An Orientation to Explosive Safety
Betty W. Harris
Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, NM 87545
Explosives are chemical or physical systems capable of
extremelv raoid exothermic reactions. which are eenerallv
accompahiedby high pressures a t the ;eaction zone,
products, and a vast amount of heat and light. Such systems
a
can do a tremendous amount of work in very short time.
For this reason, explosives are used for domestic, commer-
cial, and military p&poses. Explosives also are used to clear
forest areas, to open canals, to build dams, to blast rock in
construction projects, to drill for oil, to mine ore, and for
submarine activities.
Different kinds of explosives are used for different pur-
poses. Initiating explosives are used t o set off more stable
explosives. Low explosives are used in some ammunition
shells, blasting charges, and fireworks. High explosives
(HE'S) are used as main charges, especially in weapon sys-
tems.
Exdosives are aenerallv svnthesized com~oundsor for-
mulated mixturesof compou&ds. However, some very dan-
aerous exnlosive systems can be accidentally created by both
professionals and laymen. Among these &e methane-air
mixtures found in landfills or digester gas (sewage) plants
located near residential areas, undetected explosive devices
left by the military in areas that have since been converted to
domestic use, the dust from the storage of grain and fertiliz-
ers, and misplaced or lost blasting caps or dynamites from
construction projects. Appropriate precautions, safeguards,
and expertise must be used to eliminate the hazards arising
from these situations.
Clasrlficatlon of Explosives
Explosives can be classified in many ways ( I ) . We have
chosen to limit our classification to the manner and the ease
with which they react.
Initiating or Primary Explosives
Primary explosives are generally sensitive to light, heat,
shock. snarks. and static electricitv. Thev are verv unstable
and &'be detonated directly when acted upon dy external
forces. Examnles are mercurv fulminate. H e ( 0 N c ) ~lead.
azide, P ~ ( N & , cyanurictriazide [ c ~ N ~ ( N ~ leadstypb-
)~J,'
nate, [CsH(N02)30~Pb.HzO], and silver acetylide, [AgzCz].
These are usually packaged as disc- or capsule-type detona-
tors such as blasting caps used to stimulate (set off) enereet-
ic reactionsinothersystems.'~'hus,lead a ~ i d may
e he use> to
initiate a RDX- or I'KrN-(hexahydro-1.3,s.-trinitro-1,3,3-
triazine and pentaerythritol tetranitrate, respectively) base
charge. Special standardized procedures and the proper
safeguards must be enforced during the preparation and use
of initiating or primary explosives.
Low Explosives
Low exnlosives are chemical cornnositions or chemical
compounds that deflagrate by a seif-sustaining reaction
(burn slowlv. when unconfined) over a eiven neriod of time.
when confined, they may react withexplosive violence.
Therefore, they are used often in propellants, where con-
trolled burning is important, and in blasting operations.
Black powder or gunpowder is an example. Black powder is
composed of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate or sodi-
um nitrate.
Black powder is sensitive to flames, sparks, and friction.
When confined, black nowder can be heated to a relativelv
high temperature before an explosion will occur. However, it
can be ignited easilv by a simple snark. Black-powder fires
can cause severe damage to ocher eiplosives and to individ-
uals. Do not attempt to fiaht a black-powder fire.
Black powder can be desensitized b; pouring i t into water.
Even empty black-powder containers should he washed be-
fore discarding. ~ c c i d e n t shave been reported that were
caused by contaminated black-powder containers.
Hiah
- Exolosives
. (Secondarv . Exolosives)
.
Highexplosives (HE'S) arechemicalcompoundsor chemi-
cal com~ositionsthat are much more stable than initiatine
explosives. These are used almost exclusively for main
charges. Some high explosives are insensitive t o mild shock,
friction, flames, and heat, and they are generally set off by
blasting caps or other initiators. When initiated by a blasting-
cap, the intense shock wave creates many hot spots within
the explosive causing extremely rapid conversion of the solid
into gaseous products with the subsequent release of heat
and light. The noise one hears from an explosion is the shock
wave generated by the hot, rapidly expanding gases moving
through the air at the speed of sound. Energy release is
almost instantaneous. High explosives are generally more
easily handled because of their added stability.
Some typical HE'S are nitroglycerin [CH2(N03)CH(N03)
CHzN031, trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-
1,3,5-triazine (RDX), 1,3,5-triamino-2,4-trinitrobenene
(TATB), pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), dynamite
(principal explosive ingredient ammonium nitrate or nitro-
glycerin), and Composition B (6013911 wt% RDXITNTI
wax).
Dvnamite is the high - exvlosive
. that the lavman is most
likely to encounter. Its composition varies widely with its
use. The principal explosive ingredient is ammonium nitrate
or nitroglycerin. However, explosive or nonexplosive sensi-
tizers often are added to brine about its detonation. Sensitiz-
ers are miatcriak that enhance the detonation wave propaga-
tioncharacteristics. thus reducing thecritical (failure)diam-
eter of the explosive. The criticai diameter i s t h e minimum
diameter of a cylindrical charge of high explosive required to
sustain a high-order, steady-state detonation. The critical
diameter is a function of charge confinement, charge densi-
ty, material particle size, and the initial temperature of the
charge. Sensitizers can also he impurities in the explosive.
Liquid sensitizers are usually added with carbonaceous ab-
sorbent material t o prevent leakage and to obtain a suitable
oxveen balance. Ethvlene elvcol dinitrate is an examnle of a
successful liquid sensitizer. ~ m o n the
g solid sensitizers are
nitro-oraanic com~oundssuch as nitrotoluene. nitrostarch.
and nitr&aphthaieue. Aluminum and sulfur a;e also added
as solid sensitizers. Shock and heat can cause dvnamite
mixtures to explode. Some grades of dynamite alsdgive off
poisonous aases.
- Figure lgives the three basic steps in an explosive train. I t
also shows the relationship between primary and secondary
explosivrs Ulilsting caps ihemselves, common explosive de-
vices, utilile this relatiunship in their constructton (2).
Volume 64 Number 6 June 1987 541
 ALUMiNUM
ALLOY CUP

