )) = 0
dω
Exercise 10. A spaceship is returning to earth. Assume that the only external force acting on it is the action of gravity, and
that it falls along a straight line toward the center of the earth. The rocket fuel is consumed at a constant rate of k pounds per
second and the exhaust material has a constant speed of c feet per second relative to the rocket.
Let M (t) = M be the mass of the rocket + f uel combination at time t. With +y direction being towards earth, then the
equation of motion is Fg = +M (t)g, where g = 9.8m/s2 .
M (t)v(t) = M vR is the momentum of the rocket.
M (t + h) = M (t) − ∆m = M − ∆m is the change in mass of the rocket due to spent fuel.
ve = velocity of the exhaust in the lab frame = c + vR (t)
∆p = ∆m(c + vR ) + (M − ∆m)vR (t + h) − M vR = M (vR (t + h) − vR ) + −∆m(vR (t + h) − vR ) + ∆mc
∆p vR (t + h) − vR vR (t + h) − vR ∆m
=M + −∆m + c = M (t)g
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
0 kc
M vR + = M (t)g
g
kt 0 kc/g kc/g
Now M (t) = M0 − =⇒ vR =g− =g−
g M M0 − kcg
kc g kt kt
vR = gt − ln (M0 − ) = gt + c ln (M0 − )
g −k g g
2
gt g k kt kt M0 cg
yR = +c t − M0 ln M0 − − + ln M0
2 k g g g k
Exercise 11.
0 −kc
M vR =
g
!
0 −kc 1
vR = kt
g M0 − g kt kt kt M0 cg ln M0
g =⇒ yR = c − M0 ln M0 − − +
kt k g g g k
vR = c ln (M0 − )
g
g kt − w w − kt kt wc w
M0 g = w =⇒ yR = c ln − + ln
k g g g k g
We could’ve also solved this problem with an initial velocity of v0 and gravity. Then
kt
vR (t) = gt + c ln (1 − ) + v0
M0 g
1 M0 g kt
y(t) = v0 t + gt2 + c t− ln 1 − −t
2 k M0 g
161
Exercise 12.
M vR = (M − ∆m)(vR (t + h)) + 0
M (vR (t + h) − vR (t)) = (∆m)vR (t + h)
0 k v0 k k
M vR = vR =⇒ R = kt
=
g vR g(M0 − g ) M0 g(1 − Mkt0 g )
kt −w kt
ln vR = (k/w) ln (1 − ) = − ln (1 − )
w k w
v0 −w kt −v0 w kt
vR = =⇒ x(t) = v0 ln (1 − ) = ln (1 − )
1 − kt
w
k w k w
8.22 Exercises - Remarks concerning nonlinear differential equations, Integral curves and direction fields.
Exercise 1. 2x + 3y = C =⇒ y 0 = −2
3
Exercise 3. x2 − y 2 = c =⇒ yy 0 = x =⇒ y 0 = xy ; y 6= 0
−y
Exercise 4. xy = c =⇒ y 0 = x ; x 6= 0
y2 y
Exercise 5. y 2 = cx =⇒ x = c =⇒ y 0 = 2x x 6= 0
Exercise 6. x2 + y 2 + 2Cy = 1
x2 1
+ y − = −2C
y y
2xy − y 0 x2 1
+ y0 + 2 y0 = 0
y2 y
−2xy
y0 =
1 + y 2 − x2
Exercise 7. y = C(x − 1)ex
y
=C
(x − 1)ex
y 0 (x − 1)ex − (ex + (x − 1)ex )y
=0
(x − 1)2 e2x
xy
y0 =
x−1
Exercise 8. y 4 (x + 2) = C(x − 2)
y 4 (x + 2)
=C
x−2
(4y 3 y 0 (x + 2) + y 4 )(x − 2) − y 4 (x + 2) y 4 (x + 2)
2
= 0 =⇒ 4y 3 y 0 (x + 2) + y 4 =
(x − 2) x−2
y
y0 =
(x − 2)(x + 2)
1 1 −(1 + y 2 )
2
y0 + √ =0 =⇒ y 0 = √
1+y 1 − x2 1 − x2
Exercise 11. All circles through the points (1, 0) and (−1, 0).
p
x2 + (y − ± R2 − 1)2 = R2
x2 + y 2 − 2By + (R2 − 1) = R2 =⇒ x2 + y 2 − 2By = 1
B depends upon R, the radius of the circles, so we could use B as the parameter for the family of circles.
x2 + y 2 − 1 = 2By
x2 1 2xy − y 0 x2 1
+ y − = 2B =⇒ + y0 + 2 y0 = 0
y y y2 y
2xy
y0 =
y2 − x2 + 1
Exercise 12.
(x + A)2 + (y + B)2 = r2
(1 + A)2 + (1 + B)2 = 1 + 2A + A2 + 1 + 2B + B 2 = r2
− (−1 + A)2 + (−1 + B)2 = − 1 − 2A + A2 + 1 − 2B + B 2 = r2
=⇒4A + 4B = 0 =⇒ A = −B
(x + −B) + (y + B)2 = r2
2
B−x
2(x − B) + 2(y + B)y 0 = 0 =⇒ y 0 =
y+B
(y + B)y 0 = B − x
r
2 2
√ p 2 r2
(1 − B) + (1 + B) = r =⇒ 2 (1 + B 2 ) = r or −1=B
2
=⇒ (so B could be treated as a parameter for the family of curves)
8.24 Exercises - First-order separate equations.
Exercise 1. y 0 = x3 /y 2
1 3
3y = 41 x4 + C =⇒ y 3 = 34 x4 + C
Exercise 2. tan x cos y = −y 0 tan y
1
ln | cos x| = cos y
Exercise 3. (x + 1)y 0 + y 2 = 0
1
y = ln (x + 1) + c
Exercise 4. y 0 = (y − 1)(y − 2)
1 −1
+ y0 = 1 =⇒ ln (y − 2) − ln (y − 1) = x
y−2 y−1
y−2
= ex
y−1
√
Exercise 5. y 1 − x2 y 0 = x
1 2
√ √
2y = − 1 − x2 =⇒ y 2 = −2 1 − x2
Exercise 6. (x − 1)y 0 = xy
Z
1
ln y = 1+ = x + ln |x − 1|
x−1
y = ex (x − 1) + C
163
Exercise 7. (1 − x2 )1/2 y 0 + 1 + y 2 = 0
arctan y = arccos x + C
Exercise 8. xy(1 + x2 )y 0 − (1 + y 2 ) = 0
Z
1 1 x 1
ln (1 + y 2 ) = − + C = ln x −
2 x 1 + x2 2 ln |1 + x2 |
2
x
y2 = k √
1 + x2
−1 x
ln y = arctanh
Z 2 Z 2
1 1 dx
since dx = =
x2 − 4 4 x 2
2 −1
Z
1 du x
= ( where u = )
2 u2 − 1 2
2 2
cosh u − sinh u
(tanh (u))0 = = 1 − tanh2 u
cosh2 u
1 x
=⇒ y = k exp (− arctanh )
2 2
2
1
2 ln (1 + y 2 ) = ln x + 12 x2 + C =⇒ y 2 = kx2 ex − 1
Exercise 11. yy 0 = ex+2y sin x
ye−2y e−2y ex sin x − ex cos x
− = +C
−2 4 2
(2y + 1)e−2y = −2ex (sin x − cos x) + C
f = −1 p
02 2 y0 = ± 1 − y2
y =1−y
± arcsin (y) = x + c =⇒ f (x) = ± sin (x + c)
Exercise 17.
Z x
f (t)dt = K(x − a)
a =⇒ f (x) = k > 0
f >0 ∀x ∈ R
Exercise 18.
Z x d
→ f (x) = kf 0 (x)
dx
f (t)dt = k(f (x) − f (a)) −−
a
1
=⇒ f (x) = Ce k x ; C>0
Rx x
Exercise 19. a
(f (t))dt = k(f (x) + f (a)) =⇒ f (x) = Ce k
x a x
kCe k − kCe k = kCe k + kCea/k =⇒ 2kCea/k = 0 =⇒ C =
f =0
Rx
Exercise 20. a f (t)dt = kf (x)f (a); f (x) = kf 0 (x)f (a)
f 0 (x)
1 1 x
= =⇒ ln f (x) = x + C; =⇒ f (x) = C exp
kf (a) f (x) kf (a) kf (a)
Z x x
t x a x a
f (t)dt = kf (a)Ce kf (a) = kf (a)Ce kf (a) − kf (a)Ce kf (a) = kCe kf (a) Ce kf (a)
a a
x a
x a
f (a) e (a) − e kf (a) = Ce kf (a) e kf (a)
kf
x=a 2a
−−−→ 0 = Ce kf (a) =⇒ C = 0
=⇒ f = 0
v − xv 0
x 0 x 1
y 0 = f (x, y) = == f (x, ) = f (1, )
v v2 v v
Z
1 dv
v − v 2 f (1, ) = xv 0 =⇒ ln x =
v v − v 2 f (1, v1 )
−x
Exercise 2. y 0 = y =⇒ 12 y 2 = − 12 x2 + C =⇒ y 2 = −x2 + C
y
Exercise 3. y 0 = 1 + x
y
x =v =⇒ y 0 = v + xv 0 = 1 + v =⇒ v = ln x
y = x(ln x + C)
x2 +2y 2
Exercise 4. y 0 = xy
165
x2 + 2y 2 x 2y
y0 = = +
xy y x
y 1 v0 1
v= =⇒ v + xv 0 = + 2v =⇒ 1 =
x v v +v
x
1
ln |1 + v 2 | = ln x + C =⇒ y 2 = (Cx2 − 1)x2
2
3xy
if 2y 2 6= x2 , y 0 =
x2 − 2y 2
y = vx 3vx2 3v
=⇒ y 0 = v 0 x + v = =
y0 = v0 x + v 2 2
x − 2v x 2 1 − 2v 2
1 − 2v 2 0 1
=⇒ v =
2v(1 + v 2 ) x
1 1 −3v 1 1 −3 v y/x
+ v0 = =⇒ ln v + ln (1 + v 2 ) = ln x + C =⇒ = Cx2 = 3
2 v 1 + v2 x 2 2 (1 + v 2 )3 x2 +y 2
x2
yx3 = C(x2 + y 2 )3
However,
3xy
y0 =
x2 − 2y 2
y
v= 3x2 v 3v
x =⇒ v 0 x + v = =
y0 = v0 x + v − 2v 2 x2 x2
1 − 2v 2
(v − 2v 3 ) 2(v + v 3 )
0 3v 1 3v 2 3
vx= − = =⇒ +− v 0 = =⇒ ln v + − ln |1 + v 2 | = 2 ln x + C
1 − 2v 2 1 − 2v 2 1 − 2v 2 v 1 + v2 x 2
v 2 y 2 /x4
= Cx =⇒ = Cx4
(1 + v 2 )3/2 (x2 + y 2 )3
=⇒ y 2 = C(x2 + y 2 )3
p
Exercise 6. xy 0 = y − x2 + y 2
r y 2
y 0
=⇒ y = = 1+
x x
p
v0 x = − 1 + v2
−v 0 1
y 0
p √ =
v= v x+v =v− 1+ v2 =⇒ 1 + v2 x
x p
vx = y =⇒ ln (v + 1 + v 2 ) = ln x + C since
p
0 1 v 1
2
(ln (v + 1 + v )) = √ 1+ √ =√
v+ 1+v 2 1+v 2 1 + v2
p
v+ 1 + v 2 = Cx =⇒ 1 + v 2 = C 2 x2 − 2vCx + v 2
Cx 1 Cx2 1
=⇒ v = − =⇒ y = −
2 2Cx 2 2C
Exercise 7. x2 y 0 + xy + 2y 2 = 0
166
−2y 2 y y v 0 x + v = −2v 2 − v
x2 y 0 = −2y 2 − xy =⇒ y 0 =− v = =⇒
x2 x x v 0 x = −2(v 2 + v)
v0
−2
Z
1 1 v C
= = v0 − = −2 ln x + C =⇒ = 2
v(v + 1) x v v+1 v+1 x
−Cx
y=
C − x2
Exercise 8. y 2 + (x2 − xy + y 2 )y 0 = 0
y 2
y y 2 0
+ 1− + y =0
x x x
y −v 2
Let v = =⇒ = v0 x + v
x 1 − v + v2
−v 2 −v(1 + v 2 ) v2 − v + 1 0
−1 1 −1 1
v0 x = 2
− v = 2
=⇒ 2
v = = + 2
v0 = −
1−v+v 1−v+v v(1 + v ) x v v +1 x
y
=⇒ ln v − arctan v = − ln x + C =⇒ ln (vx) = arctan x + C ln y = arctan + C
x
y(x2 +xy+y 2 )
Exercise 9. y 0 = x(x2 +3xy+y 2 )
y2
!
y
y(x2 + xy + y 2 ) 1 + v + v2 −2v 2
y 1+ x + x2
y
v= x
y0 = = y2
0
−−−→ v x + v = v =v+
x(x2 + 3xy + y 2 ) x 1+ 3y 1 + 3v + v 2 v 2 + 3v + 1
x + x2
3 1 −2 −1
v 0 (1 + + 2 ) = =⇒ v + 3 ln v + = −2 ln x + C
v v x v
y x
+ 3 ln y − = ln x + C
x y
y
Exercise 10. y 0 = x + sin xy
y
=x v + v 0 x = v + sin v
x =⇒ v0 1
y = v + v0 x
0 =
sin v x
K
− ln csc v + cot v = ln x + C =⇒ csc v + cot v =
x
−y(x + 4y) − y (1 + 4y
x ) v= x
y
−v(1 + 4v)
y0 = = xy −−−→ v + xv 0 =
x(y + 4x) x + 4 v+4
0 −5v(1 + v) −5 v+4 0 4 −3
xv = =⇒ = v = + v0
v+4 x v(1 + v) v 1+v
R
→ 4 ln v − 3 ln (1 + v) = −5 ln x + C =⇒ (yx)4 = (x + y)3 C
−
8.28 Miscellaneous review exercises - Some geometrical and physical problems leading to first-order equations.
Exercise 1.
2 3 3
2x + 3y = C y0 = − g0 = =⇒ g − x = C
3 2 2
Exercise 2.
d/dx 1 2 1
xy = C −−−→ y + xy 0 = 0 =⇒ y 0 = −y/x x 6= 0 =⇒ g 0 = x/g =⇒ g = x2 + C
2 2
Exercise 3. x2 + y 2 + 2Cy = 1
167
x + yy 0 + Cy 0 = 0 =⇒ y 0 (y + C) = −x
−x −x −2xy
y0 = = 1−x2 −y 2
= 2
y+C y+ y − x2 + 1
2y
y 2 − x2 + 1
orthogonalcurves 0 1 1 1
−−−−−−−−−−−→ y = = y+ − x y −1
2xy 2x 2 x
Recognize that this is a Ricatti equation and we know how to solve them.
−1 −x 1
y0 + y = y −1 + n = −1
2x 2 2x
k = 1 − n = 1 − (−1) = 2
0 −1 2 1
v = yk = y2 v +2 v= −x
2x 2 x
Z x Z x Z x Z x
−1 a A 1 a −a
A(x) = P (t)dt = = ln Qe = −t = + 1 − a(x − a)
a a t x a a t t x
x bx
y 2 = v = −1 + − x(x − a) +
a a
Exercise 4. y 2 = Cx.
0
y2 d/dx 2yy x − y
2
= C −−−→ =0
x x2
y 1 −2x
y0 = =⇒ y 0 = −y =
2x 2x
y
=⇒ y 2 + 2x2 = C
Exercise 5. x2 y = C.
2y x
2xy + x2 y 0 = 0 y 0 = − =⇒ y 0 =
x 2y
1 2 x2
y = +C
2 4
2y 2 − x2 = C
Exercise 6. y = Ce−2x
e2x y = C =⇒ 2e2x y + e2x y 0 = 0
invert 1
y 0 = −2y −−−→ y 0 =
2y
=⇒ y 2 = x + C
Exercise 7. x2 − y 2 = C
2x − 2yy 0 = 0
x −y
y 0 = =⇒ y 0 =
y x
C
=⇒ ln y = − ln x + C =⇒ y =
x
Exercise 8. y sec x = C
y 0 sec x + y tan x sec x = 0
(invert) 1
y 0 = −y tan x −−−−→ y 0 =
y tan x
1 2
y = ln | sin x| + C
2
168
2xy
Exercise 9. All circles through the points (1, 0) and (−1, 0) From Sec. 8.22, Ex.10, we had obtained y 0 = y 2 −x2 +1
x2 −y 2 −1 x2 −1 y x2 −1 −1
=⇒ y 0 = 2xy = 2yx − 2x =⇒ y 0 + 1
2x y = 2x y
Z x Z x
1 x
A(x) = P (t)dt = = ln
a a t a
Z 2 1 3 x
3t
Z
1 t t 1 t
(t − ) exp ln dt = − dt = −
t a a a a a a
x a
e− ln a =
x
1 3 1 3
x − x − 3a + a ba
=⇒ y 2 = v = 3 +
x x
Exercise 10. All circles through the points (1, 1) and (−1, −1).
(x + A)2 + (y + B)2 = r2
(1 + A)2 + (1 + B)2 = 1 + 2A + A2 + 1 + 2B + B 2 = r2
− (−1 + A)2 + (−1 + B)2 = − 1 − 2A + A2 + 1 − 2B + B 2 = r2
=⇒4A + 4B = 0 =⇒ A = −B
(x + −B) + (y + B)2 = r2
2
B−x
2(x − B) + 2(y + B)y 0 = 0 =⇒ y 0 =
y+B
(y + B)y 0 = B − x
r
2
√ p 2 2 r2
(1 − B) + (1 + B) = r =⇒ 2 (1 + B 2 ) = r or −1=B
2
=⇒ (so B could be treated as a parameter for the family of curves)
−1 y+B
y0 = =
B−x x−B
y+B
y0 1
= =⇒ y = C(x − B) − B
y+B x−B
Exercise 11. With (0, Y ) = Q the point that moves up wards along the positive y-axis and
Exercise 14.
