EFFECT OF BAFFLES ON OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER

COEFFICIENT OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

USING
NUMERICAL MODELING

By

SHAYAN JAVED 12PWMEC 3313

ZAHID HUSSAIN SHAH 12PWMEC 3325
USMAN KHAN JADOON 12PWMEC 3316
ADIL SHAREEN 11PWMEC 3220

Supervised by
DR. MUHAMMAD ALI KAMRAN

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY PESHAWAR

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 EFFECT OF BAFFLES ON OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
USING
NUMERICAL MODELING

SHAYAN JAVED 12PWMEC 3313

ZAHID HUSSAIN SHAH 12PWMEC 3325

USMAN KHAN JADOON 12PWMEC 3316

ADIL SHAREEN 11PWMEC 3220

_________________ _________________
Project Supervisor Chairman
FINAL YEAR PROJECT 2015-2016

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,
PESHAWAR.

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 ABSTRACT
A small shell and tube heat exchanger is analyzed for heat transfer by numerical
modeling using single segmented, trefoil-hole and combination of single segmented &
trefoil-hole baffles. Baffles are used to support tube bundle and to direct the shell side
flow. Important considerations in baffle design include type of baffle, baffle cut and
baffle spacing. By changing the design parameters of baffles, the performance of heat
exchanger is hugely effected. Our work is to study the effect of baffle spacing on heat
transfer coefficient.

Heat exchanger is designed in PTC CREO, its diameter is 304.8mm and consists
of 5 tubes with 2 passes having diameter of 16.05mm. Previous work in this field
suggests CFD analysis of shell and tube heat exchanger to be in very much accordance
with the experimental results, also it is less time consuming and cost efficient. Numerical
modelling is done using ANSYS. Mesh is generated in ICEM CFD using hybrid mesh
and to reduce the mesh cell count symmetry is used. CFD analysis is performed using
FLUENT and based on previous work in this field k-ɛ realizable model is used for
analysis.

The temperature and velocity profiles are studied in detail using CFD POST and
it is found that heat transfer initially increases significantly with increase in number of
baffles because of the increased turbulence but after a certain number of baffles, the
increase in heat transfer becomes less significant. Heat transfer of trefoil-hole baffles is
found to be greater than single segmented baffles but trefoil-hole baffles produce jets of
high velocity fluid that may damage the material and cause vibrations, thus reducing
equipment life. On the other hand, single segmented baffles have a stable flow but with
less active regions of heat transfer, so a combination of single segmented and trefoil-
hole baffles is simulated, which shows a large improvement in heat transfer compared
to single segmented baffles along with reduced jet formation compared to trefoil-hole
baffles. On the basis of these findings it is suggested to use a combination of single
segmented and trefoil-hole baffles over single segmented baffles only.

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 DEDICATION

The project is dedicated to our families and teachers who were

always a source of inspiration, coaching and enthusiasm for us.

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 Acknowledgement
First of all we are all thankful to Allah Almighty for all of His blessings.

There was a combined effort of many respectable people whose guidance and encouragement
led to the success of our project. We wish to thank all those people who guided us and helped
us in our project.

The first and the most important person whose guidance we want to acknowledge is our
supervisor Dr. Muhammad Ali Kamran. His endless support and encouragement in addition to
his great knowledge of the subject helped us a lot in our project and his interest in the project
made it possible for the project to become successful.

We also want to acknowledge the administration of UET Peshawar which helped us in every
step during our project from transportation to access to hostel equipment. Without which we
would have faced a lot of difficulties in completing our project.

We also want to acknowledge the efforts of project committee which always encouraged us to
work more and more and taking presentations and exhibitions to increase the confidence of
the students.

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER

1.1 Heat Transfer

Heat is a form of energy which transfers between bodies which are kept under thermal
interactions. When a temperature difference occurs between two bodies or a body with its
surroundings, heat transfer occurs.