SuLN'
/
IGNllION CHARGE
/ 1
INTBMWIAE
B A ~ CHARGE
(RDX)
E

(LEAD 5NPHNATE CHARGE

AND ?ARIUM [LEAD U l D f l

Figure 3. Military Corps of Engineers special no. 8 electric blasting cap

ALUMINUM IGNmON PRIMING BASE CHARGE

ALLOY S H Y WRGE, ~ A R G E ,PRN
Figure 1. Basic three-step explosive train.
OPEN END
INSERnON
SAFEIY N

RUBBER PLUG, IGNnlOu MIX Figure 4. Du Pont no. 6 commerciel nonelectric blasting cap.
/

SHY& LEG WIRBI SASE OPEN END WR

/
SH' WDGE wnE ELE'
'wGE INSERTION OF
SAFFil NSE
I
Figure 2. Du Pont no. 6 commerciai electric blasting cap

COPPOl OR IGNlilON PRIMING BASE CHARGE

ALUMINUMSHN CHARGE CHARGE RDX

.Devices
Detonating
Figure 5. Military Corps of Engineers Special no. 8 nonelectric blasting cap.
Two general types of devices or methods are used to set off
explosives: igniters and detonators. Igniters carry to the ex-
plosive mass a flame that lights the explosive mass. Detona-
tors deliver a shockwave that causes the explosive to dissoci-
ate, detonate, or burn rapidly. are urged to he able to identify blasting caps and notify the
Igniters are squibs (plain or electric), fuses, and delay local police if one is found in a residential environment. Do
- . . or straw
ieniters. Sauibs are small-diameter tubes of oaner
filled with a quick-burning powder; they have a relatively
not attempt t o destroy t h e blasting cap.