Z x Z x
2
n πf (t)dt = (π(y(x))2 − π(f (t))2 )dt
0 0
Z x
(n + 1) πf 2 (t)dt = xy 2 (x) = xy 2 ; (n + 1)f 2 (x) = y 2 + 2xyy 0
0
ny n
y0 = =⇒ ln y = ln x + C
2x 2
y = Cxn/2 of y = Cx1/2n
Exercise 15.
x
πf 2 − 2xf
Z
π f 2 (t)dt = x2 f (x) πf 2 (x) = 2xf + x2 f 0 =⇒ f 0 =
0 x2
The left hand side of the last expression shown is homogeneous. Thus do the y = vx substitution.
πv 2 x2 − 2x2 v
v0 x + v = = πv 2 − 2v
x2
v0 x v0
1 1 1 1
= 1 =⇒ = = − v0
πv 2 − 3v π(v 2 − 3v
π ) x 3 v − 3
π
v
3
ln (v − ) − ln v = 3 ln x + C
π
v − 3/π
ln = 3 ln x + C
v
3
vx − xCvx4
π
3 3x/π
y − x = Cyx3 =⇒ y = 3
π 1 + x2
Ra R1
Exercise 16. A = 0
f; B= a
f
Ra Ra
A−B = 0
f+ 1
f = 2f (a) + 3a + b
d/dx f 0 (a)
−−−→ 2f (a) = 2f 0 (a) + 3 =⇒ 1 = f (a)− 32
So then
3 3
a + C = ln (y − ); f (a) = Cea +
2 2
1 3 3
f (1) = 0 = Ce + ; =⇒ C = −
2 2e
−3 x−1 3
f (x) = e +
2 2
170
To find b,
−3 a−1 3 3 3 3
2 e + a + e−1 + − = 2f (a) + 3a + b =
2 2 2 2 2
−3 a−1 3
=2 e + + 3a + b
2 2
3 −1
=⇒ b = e −3
2
Exercise 17.
x
y(x) − 1
Z
A(x) = f (t) − t+1 dt = x3
0 x
Z x
y(x) − 1 1 2
= f +− x − x = x3 =
0 x 2
Z x
y(x) − 1
= f +− x − x = x3
0 2
d/dx 1 1
−−−→ f (x) + − (y 0 x + y) − = 3x2
2 2
2 1
−2(3x + − y/2) y
y0 = 2
= −6x − x−1 +
x x
y = −6x2 + 5x + 1 x
1
mgh = mv 2
2 f
(imagine √
how the top layer of water is now at the bottom of the tank (final “potential energy configurations”))
Vf = 2gh (how fast water is rushing out)
dV dh p
=A = −c 2ghA0
dt dt
hf p A0
2h1/2 = −c 2g t
hi A
√
2A p p
=⇒ T = √ hf − hi = 59.6sec
c gA0
dV
√ √
Exercise 19. dt = −c 2ghA0 + γ0 = A dh
dt = −κh
1/2
+ γ0 . κ = c 2gA0 .
171
Adh dh
= dt = (A/γ0 )
γ0 − κh1/2 1 − γκ0 h1/2
0
1 a 1 κ
ln 1 − ah1/2 = 1/2
− 1/2
(where a = )
1 − ah 2h γ0
1 a 1/2
1 − ah1/2 2 − 2h
1
(h1/2 )0 = 1/2 =
2h 1 − ah1/2 h1/2 1 − ah1/2
2 hf
2γ0 h1/2
Z
dh 2γ0 κ 1/2
=⇒ (A/γ0 ) = − (A/γ0 ) ln 1 − h + =
1 − γκ0 h1/2 κ2 γ0 κ hi
=T
κ 1/2
κ2 1− γ0 hf
−γ0 2γ0 1/2 1/2
=⇒ exp t− hf − hi 2 =
A κ 2γ0 κ 1/2
1− γ0 hi
Exercise 20.
1 2
V0 = πR H0
3 0
2
1 R2
1 R0
V (h) = V0 − πh h = V0 − π 02 h3 = V0 − αh3
3 H0 3 H0
1 p
mg(H0 − h) = mvf2 ; 2g(H0 − h) = vf (energy conservation)
s2 r
h h
cA0 vf = cA0 2gH0 1 − =β 1−
H0 H0
r
dV p 2 dh dh β h
= −β 1 − h/H = −3αh =⇒ = 2
1−
dt dt dt 3αh H
h2 /H02 β/H02
Z
q = T =
1− h 3α
H0
u2 du (1 − y)2 (−dy) 1 − 2y + y 2
Z Z Z
= H0 √ = H0 √ = −H0 √ =
1−u y y
hf
2 2
= −H0 2y 1/2 − y 3/2 + y 5/2 =
3 5 hi
1/2 3/2 5/2 !hf
h 4 h 2 h
= −H0 2 1 − − 1− + 1− =
H0 3 H0 5 H0
hi
√ 2
cA0 2gH0 /H0
= T
R2
3 31 π H02
0
For hi = 0, hf = H,
16
√ √
p H0 πR02 2 πR02 H0
H0 (2(1) − 4/3(1) + 2/5) = H0 (16/15) = cA0 2gH0 T /(πR02 ); T = 15
√ =
cA0 2g 9 A0
172
(1)
00 d 1 0 −1
2f (x) = f = (f )
dx x x
−1 −1 1
=⇒ x2 y 00 = f0 = f
2 4 x
1
a = 0; b=
4
(2)
f (x) = Cxn
−1 n
f 0 = nCxn−1 =⇒ n(n − 1)Cxn = Cx
4
f 00 = n(n − 1)Cxn−2
1 1
n2 − n + =⇒ n =
4 2
Exercise 28. Choose the units for time to be in days first - we can convert into years later.
If no one died from accidental death, then the population will grow by e. That means, with x = x(t) being the population at
time t
dx
= x =⇒ x = Cet
dt
which makes sense because if C is the original population number, then after 1 year, x = Ce.
1
With t in days, we have a decrease of 100 x in population each day due to death. Add up the changes from the decrease
due to deaths and the increase due to growth for the DE:
dx 1 1 100 − 365 −265
= x− x= x=
dt 365 100 36500 36500
−265
=⇒ x = Ce 36500 t
−265
Change t units to years by multiplying the “time constant” 36500 by 365 days.
To get the total fatalities, simply integrate the deaths during each year.
Z t
365 365
y= (− exp (−2.65t) + 1)
0 100 2.65
2y 2 +x
Exercise 30. Let y = f (x) be the solution to y 0 = 3y 2 +5 f (0) = 0
0 2 0 2
(1) y 0 (0) = 0 as easily seen. Now y 00 = (4yy +1)(3y(3y
+5)−(6yy )(2y +x)
2 +5)2 , so then
00 1
y (0) = 5 > 0. It is a minimum.
(2) f 0 (x) ≥ 2/3 ∀ x ≥ 10/3. a = 2/3 since f will be above this tangent line.
Suppose, in the “worst case,” f 0 (x) = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2/3. Then f (x) = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2/3. Then the tangent line
must be at y = 0 at x = 10/3 to remain below the graph of f (x).
=⇒ 23 x − 20/9 < f (x)
173
(3) Since f 0 (x) ≥ 23 for each x ≥ 10
3 , then f → ∞ for x → ∞ (otherwise, f would have to decrease somewhere, which
would contradict the given fact about f ). Rewrite the DE for y 0 to be
2y 2 + x 5 x
y0 = 2
=⇒ (3y 2 + 5)y 0 = 2y 2 + x =⇒ (3 + 2 )y 0 = 2 + 2
3y + 5 y y
Consider
x
2y 2 + x 2+ y2
y0 = 2
= 5
3y + 5 3+ y2
specifically, x
y2 . Now y must, at the very least, have some linear increase because we had already shown that y 0 ≥ 23 .
0 x→∞
So y 2 would go to infinity faster than linear x. Thus limx→∞ y 0 = 23 . So then (3 + 5
y 2 )y −−−−→ (3 + 0) 23 = 2 =
2 + yx2 .
x
0=
y2
2+ yx2 x→∞ y
(4) y 0 = 3+ y52
−−−−→ 32 . =⇒ y = 23 x or x = 32 .
Exercise 31. Given a function f which satisfies the differential equation xf 00 (x) + 3x(f 0 (x))2 = 1 − e−x
1−e−x
f 00 + 3(f 0 )2 = x suggests that we consider the Taylor series of e−x .
P∞ j
1 − e−x − j=1 (−x) j!
X∞
(−1)j xj
= =
x x j=0
(j + 1)!
This further suggests that f itself has a power series representation because its first and second order derivatives are
simply a combination of infinitely many terms containing powers of x.
P∞
Then suppose f = j=0 aj xj .
∞
X
f0 = (j + 1)aj+1 xj
1 − e−x j=0
f 00 + 3(f 0 )2 = =⇒ ∞
x X
f 00 = (j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj
j=0
∞ ∞ X∞ ∞
X X X (−1)j xj
=⇒ (j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj + 3 (j + 1)(k + 1)aj+1 ak+1 xj+k =
j=0 j=0 j=0
(j + 1)!
k=0
If f (0) = 0 a0 = 0
0
If f (0) = 0 a1 = 0
P∞
Then f = a2 x2 + j=3 aj xj . Consider the x0 terms in the DE. (f 0 )2 doesn’t contribute, because f 0 ’s leading order
term is x1 . So then
∞
1 1 2 X
2(1)a2 + 0 = 1 =⇒ a2 = i.e. f = x + aj xj
2 2 j=3
1
A= in order for f (x) ≤ Ax2
2
174
9.6 Exercises - Historical introduction, Definitions and field properties, The complex numbers as an extension of
the real numbers, The imaginary unit i, Geometric interpretation. Modulus and argument. Exercise 6. Let f be a
Ax. 7 If x, y ∈ R+ , x + y, xy ∈ R+
Ax. 8 ∀ x 6= 0, x ∈ R+ or − x ∈ R+ but not both
/ R+
Ax. 9 0 ∈
Exercise 9. Ax. 7, Ax. 8 , Ax. 9 are trivially satisfied (all are positive).
For Ax. 7, ( 32 , 1), (1, 12 ) contradicts Ax. 7 since we required the product to be positive as well if the factors are positive.
We found this particular counterexample by considering factors (a, b), (c, d), so the product of the two is (ac − bd, ad + bc)
and so we need ac − bd − ad − bc = a(c − d) − b(c + d) < 0
Exercise 12.
az + b
w=
cz + d
(az + b)(cz + d) ac|z|2 + adz + bcz + bd
w= = 2 2
(cz + d)(cz + d) c |z| + cd(z + z) + d2
ac|z|2 + adz + bcz + bd − ac|z|2 − adz − bcz − bd (ad − bc)(z − z)
w + −w = 2
=
|cz + d| |cz + d|2
If ad − bc > 0
ad − bc ad − bc
w − w = 2Imw = 2Imz; >0
|cz + d|2 |az + d|2
So Imw has the same sign as Imz
175
9.10 Exercises - Complex exponentials, Complex-valued functions, Examples of differentiation and integration for-
mulas.
Exercise 7.
(1)
2π 2π
eix(n−m) 1−1
Z
ix(n−m)
if m 6= n , e dx = = =0
0 i(n − m) 0 i(n − m)
Z 2π
if m = n , eix(0) dx = 2π
0
(2)
Z 2π Z 2π
einx e−imx dx = (cos nx + i sin nx)(cos mx − i sin mx) =
0 0
Z 2π
= cos nx cos mx + sin nx sin mx + i(sin nx cos mx − sin mx cos nx)
0
Z 2π Z 2π
e−inx e−imx dx = (cos nx − i sin nx)(cos mx − i sin mx) =
0 0
Z 2π
= cos nx cos mx − sin nx sin mx + i(− sin nx cos mx − sin mx cos nx)
0
Summing the two equations above
Z 2π Z 2π
0= 2 cos nx cos mx + 2 i − sin mx cos nx
0 0
Z 2π Z 2π
=⇒ cos nx cos mx = 0, sin mx cos nx = 0
0 0
Z 2π Z 2π
einx e−imx dx = (cos nx + i sin nx)(cos mx − i sin mx) =
0 0
Z 2π
= cos nx cos mx + sin nx sin mx + i(sin nx cos mx − sin mx cos nx)
0
Z 2π Z 2π
einx eimx dx = (cos nx + i sin nx)(cos mx + i sin mx) =
0 0
Z 2π
= cos nx cos mx − sin nx sin mx + i(sin nx cos mx + sin mx cos nx)
0
Subtract the two equations above
Z 2π Z 2π
sin nx sin mx − i sin mx cos nx = 0
0 0
Z 2π
=⇒ sin nx sin mx = 0
0
176
Z 2π Z 2π
einx e−inx = 2π = (cos nx + i sin nx)(cos nx − i sin nx) =
0 0
Z 2π
= cos2 nx + sin2 nx
0
Z 2π Z 2π
inx inx
e e =0= cos2 nx − sin2 nx + i(2 cos nx sin nx)
0 0
Z 2π Z 2π
2 2
=⇒ cos nx − sin nx = 0 cos nx sin nx = 0
0 0
Summing the two results above, we obtain
Z 2π
2π = 2 cos2 nx
0
Z 2π
=⇒ cos2 nx = π
0
Z 2π
Then also, sin2 nx = π
0
Exercise 8.
z = reiθ = rei(θ+2πm) , m ∈ Z
z 1/n = r1/n ei(θ/n+2πm/n) m = 0, 1, . . . n − 1
=⇒ z 1/n = Reiα m = z1 m
The roots are spaced equally by an angle 2π/n
i = eiπ/2+i2πn =⇒ i1/3 = eiπ/6 , ei5π/6 , ei3π/2
i1/4 = eiπ/8 , e5iπ/8 , e9iπ/8 , e13iπ/8
−i = e−iπ/2+i2πn =⇒ (−i)1/4 = e−iπ/8 , e3iπ/8 , e7iπ/8 , e11iπ/8
Exercise 9.
Exercise 10.
(1)
1i = eiLog1 = ei(i2πn) = e−2πn = 1 if n = 0
π π
ii = eiLogi = ei(i 2 +i2πn) = e− 2 −2πn = e−π/2 if n = 0
(−1)i = eiLog−1 = ei(iπ+i2πn) = e−π−2πn = e−π
(2) z a z b = eaLogz ebLogz = eaLogz+bLogz = e(a+b)Logz = z a+b x
(3)
(z1 z2 )w = ewLogz1 z2 = ew(Logz1 +Logz2 +2πmi)
(z1w z2w ) = ewLogz1 ewLogz2 = ew(Logz1 +Logz2 )
m = 0 is the condition required for equality.
Exercise 12.
if L(u) = P, L(v) = Q,
L(u + iv) = (u + iv) + a(u + iv) + b(u + iv) = u00 + au0 + bu + i(v 00 + av 0 + bv) = L(u) + iL(v) = P + iQ = R
00 0
if L(f ) = R
L(u + iv) = L(u) + iL(v) = P + iQ
then, equating real and imaginary parts, L(u) = P, L(v) = Q
Exercise 13.
L(y) = −ω 2 y + aiωy + by = Aeiωx =⇒ (−ω 2 + aiω + b)B = A
We cannot let (−ω + aiωb) = 0 for a nontrivia solution. Thus b 6= ω 2 or aω 6= 0.
2
A
B=
−ω 2 + aiω + b
Exercise 14.
c
y ) = ceiωx ; yb = Beiωx =
L(b eiωx
−ω 2 + aiω + b
c aω
=⇒ yb = p ei(ωx−α) where tan α =
(b − ω 2 )2 + (aω)2 b − ω2
c
=⇒ <b
y=p cos (ωx − α)
(b − ω 2 )2 + (aω)2
Exercise 15.
c
=(b
y) = p sin (ωx + α)
(b − ω 2 )2 + (aω)2
c aω
=⇒ A = p ; − tan α =
(b − ω 2 )2 + (aω)2 b − ω2
10.4 Exercises - Zeno’s paradox, Sequences, Monotonic sequences of real numbers. Exercise 1. Converges to 0.
−2
n n+1 n2 − (n2 + 2n + 1) −2n − 1 − n12 n→∞
f (n) = − = = 2 = n −−−−→ 0
n+1 n n(n + 1) n +n 1 + n1
Exercise 2. Converges to −1.
n3 − (n3 + n + n2 + 1) n2 − n − 1 −1 − n1 − 1
n2 n→∞
f (n) = = = −−−−→ −1
(n + 1)n n(n + 1) 1 + n1
Exercise 3. Diverges since
nπ nπ
|cos − L| ≥ 1 cos − |L| ≥ |1 − |L||
2 2
|1−|L||
Choosing 1 = 2 , | cos nπ
2 − L| > 1 for n = 4m.
178
1 3 2 1
Exercise 4. f (n) = 5 + 5n − 5n2 → limn→∞ f (n) = 5
x x xα
Exercise 5. f (x) = 2x = exp (x ln 2) → 0 since limx→∞ (ex )β
.
Exercise 10.
n n
|f (n) − L| = |n(−1) − L| ≥ ||n(−1) | − |L|| = ||n| − |L|| = |n| − |L| > N − |L|
Thus, for n > N , N () = + |L|, so then |f (n) − L| > .
n2/3 sin n!
Exercise 11. f (n) = n+1 .
2/3
n sin (n!) sin (n!) 1
|f (n)| = = ≤
n + 1 n1/3 + n−2/3 n1/3
1
Thus, for n > N , N () = 3 , |f (n)| < .
Exercise 12. Converges, since
Exercise 18.
1 + n cos nπ − L ≥ 1 + n cos nπ − |L| = 1 + −n − |L| =
n+1 2 n+1 2 n+1
1
= − |L| > |L|
n+1
|L|
Choose 0 = 2 . For any N , for n > N , |f (n) − L| > 0 .
Exercise 19.
√
i 5 iα √ !−n
1+ = e 5 iα
2
n
2 2 e , √ e−niα
2
1 5 2 5
1+ = n
2 4
2
1 lim √ e−niα = 0
tan α = n→∞ 5
2
Exercise 20. limn→∞ f (n) = limn→∞ e−πin/2 diverges since
1
For n > N , exp N = , so that N = ln 1/.
N () = 1, 2, 4, 6, 9
2n 2 2
Exercise 27. an = n2 +1 ; |an | = n2 +1/n ≤ n2 .
√
2
N () = √ = 1, 4, 14, 44, 141
9 n 9 n
Exercise 28. |an | = 10 = 10 = en ln 9/10
ln − ln 1/
N () = 9
= =
ln 10 ln (9/10)
= 1, 21, 43, 65, 87
α
α(α−1)(α−2)...(α−n+1)
Exercise 33. n = n!