1.2 Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer occurs basically in three modes

1. Conduction
2. Convection and
3. Radiation

1.2.1 Conduction
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer that occurs from one part of a substance to
another part within the substance itself or with another substance which is placed in physical
contact. In conduction, there is no noticeable movement of molecules. The heat transfer occurs
here by the two mechanisms that happen.

The atoms and molecules having energy will pass that energy they have with their adjacent
atoms or molecules by means of lattice vibrations.

When a temperature gradient exists in a body, experience has shown that there is an energy
transfer from the high-temperature region to the low-temperature region. We say that the energy
is transferred by conduction and that the heat-transfer rate per unit area is proportional to the
normal temperature gradient:

When the proportionality constant is inserted,

qx = −kA ∂T/∂x [1-1]

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Where qx is the heat-transfer rate and ∂T/∂x is the temperature gradient in the direction of the
heat flow. The positive constant k is called the thermal conductivity of the material, and the
minus sign is inserted so that the second principle of thermodynamics will be satisfied; i.e., heat
must flow downhill on the temperature scale, as indicated in the coordinate system of Figure 1-
1.

Equation (1-1) is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Figure 1.1 Sketch showing direction of heat flow.

1.2.2 Convection
Convective heat transfer, often referred to simply as convection, is the transfer of heat
from one place to another by the movement of fluids. Convection is usually the dominant form
of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat
transfer, convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of conduction (heat
diffusion) and advection (heat transfer by bulk fluid flow).

The term convection can sometimes refer to transfer of heat with any fluid movement, but
advection is the more precise term for the transfer due only to bulk fluid flow. The process of
transfer of heat from a solid to a fluid, or the reverse, is not only transfer of heat by bulk motion
of the fluid, but diffusion and conduction of heat through the still boundary layer next to the
solid. Thus, this process without a moving fluid requires both diffusion and advection of heat,
a process that is usually referred to as convection.

In addition to energy transfer due to specific molecular motion (diffusion), energy is transferred
by bulk, or macroscopic, motion of the fluid. This motion is associated with the fact that, at any
instant, large numbers of molecules are moving collectively or as aggregates. Such motion, in

7
 the presence of a temperature gradient, contributes to heat transfer. Because the molecules in
aggregate retain their random motion, the total heat transfer is then due to the superposition of
energy transport by random motion of the molecules and by the bulk motion of the fluid. It is
customary to use the term convection when referring to this cumulative transport and the term
advection when referring to the transport due to bulk fluid motion.

Rate of convection is governing by newton’s law of cooling:

𝑞=ℎ𝐴∆𝑇

Where, q=rate of convective heat transfer

h=convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m2K or W/m2oC)

A=heat transfer area of the surface (m2)

ΔT=temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid (K or oC)

Now there are two types of convection heat transfer,

1. Forced Convection

2. Natural Convection

1.2.2.1 Forced Convection

In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external means
such as a pump or fan.

Mechanism of Forced Convection

Convection heat transfer is complicated since it involves fluid motion as well as heat
conduction. The fluid motion enhances heat transfer (the higher the velocity the higher the heat
transfer rate).

The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton's law of cooling:

𝑞=ℎ𝐴∆𝑇

The convective heat transfer coefficient h strongly depends on the fluid properties and
roughness of the solid surface, and the type of the fluid flow (laminar or turbulent) It is
assumed that the velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall, this assumption is called no slip

8
condition. As a result, the heat transfers from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the
surface is by pure conduction, since the fluid is motionless.

Figure 1.2 Mechanism of Forced Convection

The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the flow direction. The mean
or average convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface is determined by (properly)
averaging the local heat transfer coefficient over the entire surface

Velocity Boundary Layer

Consider the flow of a fluid over a flat plate, the velocity and the temperature of the
fluid approaching the plate is uniform at U∞ and T∞. The fluid can be considered as adjacent
layers on top of each other.