slow-hurnine match head attached to one end. Althaueh
they are not safe, they are still being used in some coil-
mining ooerations.
- Fuses are usuallv fine oarticles of black
powder wrapped in a coarse fiber forming a ropelike materi-
al. Delay igniters are a combination of igniters and fuses.
They are standard and relatively safe for use in metal-min-
ing and tunneling operations. Most detonation devices, even
electric blasting caps, are unsafe in coal-mining operations
because of the probability~.of igniting the dust or .
pas .
oresent
in the mine.
Blasting caps are shells or cups made of copper or alumi-
num alloy. They are closed a t one end and contain two- or
three-layered charges of explosive within. The initiating
(verv sensitive) exolosive is near the ooen end of the cun
khiie the less senskive base charge is ciosest to the close2
end of the cup. The intermediate or primary charge is in the
center. Figures 2-5 show representations of electrical and
nonelectrical blasting caos (2). Electrical blasting cans are
set off by essentiall; insiantaneous vaporizationuof bridge
wires, while nonelectrical blasting caps need a fuse for igni-
tion.
Blasting caps are rather small and easily lost. Construc-
tion and military personnel sometimes lose live blasting caps
in areas where they could be found and handled by children.
They look like shiny empty rifle or pistol shells. However,
they are very dangerous and could he injurious or even fatal
to an individual if accidentally exploded. Therefore, laymen
Domestlc Explosive Systems
One very common domestic explosive system is the accu-
mulation of large volumes of gas-air mixtures. Sucha system
will ignite with explosiveviolence. Sparks from a light switch
or telephone, or from static electricity, could cause such
mixtures to detonate. Some common sources found in build-
ings are natural gas (methane), propane, or butane gas leaks,
digester gas or landfill gas accumulations in residential sec-
tions, and hydrogen-oxygen mixtures near life-support
equipment.
Fine dust particles from grain can evenly distribute them-
selves amone the available air in a erain elevator. This he-
comes a suitable fuel for a reaction-A spark can ignite this
fine erain-dust-air mixture creating" a violent exolosion.
Ammonium nitrate fertilizer, when stored in garages or
barns. can sometimes become contaminated with oil from
lawn mowers or production machinery. The paper bag, am-
monium nitrate, and oil constitute an explosive mixture that
could be ignited by a cigarette, match; or even a backfire
from equipment.
Fuels and flammable solvents, such as gasoline, lantern
oils, paint thinners, dry cleaning fluids, and adhesives, can
be vaporized even at room temperature. The vapors will
travel an unimaginable distance in a very short time forming
an explosive air-solvent mixture. These vapors can be ignit-
ed easily by cigarettes, candles, sparks, or the pilot light of a
gas stove or hot water heater or any other source of flames.