181
(1)
− 12
−1/2
= −3 −5 −7
− 12
1
1!1 −2 2 2 2 35
= =
− 12 −3
1
−2 2 5 4 4! 128
= = −3 −5
−7 −9
− 12
1
2! 2! 8 −2 2 2 2 2 −63
= =
− 12 −3
1 −5
−2 2 2 5 5 5! 256
= =−
3! 3! 16
−1
n 2
(2) an = (−1) n .
1 3
a1 = 2 > 0. a2 = 8 >0
an (−1) −1
1
− 12 − 2 − (n + 1) + 1 2 −n
n+1 n+1 α
an+1 = (−1) = (−1) = =
n+1 n n+1 n+1
an (n + 1/2)
= >0
n+1
n + 1/2
an+1 = an < an
n+1
Exercise 34.
(1)
n n−1 n−1 n−1
!!
1X k 1X k 1 X k 1X k
tn − sn = f − f = f (1) + f − f (0) + f =
n n n n n n n n
k=1 k=0 k=1 k=1
1
= (f (1) − f (0))
n
Since f nk ≤ f (t) ≤ f k+1 for nk ≤ t ≤ k+1
n n , by f being monotonically increasing.
Z 1
=⇒ sn ≤ f (x)dx ≤ tn (from definition of integral)
0
Z 1
1
0≤ f (x)dx − sn ≤ tn − sn = (f (1) − f (0))
0 n
(2) Use Theorem 1.9.
Theorem 30. Every function f which is bounded on [a, b] has a lower integral I(f ) and an upper integral I(f )
satisfying
Z b Z b
s(x)dx ≤ I(f ) ≤ I(f ) ≤ t(x)dx
a a
for all step functions s and t with s ≤ f ≤ t. The function f is integrable on [a, b] iff its upper and lower integrals
are equal,
Z b
f (x)dx = I(f ) = I(f )
a
R1
Since f (x) is integrable, then limn→∞ sn = limn→∞ tn = 0 f (x)dx
b−a
1
Pn−1 1
Pn
(3) n = ∆, sn = ∆ k=0 f (a + k∆), tn = ∆ k=1 f (a + k∆)
Rb
So by increasing monotonicity of f , sn ≤ a f (x)dx ≤ tn .
n−1 n−1
!
1 X X f (b) − f (a)
tn − sn = f (b) + f (a + k∆) = f (a + k∆) − f (a) =
∆ ∆
k=1 k=1
b
f (b) − f (a)
Z
0≤ f (x)dx ≤
a ∆
Exercise 35.
Pn 2 R 1
(1) limn→∞ n1 k=1 nk = 0 t2 dt = 13
Pn 1
Pn R1
(2) limn→∞ k=1 n+k = limn→∞ n1 k=1 1
k
1+ n
= 1
0 x
dx = ln 2
182
1
Pn 1
R1 1 1 π
(3) limn→∞ n k=1 1+( k )2 = dx
= arctan x|0 =
0 1+x2
n 4
Pn Pn R1 1 √ 1 √
(4) limn→∞ √ 1 1
= limn→∞ n k=1 1
= 0 √1+x2 dx = ln (x + 1 + x2 )0 = ln (1 + 2)
k=1
q
n2 +k2 k 2
1+( n )
R1 − cos πx 1 2
= −(−1−1)
Pn 1 kπ 1
Pn kπ
(5) limn→∞ k=1 n sin n = limn→∞ n k=1 sin n = 0 sin πxdx = π 0 π =
π
Pn 1 2 kπ
Rn 2 1
(6) limn→∞ k=1 n sin n = 0 sin xπ = 2
10.9 Exercises - Infinite series, The linearity property of convergent series, Telescoping series, The geometric series.
P∞ 1
P∞ 1/2 1/2 1
Exercise 1. n=1 (2n−1)(2n+1) = n=1 2n−1 − 2n+1 = 2
P∞ 2
P∞ 1 1
Exercise 2. n=1 3n−1 =2 n=0 3n = 2 1−1/3 = 3
P∞ 1
P∞ 1/2 1/2 P∞ 1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
1 1 3
Exercise 3. n=2 n2 −1 = n=2 n−1 − n+1 = n=2 n−1 − n +− n+1 − n = 2 + 4 = 4
2n +3n 1 n 1 n
P∞ P∞ P∞ 1/3 1/2 1 3
Exercise 4. n=1 6n = n=1 3 + n=1 2 = 1−1/3 + 1−1/2 = 2 +1= 2
P∞ √ √ P∞
n+1− n √1 √1
Exercise 5. n=1
√
2
n +n
= n=1 n
− n+1
=1
Exercise 6.
∞ ∞ ∞
X n X 3/2 −1/2 X 1 1 −1
= + = + =
n=1
(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) n=1 (n + 2)(n + 3) (n + 1)(n + 2) n=1 (n + 2)(n + 3) 2 6
∞
X 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − − = − =
n=1
1 + 2 n + 3 12 3 12 4
P∞ 2n+1
P∞ 1 1
Exercise 7. n=1 n2 (n+1)2 = n=1 n2 − (n+1)2 =1
2n +n2 +n
P∞ P∞ 1 1 1
P∞ 1 1 1/4 1 1
Exercise 8. n=1 2n+1 n(n+1) =1= n=1 2n(n+1) + 2n+1 = 2 n=1 n − n+1 + 1−1/2 = 2 + 2 =1
P∞ (−1)n−1 (2n+1) P∞ n−1 1 1
Exercise 9. n=1 n(n+1) = n=1 (−1) n + n+1 .
1 1 1 1 −1 1
(−1)n−1 + + + (−1)n = (−1)n +
n n+1 n+1 n+2 n n+2
∞ ∞
X −1 1 1 X −1 1 1 −1
+ = + = = −1
j=1
2j − 1 2j + 1 2 j=1
(j − 1/2) (j + 1/2) 2 1/2
Exercise 10.
∞ ∞ n
log ((1 + n1 )n (1 + n)) log n+1
X X
n (1 + n)
= =
n=2
(log nn )(log (n + 1)n+1 ) n=2 log (n + 1)n+1 log nn
∞ ∞
X log(n + 1)n+1 − log nn X 1 1
= n+1 n
= n
− =
n=2
log (n + 1) log n n=2
log n log (n + 1)n+1
1 √
= = log2 e
2 log 2
1
√
since if 2 log 2 = y, then y = log2 2.
P∞ P∞ 0
d x x
Exercise 11. n=1 nxn = x dx n=1 xn = x 1−x = (1−x)2 .
Exercise 12.
183
∞ ∞ 0
X
2 n d X n x
n x =x nx = x =
n=1
dx n=1 (1 − x)2
(1 − x)2 + 2(1 − x)x x(1 − x2 ) x(1 + x)
=x 4
= =
(1 − x) (1 − x)4 (1 − x)3
Exercise 13.
∞ ∞ 0
x + x2
X d X 2 n
n3 xn = x n x =x =
n=1
dx n=1 (1 − x)3
(1 + 2x)(1 − x)3 + 3(1 − x)2 (x)(x + 1) (1 + 2x)(1 − x) + 3x(x + 1) x(x2 + 4x + 1)
=x 6
=x 4
=
(1 − x) (1 − x) (1 − x)4
0
x3 +4x2 +x
P∞ d
P∞
Exercise 14. n=1 n4 x4 = x dx n=1 n3 x3 = x (1−x)4 .
x3 + 4x2 + x
ln = ln (x3 + 4x2 + x) − 4 ln (1 − x)
(1 − x)4
1 3x2 + 8x + 1 1
(ln f )0 = f 0 = 3 +4 ;
f x + 4x2 + x 1−x
(3x2 + 8x + 1)(1 − x) 4(x3 + 4x2 + x)
f0 = + =
(1 − x)5 (1 − x)5
3x2 + 8x + 1 − 3x3 − 8x2 − x + 4x3 + 16x2 + 4x x3 + 11x2 + 11x + 1
= =
(1 − x)5 (1 − x)5
4 3 2
x + 11x − 11x + x
=⇒
(1 − x)5
P∞ xn
P∞ R x n−1 R x P∞ Rx 1
Exercise 15. n=1 n =x n=1 0 t dt = 0 dt n=1 tn−1 = 0 1−t = − ln (1 − x).
Exercise 16.
∞ ∞ Z x Z x X ∞
X x2n−1 X
= t2j−2 dt = dt (t2 )j−1 =
n=1
2n − 1 j=1 0 0 j=1
Z x Z x
dt 1/2 1/2 1 1+x
= 2
= dt + = ln
0 1−t 0 1−t 1+t 2 1−x
P∞ P∞ d n+1
n d x 1
Exercise 17. n=0 (n + 1)x = n=0 dx x = dx 1−x = (1−x)2
Exercise 18.
∞ ∞ 00
(n + 1)(n + 2) n X xn+2 d2 x2 x2
X 1 d x
x = = 2 = +
n=0
2! n=0
2 dx 2 1 − x dx 1 − x 2(1 − x)2
1 x x x3 1 − 2x + x2 + 2x − 2x2 + x2 1
= + + + = =
1 − x (1 − x)2 (1 − x)2 (1 − x)3 (1 − x)3 (1 − x)3
Exercise 19.
∞ ∞ ∞
X (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) n X d3 xn+3 1 d X d2 x(n+1)+2
x = = =
n=0
3! n=0
dx3 3! 3 dx n=0 dx2 2
∞ ∞ !
1 d X d2 xn+2 1 d X d2 xn+2 d2 x2
= = − 2 =
3 dx n=1 dx2 2 3 dx n=0 dx2 2 dx 2
1 d 1 1 −3(−1) 1
= −1 = =
3 dx (1 − x)3 3 (1 − x)4 (1 − x)4
P∞ Pk (x)
Exercise 20. n=1 nk xn = (1−x)k+1
184
∞ ∞ 0
Pk (x)(1 − x)k+1 + (k + 1)(1 − x)k Pk (x)
X
k+1 n d X k n d Pn (x)
n x =x n x =x =x =
n=1
dx n=1 dx (1 − x)k+1 (1 − x)2k+2
0
(k + 1)xPk (x) + x(1 − x)Pk0 (x)
Pk (x)(1 − x) + (k + 1)Pk (x)
=x k+2
=
(1 − x) (1 − x)k+2
((k + 1)Pk (x) + (1 − x)Pk0 (x))x has x as its lowest degree term from xPx0 (x) and
(k + 1)xk+1 + −kxk+1 = xk+1 highest degree term is obtained from (k + 1)Pk (x) + −xPk0 (x).
dk
P∞ n+k n 1
P∞ xn+k
Exercise 21. n=0 k x = (1−x)k+1 = dxk n=0 k! .
∞ ∞ ∞
n + k + 1 n X dk+1 xn+k+1 d X dk x(n+1)+k
X 1
x = = =
n=0
k+1 n=0
dxk+1 (k + 1)! (k + 1) dx n=0 dxk k!
∞ ∞
1 d X dk xn+k d X dk xn+k dk xk
1
= = − =
k + 1 dx dxk k! k + 1 dx n=0 dxk k! dxk k!
k=1
1 d 1 1
= −1 =
k + 1 dx (1 − x)k+1 (1 − x)k+2
Exercise 22.
P∞ n−1
P∞ 1
P∞ 1 P∞ 1 P∞ 1
(1) n=2 n! = n=2 (n−1)! − n=2 n! = n=1 n! − n=2 n! = 1 .
P∞ n P∞ 1 P∞ 1
P∞ 1 P∞ 1 P∞ 1 P∞ 2
(2) n=2 n! + n=2 n! = n=2 (n−1)! + n=0 n! − 1 − 1 = n=1 n! + n=0 n! −2 = n=0 n! − 3 = 2e − 3 .
(3)
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
X (n − 1)(n + 1) X n2 X −1 X n X −1
= + = + =
n=2
n! n=2
n! n=2
n! n=2
(n − 1)! n=2
n!
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
X n+1 X 1 X 1 X 1
= + − = +1= +1= e+1
n=1
n! n=2
n! n=1 (n − 1)! n=0
n!
Exercise 23.
P∞ xn P
d d d ∞ nxn−1 d
P∞ nxn P∞ n2 xn d d x
(1) x dx x dx n=1 n! = x dx x n=1 n! = x dx n=1 n! = n=1 n! = x dx x dx e = x2 ex + xex
P
d ∞ n2 x n P∞ 3 n
d
= n=1 n n!x = x dx
(2) x dx n=1 n! (x2 + x)ex = x (2x + 1)ex + (x2 + x)ex = (x3 + 3x2 + x)ex
x=1 k=5
Exercise 24.
P∞ P∞
(1) Pn=2 (−1)n = Pn=2 (−1)n (n − (n − 1)). Identical.
∞ ∞
(2) = n=2 (−1)n . Not
n=2 (1 − 1) P P∞identical.
∞
(3) Not identical. n=2 (−1)n vs. ( n=2 (−1 + 1)) + 1.
P∞ 1 n
P∞ 1 n−1 n P∞ 1 n
P∞ 1 n
− 21
(4) Identical. n=0 2 = 1 + n=1 2 = n=1 2 (2 − 1) = n=0 2
Exercise 25.
(1)
1
1 + x2 + x4 + · · · + x2n + · · · =
if |x| < 1
1 − x2
1
=⇒ 1 + 0 + x2 + 0 + x4 + · · · = if |x| < 1
1 − x2
P∞ P∞ P∞
(2) Thm. 10.2. n=1 (αan + βbn ) = α n=1 an + β n=1 bn . So then
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
X X xj + (−x)j X xj − (−x)j X 1 1 x
xj − = = x2j+1 = − 2
=
j=0 j=0
2 j=0
2 j=0
1 − x 1 − x 1 − x2
(3)
∞ ∞ ∞
X X X x
(x2 )j + xj = (xj − x2j ) =
j=0 j=0 j=0
1 − x2
185
10.14 Exercises - Tests for convergence, Comparison tests for series of nonnegative terms, The integral test. We’ll be
using the integral test.
Theorem 31 (Integral Test).
Let f be a positive decreasing
Pn Pnfor all real x ≥ 1.
function, defined
For ∀n ≥ 1, let sn = k=1 f (k) and tn = 1 f (x)dx.
Then both sequences {sn } and {tn } converge or both diverge.
Exercise 1.
3 −1 3(4j − 1) + (−1)(4j − 3) 8j
+ = =
4j − 3 4j − 1 (4j − 3)(4j − 1) (4j − 3)(4j − 1)
n n
X j X 3/8 −1/8
= +
j=1
(4j − 3)(4j − 1) j=1 4j − 3 4j − 1
Z n n
3/8 −1/8 ln (4x − 3) ln (4x − 1)
+ dx = (3/8) + (−1/8) =
1 4x − 3 4x − 1 4 4 1
3 n 3
1 (4x − 3) 1 3(4n − 3)
= ln = ln
32 4x − 1 1 32 4n − 1
3
Z n n
1 3(4n − 3) xdx X j
lim ln = lim dx = ∞, so diverges as well
n→∞ 32 4n − 1 n→∞ 1 (4x − 3)(4x − 1) j=1
(4j − 3)(4j − 1)
Exercise 2.
∞ √ ∞
X 2j − 1 log (4j + 1) X
= aj
j=1
j(j + 1) j=1
√
4j + 1 log (4j + 1) 4 log (4j + 1) (4j + 1) log (4j + 1)(4 + 1/j)
aj ≤ = =4 ≤
j(j + 1/4) j(4j + 1)1/2 (4j + 1) (4j + 1)3/2
16 log (4j + 1)
≤ = bj
(4j + 1)3/2
X X
Now use the integral test on bj to determine the convergence of bj .
Z n Z 0
log (ax + 1) (−2)
3/2
dx = log (ax + 1)dx =
1 (ax + 1) a(ax + 1)1/2
−2 −2
Z
a
= log (ax + 1) − =
a(ax + 1)1/2 a(ax + 1)1/2 ax + 1
−2 −4
= log (ax + 1) +
a(ax + 1)1/2 a(ax + 1)1/2
Z n 1/2 !!
log(ax + 1) −2 log (an + 1) 2 log (a + 1) −4 1 1
lim dx = lim + + − =
n→∞ 1 (ax + 1)3/2 n→∞ a(an + 1)1/2 a(a + 1)1/2 a an + 1 (a + 1)1/2
2 log (a + 1) 4
= +
a(a + 1)1/2 a(a + 1)1/2
P P P
Then by integral test, bj converges. Since bj converges, then aj converges by comparison test.
P∞ j+1
Exercise 3. j=1 2j .
n n n
xe−x ln 2 e−x ln 2 −e−x ln 2
Z Z
x+1
(xe−x ln 2 + e−x ln 2 )dx =
dx = + +
1 ex ln 2 1 − ln 2 − ln 2 (ln 2)2
1
ne−n ln 2 e− ln 2
1 1 1 1
= + +− + e−n ln 2 + + e− ln 2
− ln 2 ln 2 (ln 2)2 ln 2 (ln 2)2 ln 2
Z n
x+1 2 1 1
lim dx = +
n→∞ 1 ex ln 2 ln 2 (ln 2)2 2
186
P∞ j+1
By integral test, j=1 2j converges.
P∞ 2
j
Exercise 4. j=1 2j .
n n n
x2 x2 x2 e−x ln 2 2xe−x ln 2 2e−x ln 2
Z Z
dx = = + +
1 2x 1 e
x ln 2 − ln 2 −(− ln 2)2 (− ln 2)3 1
n
x2
Z
− ln 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
lim dx = e + + = + +
n→∞ 1 2x ln 2 (ln 2)2 (ln 2)3 2 ln 2 (ln 2)2 (ln 2)3
P∞ j2
By integral test, j=1 2j converges.
Exercise 5.
∞ ∞ ∞
X | sin jx| X X 1
= aj ≤
j=1
j2 j=1 j=1
j 2
P∞ 1
j=1 j 2 converges since
n n
x−s+1
Z
1 1 1 1
lim dx = lim = lim − 1 = if s > 1
n→∞ 1 xs n→∞ −s + 1
1
n→∞ 1 − s n s−1 s − 1
P∞ |sinjx|
j=1 j2 converges by comparison test and integral test.
