Topic 1 - HIV Testing

Specific Area: Perception of the ISU students on the R.A 8504 and survey on their willingness to
undergo HIV testing.
Review of the Related Literature:

Youth in many developing countries are at acute risk of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and unintended pregnancies. Approximately
one-half of people currently infected with HIV are females developing countries aged < 25
years. These interventions have taken a variety of shapes and forms from conventional sex
education in schools multicomponent community-based programs (Journal of Adolescent
Health 33, 324-348, 2003).
This study assesses knowledge, attitudes and behaviour in respect of risk of HIV infection of
students through behavioral surveillance survey. The study found out that the students engaged
in pre-marital sex, although this was more common among the male than female students.
Students did not use condoms consistently and were not likely to use condoms when the
relationship was considered as stable because of trust. Peer education clubs need to be
established to provide education on condom management (Journal of Health and Human
Services Administration, 51-84, 2009).
Owens (1995) measured the knowledge and attitudes of 48 African and American social work
students and found that many of the students had some knowledge about cause and
prevention but lacked information about prognosis and transmission. Many students felt
unprepared to handle AIDS practice situations, and felt apprehensive about contact with people
living with AIDS.
A similar study by Davis et al. (2007) on 156 African American college students’ from three
public universities revealed that the sexually active participants reported less knowledge about
HIV/AIDS transmission and more prejudiced attitudes toward individuals living with HIV/AIDS
than the abstaining students. HIV/AIDS awareness was inversely associated with intentions for
future casual sex encounters and was positively correlated with intentions to use condoms in
the vent of a one night stand. This study proposed intervention based research to increase safer
sex practices and increase condom self efficacy.
A survey of 500 Turkish university students’ knowledge, attitude, sexual behaviour and
perceptions of risk related to HIV/AIDS (Cok, Gray & Ersever, 2001) revealed a moderate level of
knowledge about the transmission, symptomology and prevention of HIV. The students had
significant misconceptions regarding HIV/AIDS. Students’ attitudes toward people with HIV/AIDS
were contradictory showing both accepting and unaccepting views depending, in part, on their
personal involvement with an HIV positive person. The perceptions of students of their personal
risk of contracting HIV were low regardless of their sexual activity. The study recommended
HIV/AIDS education for Turkish university students. Implications for developing and
implementing HIV prevention programmes were suggested.
Melkote and Goswami (2000) conducted a study of 203 Hyderabad university students (India) to
predict their attitude towards people living with HIV/AIDS. This study provided with statistically
useful multiple regression model where higher scores on knowledge of AIDS transmission
through external contact indicated more positive attitude towards AIDS and safe sex, and higher
parental income respectively had a direct (positive) influence on attitude towards people living
with HIV/AIDS. This study indicated the importance of health communication/ education
campaigns in bringing about a positive change of opinion towards people living with HIV/AIDS
by influencing the attitude and knowledge of AIDS variables.

Some experts have suggested that eventual educational attainment is a more useful measure
for HIV’s impact on children than school attendance. In Uganda and Zambia, for example, while
educational attainment progressively rose for five-year birth cohorts until 1977, educational
levels began falling as the epidemic began reducing life expectancy (Birdsall and Hamoudi,
2004). As a result of the epidemic, children as a whole are becoming less educated in the most
heavily affected countries, which may diminish national capacity in the long-run for future
growth, prosperity, and development (Birdsall and Hamoudi, 2004).

According to R.A 8504, The State shall promote public awareness about the causes, modes of
transmission, consequences, means of prevention and control of HIV/AIDS through a
comprehensive nationwide educational and information campaign organized and conducted by
the State. Such campaigns shall promote value formation and employ scientifically proven
approaches, focus on the family as a basic social unit, and be carried out in all schools and
training centers, workplaces, and communities. This program shall involve affected individuals
and groups, including people living with HIV/AIDS.

HIV/AIDS education in schools. — The Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS), the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical Education and skills Development
Authority (TESDA), utilizing official information provided by the Department of Health, shall
integrate instruction on the causes, modes of transmission and ways of preventing HIV/AIDS and
other sexually transmitted diseases in subjects taught in public and private schools at
intermediate grades, secondary and tertiary levels, including non-formal and indigenous
learning systems: Provided, That if the integration of HIV/AIDS education is not appropriate or
feasible, the DECS and TESDA shall design special modules on HIV/AIDS prevention and control:
Provided, further, That it shall not be used as an excuse to propagate birth control or the sale or
distribution of birth control devices: Provided, finally, That it does not utilize sexually explicit
materials (R.A 8504, art. 1)

Topic 2 - Federalism
Specific Area: Perception of youth politicians in the municipality of San Mariano

In the Philippines, Republic Act 7160, commonly known as the Local Government Code of 1991
(LGC), was enacted. The code has been considered as a landmark, far reaching, and the most
radical piece of legislation in the history of the Philippine politico-administrative system. It
devolved significant functions, powers, and responsibilities to the thousands of local
governments in the country that have long been operating under a highly centralized regime
(Brillantes 2003, 2002, 1998).
According to Professor Ronald Watts (2002:8), as quoted by Celine Auclair,* these structural
characteristics are:
1. two orders of government, (Federal and regional), each in direct contact with its citizens;
2. an official, constitutional sharing of legislative and executive powers, and a sharing of
revenue sources between the two orders of government, to ensure that each has certain
sectors of true autonomy;
3. designated representation of distinct regional opinions (regional interests, rights, welfare)
within federal decision-making institutions, usually guaranteed by the specific structure of the
federal Second Chamber (Senate);
4. a supreme written constitution that is not unilaterally modifiable but requires the consent of
a large proportion of federation members;
5. an arbitration mechanism (in the form of courts or a referendum) to resolve
intergovernmental disputes; and
6. procedures and institutions designed to facilitate intergovernmental collaboration in cases of
shared domains (jurisdictions) or inevitable overlapping of responsibilities (powers, authority,
functions). Source: “Federalism: Its Principles, Flexibility and Limitations.” 2003. In
Decentralization and Power Shift. Alex B. Brillantes, Jr. et al. (editors). ARCD/CLRG, U.P. NCPAG.
pp. 66-67
Federalism is related to the principle of “popular sovereignty” which says:

“Sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them” (Article
II. Section 1. The 1987 Constitution). There is a constitutional partnership in democratic
governance in which the people in the States exercise self-rule with substantial powers,
authority and functions and the needed resources or funding.
The Philippine geography makes travel and communication difficult, time-consuming and costly.
Composed of several islands, the highly centralized unitary form of government is ineffective in
dealing with contingencies in far-flung parts of the country. The administration and power is
concentrated in Manila which results to inequitable development among the different regions.
Development is inequitable and stunted because there is difficulty in reaching and responding
to the needs of remote areas. Decentralization was seen as a response to this dilemma in
governance. It will help in the development of the nation by bringing the government closer to
the people through administrative de-concentration and political devolution. It has been
reasoned that this strategy will facilitate faster delivery of needed basic services and promote
participatory governance. In the Philippines, advocates of federalism believe that the structure
of the federal system would respond to the geographical obstacle and differences caused by
cultural diversity on governance because it allows fragmentation while at the same time
promoting national interest. It is also claimed that the federal structure will accelerate the
country’s development and end the internal conflicts brought by separatist movements in
Mindanao (International Conference of the East West Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2002).

Philippines has an exhaustive decentralisation code providing local governments with a high
degree of discretion. But the concurrent upward and downward accountability mechanisms are
weak resulting in inefficiency and ineffectiveness of local governments. We employ a diagnostic
framework to analyse local governments' discretion and accountability in political,
administrative and fiscal domains. Journal of International Development 25 (2), 227-250, 2013.
Topic 3 - Death Penalty
Specific Area:

Debate about the use of the death penalty has been shaped by factors such as age class,
race, and gender. For example, the first documented case of a woman being executed was Jane
Champion in 1632 in the New Colonies. Historically, women were not typically executed
because of the gender stereotype that women were inherently good and, therefore, were not
punishable by death (Amnesty International, 2005).
Children under the age of 18 were eligible for capital punishment sentences until 2002.
In the 1970s children who were accused of heinous crimes, such as first and second-degree
murder, were tried as adults.
In 1988, in Thompson v. Oklahoma (487 U.S. 815), four Supreme Court Justices held that
the execution of offenders age fifteen and younger at the time of their crimes was
unconstitutional.
In 2005, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Roper v. Simmons that the death
penalty cannot be applied to persons who were under age 18 at the time of commission of the
crime.
Another group of individuals recently exempt from capital punishment are those who
meet the requirements of mental insanity or retardation. In 1986, Ford v. Wainwright (477 U.S.
399), the Supreme Court banned the execution of insane persons.
Then in 1989 in Penry v. Lynaugh (492 U.S. 584), the Court held that executing persons
with mental retardation was not a violation of the Eighth Amendment.
However, in 2002 in Atkins v. Virginia, (536 U.S. 304), the Court held that national
opinion was in opposition to the execution of the mentally retarded and concluded that such a
punishment violates the Eighth Amendment's ban on cruel and unusual punishment.

In a USA Today (June 2005) article a Gallup Poll from May 2005 found that 74% of the
American public support the death penalty, but backing for capital punishment drops to 56%
when respondents are given the alternative punishment option of life without parole (USA
Today, June 2005).
Murray (2003) found that in the 1998 Gallup Poll (Jan.16-18) men supported the death
penalty over life in prison 24% more than women. Bowman (2005) found in studying federal
sentencing that a significant discrepancy existed when comparing similar crimes committed by
men and women and capital punishment verdicts. Men were found to have a one in three
chance and women had a one in ten chance of being convicted and sentenced to death.
Those from lower socio-economic classes mainly oppose the death penalty due to the
belief that crimes are committed due to economic, educational, and political injustices.
Similarly, Baker, Lambert, and Jenkins (2005) found that those who classified themselves as
middle to upper class are more favorable towards the death penalty than those in lower class
standings.
 While gender and class are two determining variables in support for the death penalty,
age plays a noteworthy role. Hammond (2005) found that individuals under the age of 60 are
more likely to be sentenced to capital punishment than those older than 60.
Baker, Lambert, and Jenkins (2005) found that people over the age of 45 were more
likely of support capital punishment than those under 45. Furthermore, Baker et al. (2005)
found that older the individual the more likely they are to support the death penalty, but they
also are the least likely to receive capital punishment.
To summarize these earlier studies, those who are the least likely to receive a verdict of
death are the same groups who are generally in favor of the death penalty. When the chance of
receiving the death penalty is not likely and those who are the most similar to you are not in
danger, research shows that these groups are more likely to favor death as a punishment. The
only exception is women. Women are far less likely to receive capital punishment, yet they
report a greater degree of opposition to this sentence.
Yet another factor in the support or opposition of capital punishment is the political
perspective from which an individual is viewing this matter. “Conservatives, and political parties
that are more conservative than their rivals, are more likely to support harsh sanctions ” (Jacobs
and Carmichael, 2003).
Jacobs and Helms (1996) looked at changes in prison admissions and find that “increases
in political strength of the Republican party produce subsequent growth in these rates.”