542 Journal o f Chemical Education

 Table 1. Sensitivity of Explosives Determined by Drop-Weight been known to penetrate both floors of a two-story building.
Imnact Test Both thermostats and safety valves should be checked peri-
odically.
Explosive Type 12 H5. (cm) '
Lead Azide <10 Explosives are considered thermodynamically unstable
PETN 12
RDX 28 systems. The ease with which they can be made to react by
TNT 148 external forces is a measure of their sensitivity toward that
TATB >300 force. Heat, friction, impact, flame, and light are a few of the
external forces known initiate explosives.
eDistetancsa 2.5 kg (5.5 Iblweight needs toFall to inltistethematerial 50% of the time. Sensitivity to Heat
One of the first sensitivity tests performed for safety pur-
poses is to burn milligram quantities of the explosive inlover
an open flame. Many explosives will melt before reaching an
Table 2. Results of Friction Tests exolosion temperature. Others exolode before thev melt.
In the Granlte Groove Friction Apparatus Steel Slider The compound mercury fulminate is an example of the lat-
ter. The burnine process is a self-sustainina reaction. The
Loads kg oxygen needed ;lies not come from the air but is found
Explosive 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 within the compound's structure. Generally, explosive types
are arranged according to their thermal stability. Therefore,
Lead mide E primary explosives < secondary sensitive H E < secondary
PETN E
Blasting Gelatine E
insensitive HE (e.g., lead azide < RDX < TATB). More
LFB-Dynamite 0 0 E E precise data can be obtained using a differential thermal
Nitro~ell~lo~e O O K K calorimeter. These data are useful in planning for long-term
RDX O K E storage of explosives.
Powder 688 0 K
"Borenitl' O O O K E Sensitivity to Impact
Powder 401 0 0 K An idea of the stability of an explosive t o mechanical
Tetryl O O K impact can he obtained simply by striking a few milligrams,
Gurit 0 0 0 resting on a metal surface, with a hammer. Precise drop-
"Nitrolit" 0 0 0 0 weight impact machines have been designed to give more
reliable data on impact sensitivity or to establish the critical
0 = NOaudible or visible elfed: E = Explodon: K = CRickiing noise a minor flash.
impact energy necessary to make the compound or mixture
explode. Table 1gives results from tested explosives.
Sensitivity to Friction
When ignited, the system will explode with violence some- Equipment has been designed to measure the explosive
times destroying houses and killing or maiming individuals response to the stress and heat generated by friction when an
in the vicinity. For example, when confined and mixed with explosive is rubbed between rough surfaces. Soil or sandpa-
the proper volume of air, one pound of gasoline can explode per is sometimes used as an abrasive and a force or load is
with almost 10 times as much enerm -.liberated as would he necessary in this test. Table 2 gives results with some tested
liberated form one pound of dynamite, see the example cal- explosives (3). TATB would not react under the conditions
culation in the Appendix. A gallon of gasoline would liberate of the test; however, RDX is sensitive to friction.
about 62 times as
much energy as pound of dynamite.a I t is believed that friction causes heat to concentrate in
localized areas creating hot spots within the explosive. This
These chemicals should not be brought into the house nor
should they be used for anything other than their stated results in a self-propagating reaction that could lead to a
purpose. Gasoline should not be used t o clean soiled detonation.
clothing, floors, walls, etc. For flammable solvents intend-
ed for use indoors, read labels carefully. All flammahle sol- Explosive Reactions
vents should be stored in a well-ventilated area. Explosive reactions are exothermic, fast, and give off gas-
Aerosol cans are pressurized, and they contain a propel- eous pri~ducts.Theycan be classified as ( 1 ) deflngrntions, (2)
lant that is easily vaporized. When heated, the pressure explosions, and (3)detonations. Thew can he rmtrolled by
within the can becomes so great that the can explodes. Aero- varying the composition and the manner in which the explo-
sol explosions are not as energetic as those produced from sive is confined. Brief descriptions of these three classes
flammable solvents or fuels, but the flying pieces of metal follow.
can be lethal.
Dry chemicals used by laymen are also potential explosive Deflagration
hazards. Calcium hwochlorite, a solid used to disinfect This is the autocombustion of explosive particles. Also, i t
swimming pools, is % example. The compound liberates
chlorine gas when it comes in contact with moisture. Chlo-
rine gas is poisonous and can cause fires and explosions if
-
is usually a surface phenomenon. In the open air a deflagra-
tion is generally slow (rate meterslsecond) with practically
no sound. Gases, heat, and light are final products. The
brought in contact with compounds such as turpentine, am- deflagration of black powder is an example.
monia gas, paint, kerosene, rubber, or alcohols. As a general
rule, add only a small amount of calcium hypochlorite to a Explosions
large volume of water, never the reverse. Use a dry, clean Explosions are extremely rapid reactions characterized by
scoop t o transfer the chemical and store the original contain- a sharp increase in pressure a t the reaction site. Gaseous
er where it cannot come in contact with moisture. products expand into a volume much greater than the origi-
The pressure inside a closed container can exceed the nal unreacted material and can severely deform or totally
allowable limits, causing the container to explode. A mal- destroy objects in the vicinity. Explosions are accompanied
functioning safety valve on a hot water heater can create by a loud sound. The confinement of black powder in a
such an explosive system. Exploding hot water heaters have blasting cap creates this kind of a system.