Exercise 6.
∞ ∞
2 + (−1)j
X X 1 3 2(1/4) 3(1/4) 4
= + = + =
j=1
2j j=1
22j−1 22j 1 − 1/4 1 − 1/4 3
P∞ j!
Exercise 7. j=1 (j+2)! .
j! 1 1
= aj =aj = ≤ 2 = bj
(j + 2)! (j + 1)(j + 2) j
P P
Since bj converges, aj converges, by comparison test.
P∞ log j P∞ P∞ log j
j=2 j j+1 = j=2 aj ≤
Exercise 8. √
j=2 j 3/2
Z n Z n n Z n 2x−1/2
log x
dx = (−2x−1/2 )0 log x = (−2x−1/2 log x) − − dx =
2 x3/2 2 2 2 x
n
log n log 2 −1/2
= (−2) − + −4x
n1/2 21/2
2
Z n
log x 1/2 4
lim dx = 2 log 2 + √
n→∞ 2 x3/2 2
P
So aj converges by comparison test.
P∞ P∞
Exercise 9. j=1
√ 1 = j=1 aj . Let bj = 1j .
j(j+1)
aj j 1
= lim p lim = lim p =1
bj j→∞ j(j + 1)
j→∞ j→∞ 1 + 1/j
P P
By limit comparison test, since bj diverges, aj diverges.
P∞ √ P∞
1+ j
Exercise 10. j=1 (j+1)3 −1 = j=1 aj
1
bj = j 5/2
√
j 3 + j 5/2 1 + 1/j 1/2
aj 1+ j 5/2
lim = lim j = lim = lim
j→∞ bj j→∞ (j + 1)3 − 1 j→∞ (j + 1)3 − 1 j→∞ (1 + 1/j)3 − 13
j
P P
By limit comparison test, since bj converges, aj converges.
P∞ 1
P
Exercise 11. j=2 (log j)s = aj
187
X
If s ≤ 0, aj diverges since lim aj 6= 0
j→∞
1 1
P∞ 1
P 1
If 0 < s ≤ 1, (log j)s > j s , and since j=2 js diverges for 0 < s < 1, so does (log j)s
0
(log x)−s+1 (log x)−s+1 (log x)1−s
Z Z Z Z
−s 1 −s
(log x) = (log x) x= x= x−
x (1 − s) (1 − s) 1−s
Thus, if s > 1 has any decimal part, or is an integer, its integral will diverge, so that by integral test, the series diverges.
P∞ |aj |
Exercise 12. j=1 10j ; |aj | < 10.
∞ ∞ ∞
X |aj | X 10 X 1 1 10
< = = =
j=1
10j j=1
10 j
j=0
10 j 1 − 1/10 9
P∞ 1
P∞ 1 1
P∞ 1
Exercise 13. j=1 1000j+1 < j=1 1000j = 1000 j=1 j
P1
The series diverges since j diverges.
Exercise 14.
∞ ∞ ∞
X j cos2 (jπ/3) X j X j
j j
= ≤
j=1
2 j=1
2 j=1
e ln 2
j
∞ Z ∞ −kx ∞
e−kx e−k e−k
Z
x −kx xe
kx
= xe = − 2
= +
1 e 1 −k (−k)
1 k (−k)2
P∞ 1
Exercise 15. j=3 j log j(log (log j))s
2
!∞
∞
e−x e−1
Z
−x2
xe = =0+
1 −2 2
1
√
√
x x
≤
1 + x2 1
Z 1/n 1/n 3/2
√ 2 3/2 2 1
xdx = x =
0 3 0 3 n
∞
X 2 1 3/2
∞
2X 1
=
j=2
3 j 3 j=2 j 3/2
R 1/n √
P x
So 1 n 0 1+x2 dx converges by comparison test.
Exercise 18.
188
√ √ −1
(e− x 0
) = e− x
√
2 x
√ √
√ √ −e− x 1 √ √ √ √ e− x
( xe− x )0 = + √ e− x ( xe− x + e− x )0 =
2 2 x 2
Z n+1 √ √ n+1
√ √ n+1 x 1
e− x dx = 2 ( x + 1)e− x
=2 √ + √ =
n e x e x
n n
√ √
n+1 1 n 1
=2 √
n+1
+ √n+1 − √n − √n
e e e e
∞ √ √
X j+1 j 1 1 1
2 √
j+1
− √j + √j+1 − √j = −
j=1
e e e e e
Note the use of telescoping sum in the last step. The series converges.
Rn Rn n
Exercise 19. 1 f (x)dx = 1 log xdx = (x ln x − x)|1 = n ln n − n + 1.
n−1
X Z n n
X n−1
X n
X
lnk ≤ ln x ≤ ln (k) =⇒ lnk ≤ n ln n − n + 1 ≤ ln (k)
k=1 1 k=2 k=1 k=2
n−1
!
X
exp ln k = (n − 1)! ≤ nn e−n+1
k=1
n
!
X
exp ln k = (n)! ≥ nn e−n+1
k=2
1/n
e (n!)1/n e1/n n1/n
=⇒ < <
e n e
P∞ (j!)2
10.16 Exercises - The root test and the ratio test for series of nonnegative terms. Exercise 1. j=1 (2j)!
3j+1 (j + 1)! jj
1 j→∞ 3
=3 −−−→ >1
(j + 1)j+1 3j j! (1 + 1/j)j e
Diverges by ratio test.
P∞ j!
Exercise 5. j=1 3j .
(j + 1)! 3j j+1
j+1
=
3 j! 3
Diverges by ratio test.
P∞ j!
Exercise 6. j=1 22j
189
(j + 1)! 22j (j + 1)
2(j+1)
=
2 j! 4
Diverges.
P∞ 1
Exercise 7. j=2 (log j)1/j
P1
Consider comparison with j.
2
! 2
ej − j ej − j j j→∞
j= = 1 − j 2 −−−→ 1
jej 2 ej 2 e
P1 P 1 1
By limit comparison test, since j diverges, so does j − ej 2 .
P∞ j
(1000)
Exercise 11. j=1 j! = e1000
P∞ j j+1/j
Exercise 12. j=1 (j+1/j)j .
1
j 1/j
2
exp j2 ln j
1/j 1/j
aj = lim aj = lim =1
1 + j12 j→∞ j→∞ 1+ 1
j2
Note that root test is inconclusive.
exp 1j ln j exp 1j ln j
aj = j ≥ j 2
1 + 1j 1 + j12
exp 1j ln j 1
lim aj ≥ lim j 2 = >0
j→∞ j→∞
e
1 + j12
Diverges since limj→∞ aj > 0.
P∞ j 3 (√2+(−1)j )j
Exercise 13. j=1 3j .
190
√ !1/j √ 3 √ √
j 3 ( 2 + (−1)j )j j 3/j ( 2 + (−1)j ) e j ln j ( 2 + (−1)j ) j→∞ ( 2 + (−1)j )
= = −−−→ <1
3j 3 3 3
Converges by root test.
P∞ j
Exercise 14. j=1 r | sin jx|.
If 0 < r < 1.
∞
X ∞
X
rj | sin jx| < rj
j=1 j=1
∞
X
so by comparison test, rj | sin jx| converges for 0 < r < 1
j=1
If r ≥ 1,
∞
X
lim rj | sin jx| =
6 0 so rj | sin jx| diverges, unless jx = πj
j→∞
j=1
Exercise 15.
bj+1 aj+1
(1) cj = bj − aj >0 ∀j ≥ N . Then there must be a positive number r that’s in between cj and 0.
j→∞ bj aj+1
−−−→ 1 ≤ <
bj+1 aj
P
So by ratio test, aj diverges.
Exercise 16. bn+1 = n; bn = n − 1.
nan+1
cn = n − 1 − an ≥ r =⇒ aan+1
n
≤ 1 − n1 − nr .
P
Using
P Exercise 15, anPconverges.
1 1
bn diverges since bn is a harmonic series of s = 1.
nan+1 1 an+1
n−1− ≤ 0 =⇒ 1 − ≤
an n an
Exercise 17. For some N ≥ 1, s > 1, M > 0, and given that
!
an+1 A f (n) A − nfs−1
(n)
=1− + s =1−
an n n n
f (n)
Consider A − ns−1 .
Since |f (n)| < M , f (n) is finite, so consider s larger than 1 and n going to infinity so that nfs−1
(n)
→ 0.
Using Exercise 16, for aj to converge, A − nfs−1 (n)
P
= 1 + r where r > 0, for all n ≥ N , where N is some positive number.
M
Let r = N s−1 so that
f (n)
A = 1 + r + s−1 > 1
n
191
P
If A > 1, then an converges.
If A = 1, then consider using Exercise 15 and bn = n log n.
an+1 an+1
cn = bn − bn+1 = (n − 1) log (n − 1) − n log n
an an
1 f (n) (n − 1) f (n)
= (n − 1) log (n − 1) − n log n 1 − + s = (n − 1) log − n log n =
n n n ns
n f (n)
= −(n − 1) log − n log n
(n − 1) ns
log n n→∞
since s−1 −−−−→ 0,
n
n f (n)
−(n − 1) log − n log n < 0 for n large enough
(n − 1) ns
X
since cn < 0 for n ≥ N for some N > 0, then by Exercise 15, an is divergent.
We can always choose small enough because there’s always a real number in between A and 1 (Axiom of Archimedes).
f (n) f (n)
A − s−1 ≤ 1 =⇒ − A − s−1 ≥ −1
n n
an+1 A + nfs−1
(n)
1
=⇒ using Exercise 16, =1− ≥ 1 − for all n ≥ N
an n n
Exercise 18.
k k
1 · 3 · 5 . . . (2n + 1) 2 · 4 · 6 . . . (2n) 2n + 1 n→∞
· = −−−−→ 1
2 · 4 · 6 . . . (2n + 2) 1 · 3 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) 2n + 2
Ratio test fails.
k k k
an+1 2n + 1 −1 −1/2
= = 1+ = 1+ =
an 2n + 2 2n + 2 n+1
k j X k j
X k −1/2 −1/2 k −1/2
= =1+k +
j=0
j n+1 n+1 j=2
j n+1
k j
X k −1/2
Note that for k < ∞, <∞
n+1 j=2
j
k k
X j
−1/2
≤M
Let
j=2 j n + 1
X X
k/2 = A > 1 or k > 2 means aj converges k/2 = A ≤ 1 or k ≤ 2 means aj diverges
10.20 Exercises - Alternating series, Conditional and absolute convergence, The convergence tests of Drichlet and
Abel. We will be using Leibniz’s test alot, initially.
Theorem 32 (Leibniz’s Rule). If aj is a monotonically decreasing sequence with limit 0,
P∞ j−1
j=1 (−1) aj converges.
P∞ Pn j−1
If S = j=1 aj , sn = j=1 (−1) aj ,
0 < (−1)j (S − sj ) < aj+1
P∞ (−1)j+1
Exercise 1. √ . limj→∞ √1 = 0 Converges conditionally.
j=1 j j
P∞ √ √
j j j
Exercise 2. j=1 (−1) j+100 limj→∞ j+100 = 0. Converges by Leibniz’s test.
√ 1 100 ≥ 1√
, so by comparison test, the series diverges absolutely. So the alternating series converges conditionally
j+ √j 101 j
by comparison test.
192
P∞ (−1)j−1 1
Exercise 3. j=1 js If s > 1, then the series absolutely converges. limj→∞ js = 0 if s > 0. Converges conditionally
for 0 < s < 1. Otherwise, if s < 0 the series diverges absolutely.
P∞ 3
j 1·3·5...(2j−1)
Exercise 4. j=1 (−1) 2·4·6...(2j) .
P∞ j
j 2j+100
Exercise 6. j=1 (−1) 3j+1 .
2j + 100 2 298 2 1 298
exp j ln = exp j ln + ≤ exp j ln + 2 =
3j + 1 3 9j + 3 3 3
9j + 3
2 146
= exp j ln +
3 3 + 1/j
2j + 100
0 ≤ lim exp j ln ≤ lim
j→∞ 3j + 1 j→∞
2 146
exp j ln + =0
3 3 + 1/j
2j + 100
=⇒ lim exp j ln =0
j→∞ 3j + 1
So the alternating series converges.
2j + 100 2j + 100 2.5j 5
< < = ( for j ≥ 200)
3j + 1 3j 3j 6
j j
2j + 100 5
=⇒ < for j ≥ 200
3j + 1 6
So the series absolutely converges by comparison with a geometric series.
P∞ (−1)j
j=2 j+(−1)j .
Exercise 7. √
1
lim √ doesn’t exist since ???
j + (−1)j
j→∞
To show divergence, we usually think of either taking the general term and finding the limit (and if it goes to a nonzero
constant, then it diverges), or we use ratio, root, comparison test on the general term. Since this is an alternating series, I’ve
observed that the general term is a sum of two adjacent terms, one even and one odd.
(−1)j
√
j + (−1)j
√ √
(−1)2j (−1)2j+1 1 −1 2j + 1 − 1 − ( 2j + 1)
√ + √ = √ + √ = √ √ =
2j + (−1)2j 2j + 1 + (−1)2j+1 2j + 1 2j + 1 + 1 ( 2j + 1)( 2j + 1 − 1)
√ √ √ q
1 √
2j + 1 − 2j − 2 2j 1 + 2j − 2j − 2
= √ √ = √ √ q =
( 2j + 1)( 2j + 1 − 1) ( 2j + 1)( 2j 1 + 2j 1
− 1)
√ 1
√
− 2j − 2 1 − 4√12j
!
for j large
2j 1 + 4j −2
−−−−−−→ ' √ √ = 1 1
( 2j + 1)( 2j 1 + 4j 1
− 1) j 2 − 2j + 2√2j 3/2
Every term, since we considered any j, will contain −2. So we factor it out. Then
1 !
1 − 4√12j
!
1 1 1 − 4√2j 1
1 1 > 1 =
j 2 − 2j + 2√2jj 3/2 j 4 − √ 4j
2j
193
1
By comparison test to j the series diverges.
Theorem
P33.
Assume |aj | converges
P P P
Then aj converges and | aj | ≤ |aj |.
1 1 1 1
= 1 lim = =1
j 1/j e j ln j j→∞ j 1/j
exp limj→∞ 1
ln j
j
Diverges absolutely.
P∞ 2
j j
Exercise 9. j=1 (−1) 1+j 2 Diverges absolutely.
1 1
lim −n
= lim =0
n→∞ log (en + e ) n→∞ n
The series converges.
n n 1
lim −n
= lim −2n
= lim =1
n→∞ log (en n
+ e ) n→∞ log e + log (1 + e ) n→∞ n+log (1+e −2n )
1 1
P P
Since n diverges, log (en +e−n ) diverges.
P∞ (−1)j
Exercise 11. j=1 j log2 (j+1)
1
limj→∞ j log2 (j+1)
= 0 so by Leibniz’s test, the alternating series.
1 1
<
n log2 (n + 1) n log2 (n)
Z 0
−1 −1 n→∞
Z
1 1
2 = = −−−−→
n log n log n log n log 2
1
Converges by comparison test to n log2 n
, which converges by integral test. So the series absolutely converges.
P∞ (−1)j
Exercise 12. j=1 log (1+1/j) diverges absolutely.
194
2j 2j+1
(−1) 1 −1 1 − log
+ log 2j−1 2j
+ = + = =
2j
1
log 1 + 2j−1 1
log 1 + 2j log 2j−1 log 2j+1
2j
2j
log 2j−1 log 2j+1
2j
(2j)2
log 4j 2 −1 log 1 + 4j 21−1
= = =
2j 1 1 1
log 2j−1 log 1 + 2j log 1 + 2j−1 log 1 + 2j
1 1
4j 2 −1 + o 4j 2 −1
= ≈
1 1 1 1
2j−1 + o 2j−1 2j + o 2j
1
4j 2 − 2j 1 − 2j j→∞
≈ = 1 −−−→ 1
4j 2 − 1 1 − 4j 2
37
(j + 1)3 7 (j + 1)!
aj+1 1 1
= = 1+ →0
aj (j + 2)! j 3 7 j+2 j
P P
Converges for |aj |. Then aj converges. The series absolutely converges.
n n+1 e−x
P∞ R
Exercise 14. n=1 (−1) n x dx
1 sin 1/j
log j sin = log
j 1/j
sin 1/j sin 1/j
lim log = log lim = log 1 = 0
j→∞ 1/j j→∞ 1/j
2k+1
∞ 1
1 j X
sin = (−1)k
j (2k + 1)!
k=0
2k+1 2k
∞ 1 k ∞ 1 k
X j (−1) −1 X j (−1)
log j = log 1 + 2 + ≥
(2k + 1)! 6j (2k + 1)!
k=0 k=2
1 −1
≥ log 1 + − ≥
6j 2 6j 2
The series absolutely converges.
P∞
j 1
Exercise 17. j=1 (−1) 1 − j sin j
195
0
1 1 1 −1
1 − x sin = − sin − x cos =
x x x x2
1 1 1 −x sin x1 + cos x1
= − sin + cos =
x x x x
∞ 1 2j+1
1 X x (−1)j
sin =
x j=0 (2j + 1)!
−x sin x1 + cos x1
=
x
3
( x1 )(+1) P∞ ( x1 )2j+1 (−1)j 1 2
P∞ ( x1 )2j (−1)j
−1 + 3! + j=2 (2j+1)! +1− x /2 + j=2 (2j)!
= < 0 for x large enough
x
P∞
j=1 (−1)
j
1 − j sin 1j converges since aj = 1 − j sin 1j is monotonically decreasing sequence with limit 0.
2k+1 2k+1
∞ 1 k ∞ 1 k
1 X j (−1) 1 X j (−1)
1 − j sin = 1 − j =1−j + =
j (2k + 1)! j (2k + 1)!
k=0 k=1
2k 2k
1 1
X ∞
j (−1)k X∞
j (−1)k+1 1
= 1 − 1 + = ≤
(2k + 1)! (2k + 1)! 6j 2
k=1 k=1
1
The series converges absolutely since the term itself is a series that is dominated by 6j 2 , so that by comparison test, the series
must converge.
P∞
j 1
Exercise 18. j=1 (−1) 1 − cos j .
