INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS

 CRISPR-CAS
o Molecular mechanism found in bacteria which has the ability to rewrite the DNA sequence of genes from any organism.
o Ultimate tool in genetic technology which genome (set of hereditary information encoded in the DNA which includes protein coding
and non-coding region) of organism may be precisely edited.
o Gene modification (e.g. sequencing of human genome) which is more accurate, efficient, versatile and easier to use.
o Discovered as a “seek and destroy” mechanism which bacteria use to fight off viral infection.
o CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats) refers to part of bacterial genome which produces RNA
molecules; Cas (CRISPR-associated) refers to nuclease, or DNA cutting enzyme.
 CRISPR RNA binds to viral DNA and recruits the CAS to destroy or cut it.
 CRISPR RNAs direct Cas nucleases to any chosen DNA sequence.
o Used to repair mutations in cells derived from individual with genetic disorders such as Cystic fibrosis, Huntington disease, Sickle
disease and Muscular dystrophy.
 In US, CRISPR-Cas have been under used for:
 Clinical trial for genome editing in cancer therapy; and
 Proposals for treating a genetic form of blindness and genetic blood disorder.
 In china, 86 patients have already started receiving treatment in CRISPR-Cas trial for cancer.
o Treatment for human genetic disorders by gene modification.
 Editing of mosquitoes’ gene which prevent in carrying parasite causes malaria.
 Editing genome of algae to double their output for biofuel production
o Ethical concerns of CRISPR-Cas
 Genetic modification in human embryos would change the genetic information carried by future generations that can have
negative consequences for our species.
 In 2017, International panel for experts recommend the caution, but not ban. Human embryo modification should only be
permitted for compelling reasons and under strict oversight.

1.1 GENETICS HAS AN INTERESTING EARLY HISTORY

o Early as 350 B.C., Aristotle proposed that active “humors” served as bearers of hereditary traits until 1600s which human understand
the biological basis of life.
o William Harvey (physician and anatomist) proposed Theory of Epigenesis which states that organisms developed from the fertilized
egg by succession of developmental events which transform egg to adult. This theory conflicted by theory of preformationism which
stated that egg contains complete miniature adult which called homunculus.
o Around 1830, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed cell theory which states that organism is composed of cells which
derived from preexisting cells.
 Spontaneous generation is the creation of living organism from nonliving organism was disproved by Louis Pasteur and
considered that living organism were derived from preexisting organism.
o Work of Charles Darwin and Gregor Mendel set the stage of rapid development of genetics in 20th and 21st century.

DARWIN AND MENDEL

 Darwin published “On the Origin of Species” about evolution.
o Geological, geographical and biological observation convinced him that existing species arose by descent with modifications
from ancestral species.
o Voyage on the HMS Beagle lead him to formulate the theory of natural selection which explain the evolutionary changes.
 Alfred Russel Wallace proposed and formulate natural selection independently by observing that population tend to produce more
offspring than the environmental can support, leading to a struggle from survival among individual.
o Individuals with heritable traits that allow them to adapt to their environment are better able to survive and reproduce
than those with less adaptive traits.
o If population carrying inherited variations becomes reproductively isolated, a new species may result.
 Darwin lacked an understanding of the genetic variation and inheritance which opens a lot of criticism in his theory.
 After Darwin published his book, Gregor John Mendel published his paper showing how traits are passed from generation to
generation in pea plant which offered a general model on how traits are inherited.
o His research was little known until Carl Correns, Hugo de Vries and Erich Tschermak brought to light around 1900.
 In early 20th century, it became clear that hereditary and development are dependent on genetic information residing in the genes
contained in the chromosomes which then contributed to each individual by gametes – Chromosomes Theory of Inheritance.
 Research of Mendel serves as the foundation of genetics.