Volume 64 Number 6 June 1987 543

Detonations
Detonations are ex~losionspropagating a t a constant rate
that exceeds the speed of so&d'(rate of a few kilometers1
second) in a given substance. Detonations are almost always
associated w&h a shock wave traveling a t a given v e ~ o c % ~
(detonation velocity) (4). Although usually associated with
high explosives, some less sensitive explosives such as pro-
pellants and ammonium nitrate can be made to detonate if
properly confined.
The difference between an explosion and a detonation can
be shown best by describing their effects upon a physical
object. If an explosion is made to occur inside a 5-in. X 3-in.
X l-in. wooden block, using a fuse and a metal sleeve filled
with black powder, the hlock is broken up into large chunks.
Using a blasting cap and following the same procedure the
system can he made to detonate. The wooden hlock is then
blown into sawdust-size particles. Although the energy in
hoth systems is nearly the same, the effects are quite differ-
ent. In the detonation, the energy is delivered in a much
shorter period of time. This results in a much higher pres-
sure, which is very destructive.
Emergency Response
The time and manner in which one responds to a poten-
tially explosive situation or to an explosion can save hoth
lives and property. Most major facilities, such as factories,
government laboratories, and military establishments, have
standard operating procedures (SOP'S), which outline in
detail a sequence of emergency responses. For the layman,
two things are basic, (1) if possible, leave the hazard area,
and (2) notify the proper authorities, the police, the fire
department, or local military ordnance group. In many ar-
eas, the emergency telephone number is 911.
Conclusion
For many, explosives are sources of otherwise unavailable
energy to do work. They are used by farmers instead of
manpower to remove trees, shatter boulders, and drill wells.
T o the construction worker, they are a means of welding
"W -
metal. of hlastine for road construction. or of dieeine canals.
To industry, explosives are big business in various aspects of
uroduction.. use.. and trans~ortation.The mace industrv. ..
especially in the use of solid:propellants rocket boosters, is a
544 Journal of Chemical Education
good example. To the military, explosives are a means of
maintaining defense. Basic knowledge about explosive safe-
ty is of a definite benefit to laymen who might accidentally
create an explosive atmosphere, or handle explosives occa-
sionally. However, no one should attempt to use explosives
who has not been trained to do so. T o recoenize a situation ~ ~
involving explosives and to know how to d e z with it cansave
many lives. This brief introduction to explosives, their rec-
ognition, classification, reactions, and safety aspeets, can he
used in conjunction with other resource books such as the
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials (5),Explo-
siues (6), and Terminal Ballistics (7).
Literature Cited
1. One example ia found in Military Erpiorima: Departments of the Army and Air Force
Teehniesl Manual. U.S. Government Printing Offim: Washington, DC. Nov. 1967:
1 9 7 0 : ~137.
4. Fair, H. 0.;Walker, R. F. Ener#etic Moteriais; Plenum: New Yark, 1977: p 431.
6. Sax, N. I. Dongerour Propertieao(Indudrio1 Moleriois; Reinhold: New York, 1979:pp
.....
W LC*?
6. Meye,. R. Explosives: Verlsg Chemie: Deerfield, FL, 1981.
7. Bsckman, M. E. Terminal Roilistics; Naval Weapons Center: Chins Lake, CA, 1976.
Appendix: Example Caiculatlon
Dynamite
Detonation Energy = 1Kcallg
453 gilb X 1 Kcallg = 453 Kealflh
Gasoline (n-Octane)
Heat of combustion = 112,460 BTUIgal
Comparison
4,325.4 Kcalflb gasoline = 9.6
453 Kcalllb dynamite