1 1 −1 −1 1
(cos )0 = − sin = 2 sin < 0
x x x2 x x
P∞ j
j=1 (−1) (1 − cos 1j ) converges since aj = (1 − cos 1j ) is monotonically decreasing to 0
∞ ∞
1 X (1/j)2k (−1)k X (1/j)2k (−1)k+1 1
(1 − cos ) = 1 − = ≤ 2
j (2k)! (2k)! 2j
k=0 k=1
P 1
So the series converges absolutely, by comparison test with j 2 which converges.
P∞ j 1
Exercise 19. j=1 (−1) arctan 2j+1 .
1 1 −1 −2
(arctan )0 = 2 2
(2) = <0
2j + 1 (2j + 1) (2j + 1)2 + 1
1
1 + 2j+1
P∞ j 1 1
j=1 (−1) arctan 2j+1 converges, since aj = arctan 2j+1 is monotonically decreasing to 0
∞ ∞
1 X X
2
= (arctan x)0 = (−x2 )j = (−1)j x2j
1+x j=0 j=0
∞
X x2j+1
=⇒ arctan x = (−1)j
j=0
2j + 1
2k+1 2k+1
∞ (−1)k 1 1
! ∞ (−1)k 1
1 X 2j+1 1 (2j+1)3
X 2j+1
arctan = = + (−1) + >
2j + 1 (2k + 1) 2j + 1 3 2k + 1
k=0 k=2
1 1 3(4j 2 + 4j + 1) + (−1) 12j 2 + 12j + 2 2j 21
> + (−1) 3
= 3
= 3
> 2
> for j > 2
2j + 1 3(2j + 1) 3(2j + 1) 3(2j + 1) (2j + 1) 9j
P1 P 1
So by comparison test to j, arctan 2j+1 diverges absolutely. The series is conditionally convergent.
P∞ j π
Exercise 20. j=1 (−1) 2 − arctan log j
196
0
π −1 1
− arctan log n =
2 1 + (log n)2 n
π π π
− arctan log n ≥ − arctan (n − 1) → − arctan n just change indices
2 2 2 n
Z n
π π 1
− arctan x dx = x − x arctan x − ln (1 + x2 )
0 2 2 2 0
π 1 2
π 1
− arctan n + ln (1 + n2 )
= n − n arctan n − ln 1 + n =n
2 2 2 2
π 1
lim n − arctan n + ln (1 + n2 ) → ∞
n→∞ 2 2
Pπ
Then by the integral test, 2 − arctan log n diverges absolutely. So the alternating series is conditionally convergent.
P∞
1
Exercise 21. j=1 log 1+ | sin j|
1 1
limj→∞ log 1 + | sin j| doesn’t exist and log 1 + | sin j| >0 ∀j so the series diverges.
P∞
1
Exercise 22. j=2 sin jπ + log j
1 1
sin 2jπ + + sin (2j + 1)π + =
log 2j log (2j + 1)
1 1 1 1
= sin (2jπ) cos + sin cos (2πj) + sin (2j + 1)π cos + cos (2j + 1)π sin =
log 2j log 2j log (2j + 1) log 2j + 1
1 1
= sin − sin =
log 2j log 2j + 1
2k+1 2k+1
1 k 1
X∞
log 2j (−1) X∞
log (2j+1) (−1)k
= −
(2k + 1)! (2k + 1)!
k=0 k=0
1 1
sin − sin =
log 2j log 2j + 1
∞ 2k+1 2k+1 !
(−1)k
X 1 1
= −
(2k + 1)! log 2j 2j + 1
k=0
2k+1 2k+1
1 1
0 < log 2j < log 2j + 1 so − >0
log 2j log 2j + 1
1 1
and since for j > 1, and are < 1 and so we are adding smaller and smaller amounts
log 2j log 2j + 1
1 log 2j + 1
< −
log 2j =
1 1
log (2j + 1) − log 2j log 1 + 2j
2j
= ≤ ≤
log 2j log 2j + 1 (log (2j))2 (log (2j))2
Z n n
1 1 n→∞ 1
2
=− −−−−→
1 2j(log 2j) log 2j 1 log 2
1
P
So the series converges by using integral test, showing that 2j(log 2j)2 converges, so by comparison test, the series con-
verges.
nn z n
P
Exercise 33. n=1
197
X X ∞
n n
X ln j j
j
n z = (jz) = e z
n=1 j=1
n
X
(eln j z)j =
j=1
ln j
e z − (eln j z)n
= −→ ∞
1 − eln j z
So z = 0
P∞ (−1)j z 3j P∞ (−z 3 )j 3
Exercise 34. j=1 j! = j=1 j! = e−z . C .
P∞ zj
P∞ j
Exercise 35. = j=0 13 z j
j=0 3j
P j Pn
z be convergent or j=1 z j bounded.
|z| < 3 and |z| = 3 if z 6= 3
zj
P∞
Exercise 36. j=1 j j {z} = C since
z
j < 1 for j ≥ N > |z|
P∞ (−1)j
Exercise 37. j=1 z+j
1 j→∞
By Leibniz’s Rule, since z+j −−−→ 0, then the series converges. However, z cannot be equal to any negative integer since
one term in the series will then blow up.
P∞ zj
Exercise 38. √ log 2j+1 .
j=1 j j
1
z j
1
log 2 + j
√ log 2 + = zj √
j j j
log (2+ 1j ) log (2+ 1j )
Since limj→∞ √
j
= 0 so that √
j
is a monotonically convergent sequence.
Pn j
Then by Dirchlet’s test, j=1 z must be bounded. |z| > 1, and |z| = 1 if z 6= 1.
P∞ j 2 P∞ j 2
1 17j 1
Exercise 39. j=1 1 + 5j+1 |z| = j=1 1 + 5j+1 (|z|17 )j
j !j
1 17
1+ |z|
5j + 1
j j
1 1/5
lim 1 + ≤ lim 1 + = e1/5
j→∞ 5j + 1 j→∞ j
e1/5 |z|17 < 1 =⇒ |z| < e−1/85
P∞ (z−1)j
Exercise 40. j=0 (j+2)!
∞ ∞ ∞
X (z − 1)j X |(z − 1)|j |(z − 1)|j+2
X |z − 1|
≤ ≤ = e|z−1| − 1 −
j=0 (j + 2)!
j=0 (j + 2)! j=0
(j + 2)! 1!
1 1
lim = 0 so is a monotonically convergent sequence
j→∞ j log (j + 1) j log (j + 1)
X |2z + 3| < 1 X
(2z + 3)j 3 1 then (2z + 3)j converges
|z + | <
2 2
0
1 −1 x
= log (x + 1) + < 0; for x > 0
x log (x + 1) (x log (x + 1))2 x+1
P∞ (2z+3)j 3 1
By Dirichlet’s test, converges for |z + | ≤ ;
j=1 j log (j+1) z 6= −1 .
2 2
j j
P∞ (−1)j P∞ j
Exercise 43. j=1
1−z
(2j−1) 1+z = j=1 (−1)j− 1
/2 1−z
1+z 2
z−1 j
P∞ ( z+1 ) 1 1
=⇒ j=1 2j−1 = limj→∞ 2j−1 = 0 and 2j−1 is monotonically decreasing.
1
So 2j−1 is a monotonically decreasing convergent sequence of real terms.
For z−1
z+1 < 1,
z − 1
z + 1 < 1 =⇒ |z − 1| < |z + 1|
P∞ P∞ j
1 1
Exercise 46. j=1 (1+|z|2 )j = j=1 1+|z|2
199
1
<1
1 + |z|2
1 < 1 + |z|2 ∀z except z = 0
0 < |z|2
j 2j sin2j x
P∞
Exercise 47. j=1 (−1) j
lim aj = 0
X√ j→∞
1
aj p √
1/2
(j) lim aj = lim aj =0
j→∞ j→∞
Z n−1 n−1 n
xj+1 X xj 1 − xn
X X Z
j
x = = =
j=0 j=0
j + 1 j=1 j 1−x
√ q
aj aj
A counterexample would be jp = j .
Exercise 52.
a2j converges.
P P P
(1) aj converges absolutely, then if |aj | converges,
a2j −1
=1+
1 + a2j 1 + a2j
a2j X X a2j
≤ a2j since a2j converges , converges
1 + a2j 1 + a2j
P
(2) aj converges absolutely,
P aj P j→∞ |aj | = 0
lim
1
1+aj = |aj | |1+aj | .
By Abel’s test, since
1 1 1
lim = =1 shows that ≥ 0 is a monotonically convergent sequence
j→∞ |1 + aj | |1 + limj→∞ aj | |1 + aj |
P aj
By Abel’s test, 1+aj is convergent.
200
10.22 Miscellaneous review exercises - Rearrangements of series. Exercise 1.
(1) r
p p p 1 p p 1 1 1
aj = j + 1 − j = j 1 + − j = j 1 + +o + −1 =
j 2 j j
p 1 1 1
= j +o
2 j j
lim aj = 0
j→∞
(2) c
1 1 1
aj = (j + 1)c − j c = j c 1+ − 1 = (j c ) 1 + c +o −1 =
j j j
1 1 1
= jc c +o = cj c−1 + j c o
j j j
if c > 1, aj diverges
if c = 1, lim aj = 1
j→∞
if c < 1, lim aj = 0
j→∞
Exercise 2.
(1)
∞ n j j−1
1 1 1 X (x ) (−1) n→∞
(1 + xn ) n = exp ln (1 + xn ) = exp −−−−→ 1
n n j=1 j
n 1/n
(2) limn→∞ (an + bn )1/n = limn→∞ a 1 + nb = a if a > b.
an +an−1 an−1 +an−2 an−2 +an−3
Exercise 3. an+1 = 2 = 22 + 22
10.24 Exercises
R ∞ -xImproper integrals.
Exercise 1.
0
√
x4 +1
dx
x2
x 1
lim √ = lim p =1
x→∞ x4 + 1 1/x x→∞ x2 1 + 1/x4
R∞ 1
R∞ x
Since 1 x diverges, so does 0
√
x4 +1
dx
Exercise 2.
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z −∞ Z ∞ Z 0 Z ∞
−x2 −x2 −x2 −x2 −x2 2
e dx = e dx + e dx = e dx + − e dx = 2 e−x dx
−∞ 0 0 0 ∞ 0
Z ∞ Z ∞ ∞
2 2
e−x dx ≤ e−x dx = −e−x = 1
0 0 0
Converges by theorem.
R∞
Exercise 3. 0 √ 13 dx
x +1
R∞
Exercise 4. √1 dx
0 ex
R∞ √
e− x
Exercise 5. 0+
√
x
dx
R1 log
Exercise 6. √ x dx
0+ x
R 1− log x
Exercise 7. 0+ 1−x dx
R∞ x
Exercise 8. −∞ cosh x
dx
R 1−
Exercise 9. √ dx
0+ x log x
201
R∞ dx
Exercise 10. x(log x)s
11.7 Exercises - Pointwise convergence of sequences of functions, Uniform convergence of sequences of functions,
Uniform convergence of sequences of functions, Uniform convergence and continuity, Uniform convergence and inte-
P∞ zj
gration, A sufficient condition for uniform convergence, Power series. Circle of convergence. Exercise 1. j=0 2j =
P∞ z j
j=0 2
(we use Theorem 11.6 at this point, because real numbers are included in complex numbers).
We had first used Leibniz’s test to find az1 on the real line.
P∞
Exercise 5. j=1 (1 − (−2)j )z j .
−1
If z = 2 ,
X 1 j X
− − 1j → ∞
2
P∞ j!z j
Exercise 6. j=1 j j
A very big hint is to use Exercise 19 on pp. 399, in the section for Exercises 10.14.
203
Pn−1 Rn
Since j=1 f (j) ≤ 1
f (x)dx
n−1
X Z n n
X
ln j ≤ ln x = n ln n − n + 1 ≤ ln j
j=1 1 j=2
(n − 1)! ≤ nn e−n n ≤ n!
n!
≥ ne−n
nn
n!
lim ≥ lim ne−n = 0
n→∞ nn n→∞
n! n2
lim n ≤ lim n = 0
n→∞ n n→∞ e
n!
=⇒ lim n = 0
n→∞ n
P (−1)j (−1)j P 1 1 1
P 1
For z = −2, j 2 +1 = j 2 +1 and j 2 +1 < j 2 , but j 2 is convergent (by integral test). So the series converges
for z = −2.
By Dirichlet’s test, the series converges as well, if we treat aj = (−1)j (z + 1)j and bj = j 21+1 to be the monotonically
decreasing sequence.
=⇒ |z + 1| ≤ 1 for convergence x
P∞ 2
Exercise 8. j=0 aj z j , 0 < a < 1
P∞ 1·3·5...(2j−1) 3
Exercise 11. j=1 2·4·6...(2j) zj
3 3 3 3
aj+1 1 · 3 · 5 . . . (2j + 1) j+1 2 · 4 · 6 . . . (2j) 1 2j + 1 −1/2
= z = z = 1+ z
aj 2 · 4 · 6 . . . (2j + 2) 1 · 3 · 5 . . . (2j − 1) zj 2j + 2 j+2
If |z| < 1, it converges by ratio test, if |z| = 1, then it converges by Gauss test
3 3 k
aj+1 −1/2 X 3 −1/2
= 1+ z= |z| =
aj j+2 k j+2
k=0
2 3 !
−1/2 −1/2 −1/2 j→∞
= |z| 1 + 3 +3 + −−−→ |z|
j+2 j+2 j+2
P∞ j 2
1
Exercise 12. j=1 1 + j zj
j 2 !1/j j
1 j 1 j→∞
1+ z = 1+ z −−−→ e1 z
j j
1 X 1 2
|z| < , (1 + )j z j converges by root test
e j
1 X 1 j2 j
|z| > , (1 + ) z diverges by root test
e j
1
=r
e
205
P∞ j
Exercise 13. j=0 (sin aj)z a>0
P∞ j
P∞ eaj −e−aj j 1
P
∞ a j
P∞ z
j
Exercise 14. j=0 (sinh aj)z = j=0 2 z = 2 j=0 (e z) − j=0 ea ; a>0
1 1
sinh ajz j converges. So then the radius of convergence is r =
P
If |z| < ea , then ea
zj
P∞
Exercise 15. j=1 aj +bj . Assume a < b
zj
j
bj (1 + ab )
j
bj 1 + ab a j
!
z j+1 = z
1+ b j→∞
z
(ratio test) j+1 −−−→
a z j b a j+1 b
bj+1 (1 + b ) 1+ b
So if a ≷ b, then r = a; (b)
2
1
e−nx e−n −1 n→∞ 1
R1 R1 2
Exercise 17. fn (x) = nxe−nx = = −−−−→ 2
0 0 −2 −2
0
However,
2
limn→∞ nxe−nx = 0
This example shows that the operations of integration and limit cannot always be interchanged. We need uniform conver-
gence. Exercise 18. fn (a) = sinnnx limn→∞ sinnnx = 0
P sin jx
N N12 converges, so
P
j2 uniformly converges.
sin jx P sin jx
Then by Thm., since j2 are continuous, j 2 is continuous.
P sin jx
Since j2 uniformly converges.
Z πX π
sin jx X π sin jx X cos jx X (−1)j − 1
Z
= = = =
0 j2 0 j2 −j 3 0 −j 3
∞
X 1
= 2
j=1
(2j − 1)3
x2 π2
P∞ cos jx πx
Exercise 20. It is known that j=1 j2 = 4 − 2 + 6 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
(1) x = 2π
∞
X 1 (2π)2 2π 2 π2 π2
2
= − + =
j=1
j 4 2 6 6
P cos jx
(2) As shown in Ex. 19, j2 is uniformly convergent on R
11.13 Exercises - Properties of functions represented by real power series, The Taylor’s series generated by a function,
A sufficient condition for convergence of a Taylor’s series, Power-series expansions for the exponential and trigono-
metric functions, Bernstein’s Theorem. Sufficient Condition for convergence.
Theorem 37 (Bernstein’s Theorem). Assume ∀x ∈ [0, r], f (x), f (j) (x) ≥ 0 ∀j ∈ N.
Then if 0 ≤ x < r
∞
X f (k) (0)
(25) xk converges
k!
Proof. If x = 0, we’re done. Assume 0 < x < r.
n
X f (k) (0)
f (x) = xk + En (x)
k!
k=0
n+1 Z 1
x
En (x) = un f (n+1) (x − xu)du
n! 0
Z 1 Since f (n+1) > 0, f (n+1) (x(1 − u)) ≤ f (n+1) (r(1 − u))
En (x) 1 n (n+1)
Fn (x) = n+1 = u f (x − xu)du En (x) En (r)
x n! 0 =⇒ Fn (x) ≤ Fn (r) =⇒ ≤ n+1
x n+1 r
207
Pn f (j) (0) j x n+1
For f (x) = j=0 j! x + En (x) =⇒ En (x) ≤ r En (r)
n
X f (j) (0)
f (r) = rj + En (r) ≥ En (r) since f (j) (0) ≥ 0 ∀j
j=0
j!
n+1
So then 0 ≤ En (x) ≤ xr f (r)
n→∞
n → ∞ and f (t) will be some non-infinite value, so En (x) −−−−→ 0.
P∞ j 2j
Exercise 1. j=0 (−1) x
Consider absolute convergence. limj→∞ (x2 )j = 0 If x2 < 1
xj x j
P∞ 1
P∞
Exercise 2. j=0 3j+1 = 3 j=0 3 The series converges for |x| < 3
j = 0∞ jxj
P
Exercise 3.
Z ∞
xX ∞
X
jtj−1 = xj
0 j=0 j=0
So the series converges for |x| < 1. Note that we had used the integrability of power series.
P∞ j j
Exercise 4. j=0 (−1) jx .
jxj jej ln x
(
j ln x ∞ if x > 1
lim je =
j→∞ 0 if 0 < x < 1
If x = 1, X
(2j)x2j − (2j + 1)x2j+1 = x2j (2j + −(2j + 1)x) = −1 (−1) = ∞
(−1)j jxj converges only for 0 ≤ x < 1, |x| < 1.
P
So
P∞ P∞
j j+2 j j j+2 j
Exercise 5. j=0 (−2) j+1 x = j=0 (−1) j+1 (2x)
j+2
lim (2x)j = lim (2x)j if |2x| < 1
j→∞ j+1 j→∞
P∞ (2x)j P∞ ej ln 2x 1 ej ln 2x 1
Exercise 6. j=1 j = j=1 j =⇒ |x| < it’ll converge, since by comparison test, j < j2 if
2
0 < x < 21 .
P∞ (−1)j x 2j
Exercise 7. j=0 (2j+1) 2 .
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ x
x2j X x2j 1 X e2j ln 2
X 1 X x 2j 1
2j
< 2j+1
= =
j=0
2(j + 1/2)2 j=0
2 j 2 j=0 2 j 2 j=0 j
x
e2j ln 2 1
< 2
since by comparison test,if 0 < x < 2
j j
1 1 1 1 2
− = − = ≤
2(2j) + 1 2(2j + 1) + 1 4j + 1 4j + 3 (4j + 1)(4j + 3)
If x = ±2 ,
1 1 X 1
≤ 2
(converges by comparison test to )
8j j2
P∞ (−1)j x 2j
For |x| < 2 , j=0 (2j+1) 2 converges.
P∞ (−1)j x3j P∞ (−x3 )j 3
Exercise 8. j=0 j! = j=0 j! = e−x , which converges ∀ x ∈ R
xj xj+3 xj
P∞ 1
P∞ 1
P∞ 1 x
Exercise 9. j=0 (j+3)! = x3 j=0 (j+3)! = x3 j=+3 j! = x3 (e − x2 /2 − x − 1) Thus, it converges for ∀ x ∈ R.
P∞ (x−1)j 1
P∞ (x−1)j+2 1
P
∞ (x−1)j
1
ex−1 − x
Exercise 10. j=0 (j+2)! = (x−1)2 j=0 (j+2)! = (x−1)2 j=2 j! = (x−1)2 ex−1 − (x − 1) − 1 =
(x − 1)2
P∞ (log ax)j
Exercise 11. ax = ex log a = j=0 j!
(log ax)j+1 j! (log ax) j→∞ P∞ (log ax)j
(j+1)! (log ax)j = j+1 −−−→ 0. By ratio test, j=0 j! converges for all x.
Exercise 12.
∞ ∞ ∞
ex − e−x 1 X xj X (−x)j X x2j+1
sinh x = = − =
2 2 j=0 j! j=0 j! j=0
(2j + 1)!
xj+1 2j+1 x
= <1 =⇒ (the series converges for |x| < 2, by ratio test)
2j+2 xj 2
If x = 2, the series would diverge
∞ ∞
1 X (−2)j 1X 1 1
If x = −2 j
= (−1)j = 0 but = x
2 j=0
2 2 j=0 2 − (−2) 4
209
2 P∞ (−1)j x2j
Exercise 15. e−x = j=0 j!
x2j+2 j! x2 j→∞
(j+1)! x2j = j+1 −−−→ 0
Exercise 16. sin 3x = sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x.
∞ 2j+1 j ∞ 2j+1 j
3 sin x − sin 3x 3 X x (−1) X (3x) (−1)
sin3 x = = − =
4 4 j=0 (2j + 1)! j=0
(2j + 1)!
∞ j 2j+1 2j+1 ∞ j+1 2j+1 2j+1
3 X (−1) x (1 − 3 ) 3 X (−1) (3 − 1)x
= =
4 j=0 (2j + 1)! 4 j=0 (2j + 1)!
q P
1+x (+x)j (xj )(−1)j
= 12 (log (1 + x) − log (1 − x)) = 1 j−1
P
Exercise 17. log 1−x 2 j=1 j (−1) − j=1 j
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
X (−x)j+1 X (−x)j X xj+1 X xj X ((−1)j + 1)xj
ln (1 + x) = (−1) = (−1) − ln (1 − x) = = =⇒ −
j=0
j+1 j=1
j j=0
j + 1 j=1 j j=1
j
∞
X x2j+1
=⇒
2j + 1
x2j+3 2j + 1 j→∞ 2
−−−→ x
2j + 3 x2j+1
|x2 | < 1, converges, with radius of convergence of 1
3x 1 1
P∞ xj
P∞ (−2x)j P∞ xj
Exercise 18. 1+x−2x2 = 1−x − 1+2x = j=0 j − j=0 j = j=0 j (1 − (−2)j )
1
x j+1
|(1 − (−2) j+1
)| j
(−2) j + 2
j→∞
= x
−−−→ 2x < 1
j+1 j j
|x (1 − (−2) )| 1
j − 1
(−2)
1
|x| <
2
1
For x =
2
x2j 2j x2j+1 2j+1 x2j ((2j + 1)(1 − 22j ) + x(1 + 22j+1 )(2j))
(1 − (−2) ) + (1 − (−2) )=
2j 2j + 1 (2j)(2j + 1)
1 2j
2 (2j + 1 − (2j + 1)22j + 2jx + 22j+2 jx) j→∞ −(2j + 1) + 4j 2j − 1
−−−→ = →0
(2j)(2j + 1) (2j)(2j + 1) (2j)(2j + 1)
3x
So 1+x−2x2 converges for |x| ≤ 12
12−5x
P∞ (−1)j
Exercise 19. 6−5x−x 2 = j=0 1 + 6j xj (|x| < 1).
∞ ∞ j ∞ j
12 − 5x 5x − 12 1 6 X
j
X −x X
j −1
= = + = x + = x (1 + )
6 − 5x − x2 (x + 6)(x − 1) 1 − x 6 + x j=0 j=0
6 j=0
6
j
|x| < 1 since for x = 1, limj→∞ (1 + −1
6 ) = 1.
∞
1
= √23 j=0 sin 2π(j+1) xj (|x| < 1)
P
Exercise 20. x2 +x+1 3
∞
1 X
= (x3 )j
x3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) 1−x 3
j=0
1 x−1 1−x ∞
= 3 = 1−x X
(x3 )j − x3j+1
x2 + x + 1 x −1 1 − x3 3
=
1−x j=0
Exercise 22.
∞ ∞
π X (2x)2j+1 X (2x)2j
sin 2x + = (−1)j ; cos 2x = (−1)j
4 j=0
(2j + 1)! j=0
(2j)!
∞
X (2x)2j+1
sin 2x = (−1)j √
(2j + 1)! ∞
j=0 X 2
∞
aj xj = (sin 2x + cos 2x)
X (2x)2j j=0
2
cos 2x = (−1)j
j=0
(2j)!
√ ! √ !
298 (−1)49 2 −298 2
For j = 98, aj = =
98! 2 98! 2
Exercise 23.
f (x) = (2 + x2 )5/2
5
f 0 (x) = (2 + x2 )3/2 (2x) = 5x(2 + x2 )3/2
2
00 15
f (x) = 5(2 + x2 )3/2 + x(2 + x2 )1/2 (2x) = 5(2 + x2 )3/2 + 15x2 (2 + x2 )1/2
2
15 15x2
f 000 (x) = (2 + x2 )1/2 (2x) + 30x(2 + x2 )1/2 + (2 + x2 )−1/2 (2x)
2 2
15 30x
f 0000 (x) = 15(2 + x2 )1/2 + (2 + x2 )−1/2 (2x)x + 30(2 + x2 )1/2 + (2 + x2 )1/2 (2x)+
2 2
1
+ 45x2 (2 + x2 )−1/2 + 15x3 − (2 + x2 )−3/2 (2x)
2
5(23/2 )x2 0x3 45 √ 4
25/2 + 0x + + + 2x
2! 3! 4!
2
Exercise 24. f (x) = e−1/x if x 6= 0 and let f (0) = 0
(1)
∞ −1 j ∞ −1 j ∞
X
x2 −1 X x2
X (−1)j x−2j
f (x) = =1+ 2 + =
j=0
j! x j=2
j! j=0
j!
∞ ∞
X (−2j)(−2j − 1) . . . (−2j − (k − 1)) −2j X (−2j)!
f (k) = (−1)j x = (−1)j x−2j
j=0
j! j=0
(−2j − k)!j!
211
Use ratio test :
Thus, by ratio test, every order of derivative exists for every x on the real line since the series representing the
derivative converges for every x.
P∞ −2j
(2) f (x) = j=0 −xj! . There are no nonzero terms of positive power, i.e. no xj ; j ≥ 1.
=⇒ f (j) (0) = 0 ∀j ≥ 1
∞
X
y= aj xj
j=0
∞
X
y0 = jaj xj−1 f (0) = 1 =⇒ a0 = 1 f 0 (0) = 0 =⇒ a1 = 0
j=1
∞
X ∞
X
y 00 = j(j − 1)aj xj−2 = (j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj
j=2 j=0
∞
X
2(1)a2 + 3(2)a3 x + −2(1)a1 x + 6a0 + 6a1 x + ((j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 − j(j − 1)aj − 2jaj + 6aj )xj =
j=2
∞
X
= 2a2 + 6 + 6a3 x + ((j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 + aj (j + 3)(j − 2))xj
j=2
a2 = −3 (j + 3)(j − 2)
=⇒ aj+2 = aj
a3 = 0 (j + 2)(j + 1)
Exercise 2. Using the work from above, then for (1 − x2 )y 00 − 2xy 0 + 12y = 0
f (0) = 0 =⇒ a0 = 0 f 0 (0) = 2 =⇒ a1 = 2
∞
X
2(1)a2 + 3(2)a3 x + −2(1)a1 x + 12a0 + 12a1 x + ((j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 − j(j − 1)aj − 2jaj + 12aj )xj =
j=2
∞
X
= 2a2 + 6a3 x + −4x + 0 + 24x + ((j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 − aj (j + 4)(j − 3))xj
j=2
a2 = 0 (j + 4)(j − 3)
=⇒ aj+2 = aj
a3 = −10/3 (j + 2)(j + 1)
∞ ∞
X jxj−1 X (j + 1)xj
y0 = =
j=1
(j!)2 j=0
((j + 1)!)2
∞
(j + 1)jxj−1 X
y 00 =
j=1
((j + 1)!)2
∞ ∞
X (j + 1)j (j + 1) 1 j 1 X 1 1
+ − x + −1= − =0
j=1
((j + 1)!)2 ((j + 1)!)2 (j!)2 1! j=1
(j!)2 (j!)2
P∞ 1·4·7...(3j−2) 3j
Exercise 5. f (x) = 1 + j=1 (3j)! x ; y 00 = xa y + b (Find a and b )
∞
X 1 · 4 · 7 . . . (3j − 2)
f0 = x3j−1
j=1
(3j − 1)!
∞ ∞
X 1 · 4 · 7 . . . (3j − 2) X 1 · 4 · 7 . . . (3j − 5)
f 00 = x3j−2 = x3j−2 =
j=1
(3j − 2)! j=1
(3j − 3)!
∞ ∞
X 1 · 4 · 7 . . . (3j − 5) 3j−2 X 1 · 4 · 7 . . . (3j − 2) 3j+1
=x+ x =x+ x
j=2
(3j − 3)! j=1
(3j)!
∞
X 1 · 4 · 7 . . . (3j − 2)
xa f = −xa + x3j+a
j=1
(3j)!
So then a = 1; b=0.
1 · 4 · 7 . . . (3j + 1) 3j+3 (3j)! 1 1(3j + 1) j→∞
x = x3 −−−→ 0
(3j + 3)! 1 · 4 · 7 . . . (3j − 2) x3j (3j − 2)(3j + 3)(3j + 2)(3j + 1)
So the series converges for all x.
P∞ 2j
Exercise 6. f (x) = j=0 xj! ; y 0 = 2xy.
∞ ∞ ∞
X 2jx2j−1 X x2j−1 X x2j+1
f0 = =2 =2 = 2xf
j=1
j! j=1
(j − 1)! j=0
j!
x2j+2 j! x2 j→∞
= −−−→ 0 ∀x
(j + 1)! x2j j+1
By ratio test, f converges ∀ x ∈ R.
P∞ j
Exercise 7. f (x) = j=2 xj! y 0 = x + y
213
∞ ∞
0
X xj−1 X xj
f = = =x+y
j=2
(j − 1)! j=1 j!
xj+1 j! x j→∞
= −−−→ 0
(j + 1)! xj j
So the series converges ∀ x ∈ R by ratio test.
Exercise 8.
∞
X (−1)j (kx)2j
f (x) =
j=0
(2j)!
∞ ∞
0
X (−1)j (kx)2j−1 k X (−1)j+1 (kx)2j+1 k
f = = f 00 − k 2 f = 0
j=1
(2j − 1)! j=0
(2j + 1)!
∞
X (−1)j+1 (kx)2j
f 00 = k2
j=1
(2j)!
2j+1
(kx) (2j)! kx j→∞
= −−−→ 0 by ratio test, f converges ∀x ∈ R.
(2j + 1)! (kx)2j 2k + 1
Exercise 9.
∞ ∞
X (3x)2j−1 X 9(3x)2j+1
f 00 = 9=
j=1
(2j − 1)! j=0
(2j + 1)!
∞
X (3x)2j+1
9(f − x) = 9(x + − x)
j=0
(2j + 1)!
(3x)2j+3 (2j + 1)! 9x2 j→∞
2j+1
= −−−→ 0
(2j + 3)! (3x) (2j + 3)(2j + 2)
(by ratio test, f converges ∀x ∈ R )
j x2j x2j+1
P∞ P∞ j
Exercise 10. J0 (x) = j=0 (−1) (j!)2 22j J1 (x) = j=0 (−1) j!(j+1)!22j+1 .
(1)
x2j+2 (j!)2 22j x2 j→∞
2 2j+2 2j
= −−−→ 0 by ratio test, f converges ∀x ∈ R
((j + 1)!) 2 x (j + 1)2 4
x2j+3 j!22j+1 x2 j→∞
= −−−→ 0 by ratio test, f converges ∀x ∈ R
(j + 2)!22j+3 x2j+1 (j + 2)(j + 1)4
(2)
∞ ∞
X x2j−1 X x2j+1
J00 (x) = (−1)j 2j−1
= (−1)j+1 = −J1 (x)
j=1
(j − 1)!(j!)2 j=0
j!(j + 1)!22j+1
(3)
∞
X x2j+2
j1 (x) = xJ1 (x) = (−1)j
∞ j!(j + 1)!22j+1
X x2j+1 j=0
j0 (x) = xJ0 (x) = (−1)j ∞
(j!)2 22j X j 2j+1
(−1) x
j=0
j10 =
j=0
(j!)2 22j
=⇒ j0 = j10
∞ ∞
X x2j X x2j−2
J0 = (−1)j 2 2j
= (−1)j−1 ;
j=0
(j!) 2 j=1
((j − 1)!)2 22j−2
∞
X x2j−1
J00 = (−1)j ;
j=1
j!(j − 1)!22j−1
∞
X x2j−2 (2j − 1)
J000 = (−1)j
j=1
j!(j − 1)! 22j−1
∞
X
j (2j − 1) 1 −2j
(−1) 2j−1
+ 2j−1
+ =0
j=1
j!(j − 1)!2 j!(j − 1)!2 ((j − 1)!)j!22j−1
n = 1 =⇒ x2 y 00 + xy 0 + (x2 − 1)y = 0
∞ ∞ ∞
X (−1)j x2j+1 x X (−1)j x2j+1 x X (−1)j−1 x2j−1
J1 (x) = 2j+1
= + 2j+1
= +
j=0
j!(j + 1)!2 2 j=1 j!(j + 1)!2 2 j=1 (j − 1)!(j)!22j−1
∞
1 X (−1)j (2j + 1)x2j
J10 = +
2 j=1 j!(j + 1)!22j+1
∞
X (−1)j (2j + 1)(2j)x2j−1
J100 =
j=1
(j!)(j + 1)!22j+1
x2 J100 + xJ10 + (x2 − 1)J1 =
∞
(−1)j (2j + 1) (−1)j (−1) j + 1
2
(−1)j
X j 1 2
= x2j+1 ((2j) + (1)) + − +
j=1
(j!)(j + 1)!22j+1 (j − 1)!j! j + 1 j 22j−1 22 (j + 1)!(j!)22j+1
x x
+ − =
2 2
∞
(−1)j x2j−1
X
= ((2j + 1)(2j + 1) + (−1)(2j)(2j + 2) − 1) = 0
j=1
(j!)(j + 1)!22j+1
a1 = 1 since y 0 (0) = 1
Consider the first few terms of x2 + y 2
a1 = 1 = a20 =⇒ a0 = 1
2a2 = 2a0 a1 =⇒ a2 = 1
a20 + 2a0 a1 x + a21 x2 + 2a0 a2 x2 + x2 = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x2 =⇒
4
3a3 = a21 + 2a0 a2 + 1 = 4 =⇒ a3 =
3
∞
X
y = a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + aj xj
j=4
2
∞
X ∞
aj xj
X
y= y 2 = a21 x2 + a22 x4 + a3 x6 + a j xj +
j=1 j=4
∞ ∞
X X ∞
y= jaj xj−1 = (j + 1)aj+1 x6j
X
+ 2a1 a2 x3 + 2a1 a3 x4 + 2a1 aj xj+1 +
j=1 j=0
j=4
∞
X ∞
X
+ 2a2 a3 x5 + 2a2 aj xj+2 + 2a3 aj xj+3
j=4 j=4
a1 = 1
x: 2a2 = 0 =⇒ a2 = 0 x2 : 3a3 = 0 =⇒ a3 = 0
1
x3 : 4a4 = 12 =⇒ a4 =
4
x4 : 5a5 = 0 =⇒ a5 = 0 x5 : 6a6 = 0 =⇒ a6 = 0
1
x6 : 7a7 = 2a1 a4 + 2a2 a3 =⇒ a7 =
14
x7 : 8a8 = 0 + 2a2 a4 = 0 =⇒ a8 = 0 x8 : 9a9 = 0 =⇒ a9 = 0
2
1 1 23
x9 : 10a10 = + 2(1) =⇒ a10 =
4 14 1120
Exercise 15. y 0 = αy
P∞ P∞
=⇒ j=0 (j + 1)aj+1 xj = α j=0 aj xj
αaj
aj+1 = (j+1)
αj
aj = a0 x (by induction)
j!
Exercise 16. y 00 = xy
∞
X
y 00 = (j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj =
∞
j=0 X
∞
= aj xj+1
X
j=0
= 2a2 + (j + 3)(j + 2)aj+3 xj+1
j=0
aj
=⇒ a2 = 0 and aj+3 =
(j + 3)(j + 2)
a0 a1
j=0 a+3= j=1 a4 =
3·2 4·3
a3 a1
j=3 a6 = j=4 a7 =
6·5 7·6·4·3
j−1 j−1
a0 Y a1 Y
a3j = (3k + 1) ; a3j+1 = (3k + 2)
(3j)! (3j + 1)!
k=0 k=0
Exercise 17. y 00 + xy 0 + y = 0
217
∞
X
y= aj xj
j=0
X∞
y0 = jaj xj−1
∞
j=1 X −aj
∞
y 00 + xy 0 + y = xj ((j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 + jaj + aj ) = 0 =⇒ aj+2 =
X (j + 2)
y 00 = j(j − 1)aj xj−2 j=1
j=2
∞
X
= (j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj
j=0
−a0 −a1
a2 = a3 =
2 3
−a2 −a3 a1
a4 = a5 = =
4 5 15
(−1)j a0 a1
a2j = a2j+1 = (−1)j (could be shown by induction)
(2j)!! (2j + 1)!!
=⇒ e−2x = y 0 + 2y
Rx Rx
Solving this ODE using y(x) = e−A(x)
a
Q(t)eA(t) dt + y(a) where A(x) = a P (t)dt,
y = e−2x (x + 1)
We had obtained the necessary initial conditions to solve this ODE from the information given, that a0 = 1, so that y(0) = 1.
By doing some simple computation and comparison of powers with e−2x , then a1 = 2, a2 = −2, a3 = 4/3
P∞ P∞
Exercise 19. cos x = j=0 aj (j + 2)xj for f (x) = j=0 aj xj .
P∞ (x)2j j
Using cos x = j=0 (2j)! (−1) representation, we can immediately conclude that for odd terms, a2j+1 = 0 and by
matching powers of x,
1
a2j (2j + 2) = (−1)j
(2j)!
a5 = 0
(−1)3 −7
a6 (6 + 2) =
=⇒ a6 =
6! 8!
P∞ ∞ ∞
Now notice that for cos x = j=0 aj (j + 2)xj = j=1 jaj xj + 2 j=0 aj xj is actually a differential equation, cos x =
P P
0
xy + 2y. We can solve this first-order ODE using
Rx Rx
y(x) = e−A(x) a Q(t)eA(t) dt + y(a) where A(x) = a P (t)dt. Then solving y 0 + 2y cos x
x = x ,
1
y= (x sin x + cos x − (a sin a + cos a) + b)
x2
218
1
Plugging 0 as a good guess back into the ODE, cos 0 = 1 = y(0)(2) =⇒ y(0) = 2 With this initial condition, we get
sin x cos x − 1
f (x) = + if x 6= 0
x x2
1 −2
So f (0) = 2 and f (π) = π2
Exercise 20.
(1)
∞
X −1/2
(1 − x)−1/2 = (−x)j =
j=0
j
−1
−3 −1
−3
−5
−1
−3
−5
−7
1
=1+ x+ 2 2
x2 + 2 2 2 3
x + 2 2 2 2
x4 +
2 2 3! 4!
−1 −3 −5 −7 −9
+ 2 2 2 2 2
x5 + · · · =
5!
1 3 5 35 5 63 5
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x + x + ...
2 8 8 128 256
∞ P∞ P∞
(2) To make the notation clear, (1 − x)−1/2 = j=0 −1/2
(−x)j = j=0 bj xj = j=0 aj
P
j
Now
α
j+1 α(α − 1) . . . (α − (j + 1) + 1) j! (α − j)
α
= =
j
(j + 1)! α(α − 1) . . . (α − j + 1) (j + 1)
−1
So for α = 2 ,
aj+1 1/2 + j
=− (−x) < x
aj j+1
Using this, we further find that
1
bj+1 < bj
50
2
1 1
bj+2 < bj+1 < bj
50 50
1 1 j
For x = 50 . So by induction, bn+j < bn 50
∞ ∞ j
X X 1 1/50 an
rn = an+j < an = an =
j=1 j=1
50 1 − 1/50 49
an
rn <
49
√
−1/2 1 −1/2 49 −1/2
= 572
(3) Note that (1 − x) = 1 − 50 = 50
−1/2 2 3 4 5
7 1 1 3 1 5 1 35 1 63 1
1− =1+ + + + +
5 50 100 2 2(50) 2 2(50) 8 2(50) 8 2(50)
√
2 ' 1.4142135624
Exercise 21.
1732 176
−1/2 3000000 1/2
= 1732
(1) 1000 1 − 3000000 1000 √2999824
1/2
Obviously, (3000000)1/2 = 1000 3 so that we have 1732 (3/2999824) .
With long multiplication, we could show easily that 1732 ∗ 1732 = 2999824 (it’s harder to divide). So then
−1/2
√
1732 176
1− = 3
1000 3000000
(2)
219
√ 1
R
Exercise 22. arcsin x =
1−x2
P∞ α P∞ α
(1 − x2 )−1/2 =
j=0 j (−x2 )j = 1 + j=1 j (−x2 )j
∞
−1/2 (−1)j 2j+1
X
=⇒ arcsin x = x + x
j=1
j (2j + 1)
−1
−3
. . . −1
2 −j+1 (1)(3) . . . (1 + 2j − 2) (2j − 1)!!
2 2
= (−1)j = (−1)j
j(j − 1) . . . (2)(1) (2j)!! (2j)!!
∞
X (2j − 1)!! x2j+1
=⇒ arcsin x = x +
j=1
(2j)!! 2j + 1
13.21 Exercises - The conic sections, Eccentricity of conic sections, Polar equations for conic sections.
Exercise 1. F is in the positive half-plane determined by N .
kX − F k = ed(X, L)
kX − F k = e|(X − F ) · N + d|
Exercise 2.
(1)
kX − F k = ed(X, L)
kX − F k = e|(X − F ) · N + d|
F = 0 =⇒ kXk = e|(X · N ) + d|; r = e|r cos θ + d|
ed
=⇒ r = e(r cos θ + d) =⇒ r =
1 − e cos θ
ed
(2) The right branch for the hyperbola is given by r = 1−e cos θ because X · N > 0. The left branch for e > 1,
kX − F k = ed(X, L) = e|(X − F ) · N + d| =
= e|X · N + d| = −e(d + r cos θ) = r
−ed
r=
(1 + e cos θ)
Exercise 3. For points below the horizontal directrix,
kX − F k = ed(X, L)
F = 0 =⇒ kXk = ed(X, L) = e(|(X − F ) · N − d|) = e|X · N − d| = e|r sin θ − d|
ed
Now Thm. 13.18 says r = if 0 < e ≤ 1
e cos θ + 1
ed
=⇒ r = e(d − r sin θ) =⇒ r =
1 + e sin θ
For the “right” or upper-half branch of a hyperbola.
kX − F k = e(|(X − F ) · N − d|) = e(r sin θ − d) = r
−ed ed
r= =
1 − e sin θ e sin θ − 1
ed
Exercise 4. kX − F k = ed(X, L); kXk = e|(X − F ) · N − d| = e|r cos θ − d| = e(d − r cos θ) =⇒ r = 1+e cos θ
e = 1, d = 2 .
3 6( 12 )
Exercise 5. r = 1+ 12 cos θ
= 1+ 12 cos θ
. e = 21 ; d = 6
6 2
Exercise 6. r = 3+cos θ = 1+ 13 cos θ
. e = 31 ; d = 6.
1
Exercise 7. r = −1 .
2 +cos θ
220
ed(X, L) = kX − F k = e|(X − F ) · N − d| = e|r cos θ − d| = er cos θ − ed = r
−ed ed
=r=
1 − e cos θ e cos θ − 1
2
So for r = 2 cos θ−1 , e = 2, d = 1.
4
Exercise 8. r = 1+2 cos θ e = 2, d = 2.
4
Exercise 9. r = 1+cos θ e = 1 d = 4.
3
+ 45 y = 5. N = 3 4
Exercise 10. 3x + 4y = 25 =⇒ 5x 5, 5 .
L = {x = P + tA}, N · X = N · P .
To find the distance from the focus, at the origin, to the directrix,
dN = P + tA; dN · N = d = N · P
So for this problem, d = 5.
3 4
r = kX − F k = ed(X, L) = e|(X − F ) · N − d| = e|X · N − d| = r cos θ + r sin θ − 5
5 5
1 3 4
r= 5 − r cos θ − r sin θ
2 5 5
5/2
r= 3 4
1 + 10 cos θ + 10 sin θ
4
+ 35 y = 5; 4 3
Exercise 11. e = 1, 4x + 3y = 25 5x N= 5, 5 .
d = 5.
4 3
kX − F k = ed(X, L) = e|(X − F ) · N − d| = e r cos θ + r sin θ − 5
5 5
4 3
r =5−r cos θ + sin θ
5 5
5
r=
1 + 54 cos θ + 35 sin θ
1 1 1
√ x+ √ y = √ L = {x = P + tA} X ·N =N ·P
2 2 2
1
dN = P + tA; dN · N = d = N · P = √
2
Note that the sign of d here tells you what side the focus, at the origin, lies on.
1 1
kX − F k = ed(X, L) = kXk = e|(X − F ) · N − d| = e(d − √ r cos θ − √ r sin θ)
2 2
√
2/ 2
r=
1 + √22 cos θ + √22 sin θ
But for the right side branch,
1 1
kX − F k = ed(X, L) = kXk = e|(X − F ) · N − d| = −e(d − √ r cos θ − √ r sin θ)
2 2
√
−2/ 2
r=
1 − √22 cos θ − √22 sin θ
221
(1)
π
kX − F k = kXk = ed(X, L) = 1|(X − F ) · N − d| = d − X · N = d − r cos
3
3 3
d=r = × 108 mi
2 2
3
× 108 mi 3
r= 2
θ = 0, r= × 106 mi
1 + cos θ 4
(2) Focus is in the positive half-plane determined by N .
kX − F k = kXk = ed(X, L) = |(X − F ) · N + d| = r cos θ + d
θ 1
d = r(1 − cos θ) = 108 mi(1 − cos ) = × 108 mi
3 2
1
d × 108 mi 1
r= = 2 r(θ = π) = × 108 mi
1 − cos θ 1 − cos θ 4
13.24 Exercises - Conic sections symmetric about the origin, Cartesian equations for the conic sections.
Quick Review.
2
if X = ±aN ; kXk + (ae)2 = e2 (X · N )2 + a2 is satisfied
if X = ±bN 0 ; b2 + (ae)2 = e2 (0) + a2 b2 = a2 (1 − e2 )
x2 y2
Exercise 1. b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) 100 + 36 =1
4
q
b2
1− a2 = e =⇒ e = .
5
|F | = |aeN | = 10 45 = 8. f = (±8, 0). (0, 0) center. Vertices (±0, 6).
y2 x2 4
Exercise 2. 100 + 36 = 1. 5 = e; f = (0, ±8).
|F | = ae = √13 2 = 2√ 1
1
3
.
q
1 − 1/4
1/3 = 1
2 = e. Foci: ±1
√ , 0 . Center (0, 0).
2 3
√
Vertices (±1/ 3, 0), (0, ±1/2).
Exercise 6. Center (−1, −2).
222
q q
b2 16 3
1− a2 = 1− 25 = 5 = e; |F | = ae = 5 35 = 3.
Foci: (−1, −1), (−1, −5).
Vertices: (−1, 3), (−1, −7), (3, −2), (−5, −2).
3
a = 1, e = 34 . b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ); 1
Exercise 7. F = ae = 4. b2 = 1 4 .
x2 + 4y 2 = 1 .
(x+3)2 (y−4)2
Exercise 8. 2a = 4. a2 = 4. 2b = 3. b2 = 9/4. =⇒ 4 + 4 =1
(x+3)2 (y−4)2
Exercise 9. 9/4 + 4 = 1.
(x+4)2 (y−2)2
Exercise 10. 2a = 6, a = 3. 9 + 1 = 1.
16
Exercise 11. 2a = 10, a = 5. |F | = ae = 5e = 4 e = 4/5. b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) = 25 1 − 25 = 9.
(x−2)2 (y−1)2
Exercise 12. a2 + b2 = 1;
(x−2)2 (y−1)2
a = 4 from (6, 1). b = 2 from (2, 3). =⇒ 42 + 4 =1
2 2 2
Exercise 13. b = a (1 − e ).
2
x2
100 − y64 = 1; b2 = 100(1 − e2 ) = −64. 1 + 10064
= e2 .
√ √
Center (0, 0). e = 2 1041 = 541 .
√ √
Vertices; (±10, 0). F = ae = 2 41. Foci: (±2 41, 0).
x2 y2 x,y→∞ ±4
100 = 64 + 1 −−−−−→; y= 5 x
y2 x2
Exercise 14. 100 − 64 = 1; Center (0, 0), a2 = 100; b2 = −64.
41
√ √
b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ). e=
5 . Vertices (0, ±10). F = ae = (0, ±2 41).
x2 y 2 x,y→∞
64 +1= −−−−→ ±5
100 − 4 x = y.
(x+3)2
Exercise 15. − (y − 3)2 = 1.
4
q q √
2
Center (−3, 3). e = 1 − ab 2 = 1 − −1 5
4 = 2 .
√ √ √ √
Foci: ae = 2 25 = 5. (−3 + 5, 3), (−3 − 5, 3).
Vertices: (−3, 4), (−3, 2); (1, 3), (−7, 3).
(x+3) 2 x,y→∞ ±(x + 3)
4 = 1 + (y − 3)2 −−−−−→ =y−3
2
x2 y2 x2 y2
Exercise 16. 144/9 − 144/16 =1= 16 − 9 .
q
−9
e= 1− 16 = 54 . Center (0, 0). |F | = ae = 5. Foci: (5, 0), (−5, 0). Vertices (±4, 0).
q
3 y2 x2 −5 3
Exercise 17. 20 = 5y 2 − 4x2 . Center (0, 0). |F | = ae = 2 2 = 3. Foci: (0, ±3). 1 = 4 − 5 . e= 1− 4 = 2.
x2 y2 y2 x2 x,y→∞
√
4 + −12 = 1. 12 +1= 4 −−−−−→ y = ± 3x.
223
b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) = 4(1 − 4) = −12.
√
Exercise 20. F = ae = 2 = (1)e. b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) = 1(1 − 2) = −1. =⇒ y 2 − x2 = 1.
x2 y2
Exercise 21. 4 − 16 =1
(x+1)2
Exercise 22. (y − 4)2 − −3 = 1 where
F = ae = | − 2| = ae. b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) = 1(1 − 4) = −3
(x−2)2 (y+3)2
Exercise 23. ± a2 ∓ b2 =1
1 4
(3, −1) =⇒ ± ∓ 2 =1 (y + 3)2 (x − 2)2
a2 b =⇒ − =1
9 9 27/8 (27/5)
(−1, 0) =⇒ ± 2 ∓ 2 = 1
a b
x2 −1
Exercise 24. 3 = y2 . 2x
3 = 2yy 0 . yy 0 = x3 .
3 ±2
3x − 2y = C. m = 2 =⇒ y0 92 = x0 . 81 2
4 y0 − 1 = 3y02 =⇒ y0 = √
69
.
x2 −1
The asymptotes of y 2 = 3 are y = ± √x3 .
±9 2 ±23
3 √ − 2 ±√ = √ =C
69 69 69
r
23
3x ± = 2y
3
2
±x2 ±x2 y2
Exercise 25. a2 + ∓ yb2 = 1 a2 ∓ 4a2 = 1.
25 11
(3, −5) → ±9 ∓ 4 = a2 ; 2
a = 4 .
x2 y2
=⇒ − =1.
11/4 11
Quick Review of Parabolas.
Exercise 31. (x + 2)2 = 4(y + 94 ). 4c = 4; c = 1. Center (−2, −9/4). Directrix: y = −13/4. Axis: x = −2.
5
Exercise 35. c = 4 5(x − 74 ) = (y + 1)2
1 1 2 3
(0, 1) → c = 1 (1, 0) → 0 = a + b + 1(2, 0) → 0 = 4a + 2b + 1 a= =⇒ y = x − x+1
2 2 2
Exercise 37. 4c(x − 1) = (y − 3)2 . 4c(−2) = (−4)2 = 16. c = −2. −8(x − 1) = (y − 3)2 .
Exercise 2.
q 2
(1) Without loss of generality, let the major axis be 2a in the x-axis. y = b 1 − xa
Z a Z 1
x2
4
V = πb2 1 − 2 dx = πb2 a (1 − x2 )dx = π(1)3 b2 a
−a a −1 3
x2 b2
(2) If rotated about the minor axis, suppose, without loss of generality, 2a is the minor axis (just note that a2 + a2 =1
have x, y, a, b as dummy labels).
=⇒ V = 34 π(1)3 b2 a, where 2a is the minor axis, 2b is the major axis.
2
q
x2 y 3 2
Ax2
Exercise 3. (3/A) + (3/B) =1 By 2 = 3 − Ax2 =⇒ y 2 = B − Ax
B ; y= 3
B − B . So the area inside this ellipse is
r Z √3/A p r Z √3/A s
1 3 x2
2 √ 3 − Ax2 dx = 2 √ 1− 3
B − 3/A B − 3/A A
2 2
2
q q
x y 3 x 3 x2
For the other ellipse equation, 3/(A+B) + 3/(A−B) = 1. y 2 = A−B 1− (3/(A+B)) ; y= A−B 1− (3/(A+B)) .
Thus, the area inside this ellipse is
Z √ A+B
v 2
r 3
u
3 x
u
t1 − q
u
2
A − B −√ A+B
3 3
A+B
Exercise 4. y = − 4h 2
b2 x .
Z b/2 b/2
4h 2 4h 3 b b 2hb
2
x + h = 2
x + h + =
−b/2 −b −3b
−b/2 2 2 3
R2
Exercise 5. y 2 = 8x. 0
π8tdt = 4π(2)2 = 16pi
(1)
Z 2 p Z 3 p √
A=2 2(x − 1) + 2 2(x − 1) − 2 x − 2 =
1 2
2
√ 2 √ 2 3 2 3
= 2 2 (x − 1) + 2 2 (x − 1)3/2 − 4 (x − 2)3/2
3/2
3 1 3 2 3 2
√ 2 √ 4 3/2 √ 2 2
= 2 2 + 2 (2) − 2 2 − 4 = 8/3
3 3 3 3
(2)
Z 2 2
1 2 1
x − x = 2
2(x − 1) = 2 (4 − 1) − (2 − 1) = 1
1 2 1 2
Z 3 Z 3
3 3
(2(x − 1) − 4(x − 2)) dx = (−2x + 6)dx = −x2 2 + 6x|2 = (−9 + 4 + 6(3 − 2)) = 1
2 2
Z 2 Z 3
=⇒ V = π 2(x − 1) + π (2(x − 1) − 4(x − 2)) = 2π
1 2
y2 2
(3) 2 + 1 = x, y4 + 2 = x
Z 2 2 2 2 2 ! Z 2 2
−3y 4
y y −3 5
2π +2 − +1 = 2π + 3 dy = 2π y + 3y =
0 4 2 0 16 80 0
−3(32) −96 + 480 384 48
= 2π + 6 = 2π = 2π =π
80 80 80 5
1
Exercise 7. By Apostol’s definition of conic sections, we are basically given the conic section definition with e = 2. So just
plug in the pt. (0, 4).
2 !
x2 y2 (0,4) 2 2 2 2 1
2
+ 2
= 1 −−−→ b = 4 b = a (1 − e ) = 16 = a 1−
a b 2
x2 y2
+ =1
64/3 16
y + x = −1
1 1 1 x 1
N = √ ,√ √ y + √ = −√
2 2 3 2 2
XL = P + tA √
√ dN = XL XL · N = d = −1/ 2
XL · N N · P = −1/ 2
226
So by squaring both sides of the vector equation,
x2 y2 1
x2 + y 2 = + xy + + +x+y
2 2 2
x2 y2 1
+ − xy − x − y =
2 2 2
x2 + y 2 − 2xy − 2x − 2y = 1
Exercise 9. Center (1/2, 2) because we equate the asymptotes to see where they intersect: y = 2x + 1 = −2x + 3.
x2 y2
− =1
2/3 4/3
kX − F k = |X · N − a| = a − X · N
k−X − F k = kX + F k = | − X · N − a| = a + X · N
kX − F k + kX + F k = 2a
Exercise 12.
kX − F k = e|(X − F ) · N − d| = e(d − (X − F ) · N )
kX + F k = ed(X, L) = e|(X − F ) · N + d| = e(−d − (X − F ) · N )
kX − F k − kX + F k = 2ed
X → −X so for the other branch, kX + F k − kX − F k = 2ed
Exercise 13.
2
(by)2 b 2
2 2
a 2
(1) (tx) = a (1−e )
a2 + b2 = 1 t t2 = t (1 − e2 )
2 2 2 2 2 2
(2) b1 = a1 (1 − e ) b2 = a2 (1 − e ).
b21 b22 b21 b22
=1−
1 − ; =
a21 a22 a21 a22
2 2
b2 b2
x12
y 2 b1 x b1 y
+ 2 =1= +
a21 b1 a22 (b2 y)2
2
(ty)2 b 2
2 2 2
(3) ± (tx) = −a (e −1)
= − at (e2 − 1).
a2 ∓ b2 =1 t t2
227
x2 y2 x y 0
Exercise 14. a2 + b2 = 1. =⇒ a2 + b2 y =0
(1) If we treat the two given parabolas, y 2 = 4p(x − a) and x2 = 4qy, as two vector objects free from any specific
coordinate system then we observe that we can disregard the sign of q and p and simply state that they are both
positive. What matters is that we observe that p and q are the distance of the foci to the vertex for each of the
respective parabolas.
Second, observe that a is not given. By diagram, if p, q are given, a must be moved along the x-axis to fit the
tangency condition. Thus, in terms of doing the algebra, just eliminate p and q from the relations.
If (h, k) is the point of contact,
√ √
x2 = 4qy y 2 = 4p(x − a) y = 2 p x − a
x √ 1
= y0 y0 = p √
2q x−a
h √ 1
y 0 (h) = y 0 (h) = p √
2q h−a
2
h p
(Tangent condition) = =⇒ (h2 )(h − a) = (2q)2 p
2q h−a
h2 k2
(one point of contact condition) with q = ,p=
4k 4(h − a)
2 2 2
h k h2
=⇒ h2 (h − a) = =⇒ (h − a)2 =
2k 4(h − a) 16
2a ± a/2
=⇒ h = = 4a/3
15/8
(2) √
h p
= √
2q h−a
√ √
2a p 3p √ p
= p = √ ; 2a a = 3 3pq
3q a/3 a
=⇒ 4a3 = 27pq 2
Exercise 18. First hint: Vector methods triumph over algebraic manipulations of Cartesian coordinates. Think of the locus
2
in terms of vector objects that are coordinate-free and the conic section will emerge. I mean, try evaluating kP − Ak =
(x − 2)2 + (x − 3)2 = (x + y)2
A = (2, 3), N = √12 (1, 1), X = (x, y).
√ √
kX − Ak = x + y = 2(X · N ) = 2(X · N − (F · N − d))
where F · N = d = A · N = √52
d = distance from focus to the directrix .
y = x + 1 (axis of the hyperbola)
p √
d = √52 = (2 − x)2 + (3 − y)2 = 2(2 − x) x = − 12 , y = 12
−1 1 1 1
2 , 2 must also be the center. y − 2 = − x + 2 is the directrix.
228
Consider asymptotes in general. kX − F k = ed(X, L).
kX − F k kX − F k kX − F k
=e= =
d(X, L) |X · N − (F · N − d)| (X − F ) · N + d|
For kX − F k → ∞, kX − F k > d. To keep ratio of e, X − F must be ultimately directed by N by a ratio of e.
kX − F k 1
=⇒ e = =
kX − F k cos φ cos φ
x2 y2
√
e.g. Consider N = ~ex . a2 − b2 = 1 =⇒ y = ab x = e2 − 1x.
From the vector equation,
p
(X − F ) · N = (x − c, y) · N = (x − c)2 + y 2 cos φ = x − c
p
(x − c)2 + y 2 1 (x − c)2 + y 2
= = e; = e2 ;
x−c cos φ (x − c)2
y2 p
2
= e2 − 1 =⇒ y = e2 − 1x
(x − c)
For our problem, consider the conic section approaching the asymptote. Then the conic section will look more like those
linear asymptotes.
p
(x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = x + y
s 2 2
y− 12 =α(x+ 21 ) 1 5 1 5 1 1
−−−−−−−−−→ x+ − + α x+ − =x+α x+ +
2 2 2 2 2 2
s 2 √
1 + α2
1 1 25 x→∞
=⇒ (1 + α2 ) x + − 5(1 + α) x + + −−−−→
2 2 2 (1 + α)
=⇒ α = 0
1 −1
The asymptotes are y = 2 and x = 2 .
In the second part, each quadrant must be checked. So far, I only have that quadrant II is filled: points in quadrant III and
quadrant IV cannot satisfy the given condition. To see this, consider quadrant II.
√
−1 1
kx − Ak = −x + y = 2(x, y) √ , √
2 2
−1 1
For quadrant II, N = √2 , √2 . By diagram, (X − F ) · N > 0 and X · N > 0.
1 −1 1
A·N = √ −A·N = √ d= √
2 2 2
|(X − F ) · N + d| = (X − F ) · N + d
The equation for the axis of the conic section is y = −(x − 5).
By taking the asymptotic limit like above, we can show that α = 0 again. We only sketch the part of the hyperbola in
quadrant II.
By similar procedure, I found that quadrant III, IV cannot satisfy the condition.
Exercise 19.
kX − F k = d(X, L) = |(X − F ) · N + d|
x2 + y 2 = (X · N + d1 )2 = y 2 + 2yd1 + d21
F =0 x
−−−→ x2 = 2yd1 + d21 y10 =
d1
kX − F k = |(X − F ) · N − d2 | = d2 − (X − F ) · N
F =0
−−−→ kXk = d2 − y
x + y = d22 − 2d2 y + y 2
2 2
−x
=⇒ x2 = d2 − 2d2 y y20 =
d2
229
Point of intersection x20 = 2y0 d1 + d21 = d22 − 2d2 y0
d2 − d1
2(d1 + d2 )y0 = d22 − d21 =⇒ y0 =
2
x20 = d2 (d2 − 2y0 ) = d2 d1
√ r
0 ± d2 d1 d2
y1 = =±
d d1
=⇒ √1
∓ d 2 d 1 1
y20 = = ∓q
d2 d2
d1
Exercise 20.
For the condition of being tangent to a given line, L = P + tA, then (XC − C) · A = 0 and the point lies on the circle so
kXC − Ck = r02 .
Call the point that all the circles pass through F . Then kC − F k = kC − XC k. kC − XC k is by definition d(X, L), the
distance from the circle center to the line. kC − F k = kC − X0 k is by definition a parabola.
Exercise 22. Consider a circle that’s part of the mentioned family that has its center directly below the given circle with radius
r0 , and center Q.
It’s given that the center is equidistant from the point of tangency and the line. This hints at a parabola because the parabola’s
230
vertex is equidistant from the focus and the directrix. Thus, we need to show that d(X, L) is equal to the distance from the
circle center C to the bottom point of Q.
Let N be a unit normal vector pointing from the line towards the focus, placing the focus in the positive half-plane.
Let C be the center of an arbitrary circle in the family and r1 its radius.
Let X1 be the point of tangency between circle Q and circle C.
We want k(Q + r0 N ) − Ck = kX2 − Ck.
The tangency condition between circle Q and C means that
r1
(X1 − C) = −α(X1 − Q); α > 0 α=
r0
Q − r0 N − C = Q − X1 − r0 N − C + X1
take the magnitude 2 2
−−−−−−−−−−→ kQ − X1 k + kX1 − Ck + r02 + 2(Q − X1 )(X1 − C) + 2(X1 − Q)r0 N + 2(C − X)r0 N
r02 + r12 + r02 + 2αr02 + 2r0 (1 + α)(x1 − Q) · N
2r02 + r12 + 2r1 r0 + 2(r1 + r0 )(X1 − Q) · N
1
I had thought the key is to use the law of cosines to evaluate (X1 − Q) · N = α (C − X1 ) · N .
Length l = d(X, L) = d(C, L).
But that just gets us back to the same place.
I had found the solution by a clever construction. But to come to that conclusion it required me to be “unstuck” - if
something doesn’t work, move onto the next - don’t try to make something work and go in circles. And persistence is key
because there can be many false eurekas.
Again, consider a particular circle with its center C2 right below the given Q circle that just makes C2 tangent with
the given line L2 . The directrix is not going to be L2 but L1 , a line translated below L2 , line of tangency, by r0 , so that
kQ − C2 k = r2 + r0 = d(C2 , L1 ). It is a clever artificial construction.
Let’s show this for any circle C of radius r1 in the family.
Tangent to the circle Q condition: X1 − C = α(Q − X1 ).
So then kQ − Ck = r1 + r0
The latus rectum intersect the parabola at (c, +2c), (c, −2c).
Collinear with center and center not between them: P = αQ; α>0
2
kP k kQk = r02 = α kQk
231
For the line defined in Cartesian coordinates as x + 2y − 5 = 0, the vector form of this line is given by
√
1 2
XL = B + tA XL · N = (x, y) · √ , √ =N ·B+0= 5
5 5
−2 1
A= √ ,√ is a vector that’s perpendicular to N ;
5 5
B = (1, 2) since we can simply plug it in to satisfy the equation
−2 1
XL = (1, 2) + t √ , √ t∈R
5 5
2
Q = B + tA =⇒ kQk = B 2 + 2tB · A + t2 A2 = 5 + t(0) + t2 = 5 + t2
4
(5 + t2 )(α) = r02 = 4 α =
5 + t2
4 −2 1
P = αQ = (1, 2) + t √ , √
5 + t2 5 5
14.4 Exercises - Vector-valued functions of a real variable, Algebraic operations. Components; Limits, derivatives,
and integrals. Exercise 1. F 0 = (1, 2t, 3t2 , 4t3 ).
t 1 −2t
Exercise 6. 1+t2 , 1+t2 , (1+t2 )2
−4t2
Exercise 7. F 0 = 2
1+t2 + 4t
(1+t2 )2 , (1+t2 )2 , 0 .
Exercise 9.
√ √ √ !
π/4 − 3 2 2
(− cos t, sin t, − ln | cos t|)|0 = + 1, , − ln
2 2 2
1 1+e
1+e
Exercise 10. (ln (1 + et ), t − ln (1 + et ))|0 = ln 2 , 1 − ln 2
1
Exercise 11. tet − et , t2 et − 2tet + 2et , −te−t − e−t 0 = (1, e − 2, −2e−1 + 1)
Exercise 15. G0 = F 0 × F 0 + F × F 00 = F × F 00
Exercise 16.
G = F · (F 0 × F 00 )
G0 = F 0 · (F 0 × F 00 ) + F · (F 00 × F 00 + F 0 × F 000 ) = F · (F 0 × F 000 )
n
X 1
F0 = fj0 ~ej fj0 = lim (fj (t + h) − fj (t))
j=1
h→0 h
n n
X 1 1X 1
F0 = lim (fj (t + h) − fj (t)) = lim (fj (t + h) − fj (t))ej = lim h → 0 (F (t + h) − F (t))
h→0 h h→0 h h
j=1 j=1
Pn
If F 0 (t) = limhto0 h1 (F (t + h) − F (t)) = limh→0 h1 j=1 (fj (t + h) − fj (t))ej =
Pn n
= j=1 limh→0 h1 (fj (t + h) − fj (t))ej = j=1 fj0 (t)ej
P
So F 0 is differentiable.
Exercise 19. F 0 (t) = 0, ∀j = 1 . . . n, fj0 (t) = 0. By one-dimensional zero-derivative theorem, fj (t) = cj constant. Thus
Pn
F (t) = j=1 cj ~
ej = C on an open interval I.
1 3
Exercise 20. 6t A + 12 t2 B + Ct + D
Exercise 22.
233
tF 0 = F + tA =⇒ F 0 + tF 00 = F 0 + A
=⇒ tF 00 = A tF 0 = F + tA =⇒ At ln t + Bt = A(t ln t − t) + Bt + C + tA
F 00 (t) = A/t C = 0, B = 3A
0
=⇒ F (t) = A ln t + B F (t) = A(t ln t − t) + 3At
=⇒ F (t) = A(t ln t − t) + Bt + C F (3) = A(3 ln 3 − 3) + 9A = 3A ln 3 + 6A
F (1) = A(−1) + B + C = 2A
Exercise 23.
Z x
0 x x 1 1
F (x) = e A + xe A + − 2 F (t)dt +
F (x) =
x 1 x
F (x) F (x)
= ex A + xex A + ex A − + = 2ex A + xex A = (2 + x)ex A
x x
F 0 (x) = (2 + x)ex A; F (x) = 2ex A + A(xex − ex ) + C = Axex + ex A + C
Z x
x
(Atet + et A + C)dt = A(tet − et ) + et A + Ct 1 =
1
= A(xex − ex ) + ex A + C(x − 1) − eA = Axex + C(x − 1) − eA
C(x − 1) eA
xex A + Aex + − =⇒ C = eA
x x
Z t
fk (t)
=⇒ fk0 (t) = α(t)fk (t); ln = α(x)dx
fk (a) a
Rt
fk = fk (a)e a α
n
X Z t Rt X n
F (t) = fj (a)e6 αej = e a α fj (a)ej = u(t)A
j=1 a j=1
14.19 Exercises - Velocity and acceleration in polar coordinates, Plane motion with radial acceleration, Cylindrical
coordinates.
Exercise 1.
dr dr dθ
v= = ~er + r ~eθ = ~er + r~eθ (θ = t)
dt dt dt
2 !
d2 r
dθ 1 d 2 dθ
a= −r ~er + r ~eθ = −r~er + 2~eθ
dt2 dt r dt dt
v = ~er + t~eθ = cos t~ex + sin t~ey + −t sin t~ex + t cos t~ey =
= (cos t − t sin t)~ex + (sin t + t cos t)~ey
a = (−t cos t − 2 sin t)~ex + (−t sin t + 2 cos t)~ey
Exercise 2.
v = ~er + r~eθ + ~ez = (cos t − t sin t)~ex + (sin t + t cos t)~ey + ~ez
a = (−t cos t − 2 sin t)~ex + (t sin t + 2 cos t)~ey
Exercise 3. (a).
π
r = sin t; θ = t; z = log sec t; θ ≤ t <
2
2 1 2 2 1 1
(r cos θ) + (r sin θ − ) = r − r sin θ + =
2 4 4
234
(b).
dt dθ tan θ sec θ
v= ~er + r ~eθ + log sec t~ez = cos t~er + r~eθ + ~ez
dt dt sec θ
vz = tan θ; v 2 = cos2 t + r2 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
tan θ
cos φ = = sin θ = r = sin t
sec θ
φ = arccos (sin θ)
Exercise 6.
2π 2π
e2cθ e4πc − 1
Z Z
1 2cθ
A= R2 (θ)dθ = e dθ = =
0 2 4c 0 4c
Exercise 7.
π π π
1 − cos 2θ 1 − cos 4θ
Z Z Z
1 1 1
sin4 θdθ = 2 2
sin θ(1 − cos θ)dθ = − dθ = 3π/16
0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2(4)
Exercise 15. Place target at the center (without loss of generality). The strategy is to break up v into the polar coordinate unit
vectors.
r = r~er
dr dθ
v= ~er + r ~eθ
dt dt
dr
= vr = v cos (π − α) = −v cos α
dt
dθ
r = v sin α
dt
v sin α r dθ
dt dθ 1 dr
= − tan α = dr =r ; = − tan α
−v cos α dt
dr r dθ
r = e− tan αθ
Exercise 17.
A first order differential equation of the form y 0 = f (x, y) is homogeneous if f (tx, ty) = f (x, y). Then
f (r cos θ, r sin θ) = f (cos θ, sin θ) = f (θ)
We find that
dy dr
= sin θ + r cos θ
dθ dθ
dx dr
= cos θ − r sin θ
dθ dθ
Thus
dr
dy dθ sin θ + r cos θ
= dr
= f (θ)
dx dθ cos θ − r sin θ
Exercise 18.
v = ωk × r
dr dθ
v= ~er + r ~eθ
dt dt
dt dθ dθ
v · ~er = 0, so = 0; ωk × r = r ~eθ = ωr~eθ = r
dt dt dt
2
2 dθ
|ωk × r| = ω 2 r2 = r2
dt
dθ
ω = , ω > 0
dt
236