Figure 1.3 Velocity Boundary Layer

Assuming no-slip condition at the wall, the velocity of the fluid layer at the wall is zero. The
motionless layer slows down the particles of the neighboring fluid layers as a result of friction

9
between the two adjacent layers. The presence of the plate is felt up to some distance from the
plate beyond which the fluid velocity U∞ remains unchanged. This region is called velocity
boundary layer.

Boundary layer region is the region where the viscous effects and the velocity changes are
significant and the inviscid region is the region in which the frictional effects are negligible and
the velocity remains essentially constant.

The friction between two adjacent layers between two layers acts similar to a drag force (friction
force). The drag force per unit area is called the shear stress:

Where μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid kg/m.s or N.s/m2.

Thermal Boundary Layer

Similar to velocity boundary layer, a thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at
specific temperature flows over a surface which is at different temperature.

Figure 1.4 Thermal Boundary Layer

The thickness of the thermal boundary layer δt is defined as the distance at which:

The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers is described by the Prandtl
number.

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For low Prandtl number fluids, i.e. liquid metals, heat diffuses much faster than momentum
flow (remember Pr = v/a<<1) and the velocity boundary layer is fully contained within the
thermal boundary layer. On the other hand, for high Prandtl number fluids, i.e. oils, heat diffuses
much slower than the momentum and the thermal boundary layer is contained within the
velocity boundary layer.

1.2.2.2 Natural Convection

In natural convection, the fluid motion occurs by natural means such as buoyancy. Since
the fluid velocity associated with natural convection is relatively low, the heat transfer
coefficient encountered in natural convection is also low.

Mechanisms of Natural Convection

Consider a hot object exposed to cold air. The temperature of the outside of the object will
drop (as a result of heat transfer with cold air), and the temperature of adjacent air to the object
will rise. Consequently, the object is surrounded with a thin layer of warmer air and heat will
be transferred from this layer to the outer layers of air. The temperature of the air adjacent to
the hot object is higher, thus its density is lower. As a result, the heated air rises. This movement
is called the natural convection current. Note that in the absence of this movement, heat transfer
would be by conduction only and its rate would be much lower.

Grashof Number
Grashof number is a dimensionless group. It represents the ratio of the buoyancy force
to the viscous force acting on the fluid:

Figure 1.5, Velocity and temperature profile for natural convection flow over a hot vertical plate

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Natural Convection over Surfaces
Natural convection on a surface depends on the geometry of the surface as well as its orientation.
It also depends on the variation of temperature on the surface and the thermo physical properties
of the fluid. The velocity and temperature distribution for natural convection over a hot vertical
plate are shown in above figure.

Note that the velocity at the edge of the boundary layer becomes zero. It is expected since the
fluid beyond the boundary layer is stationary. The shape of the velocity and temperature
profiles, in the cold plate case, remains the same but their direction is reversed.

Natural Convection Correlations

The complexities of the fluid flow make it very difficult to obtain simple analytical relations for
natural convection. Thus, most of the relationships in natural convection are based on
experimental correlations. The Rayleigh number is defined as the product of the Grashof and
Prandtl numbers:

The Nusselt number in natural convection is in the following form:

Where the constants C and n depend on the geometry of the surface and the flow.

These relationships are for isothermal surfaces, but could be used approximately for the case of
non-isothermal surfaces by assuming surface temperature to be constant at some average value.

1.2.3 Radiation
Radiation is the third mode of heat transfer. This mode of heat transfer does not require any
medium for heat transfer. Every matter having a temperature above absolute zero will emit
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves called thermal radiations. It is the same way the
energy of the sun reaches us.

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Stefan- Boltzmann Law

𝑞 = 𝐴𝛿𝑇𝑠⁴
Where: Ts is the absolute temperature of surface

δ is the proportionality constant

A is the area of the surface emitting

1.3 Types of Flow

The flow in boundary layer starts as smooth and streamlined which is called laminar flow. At
some distance from the leading edge, the flow turns chaotic, which is called turbulent and it is
characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion.

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region which is called
transition region.

The velocity profile in the laminar region is approximately parabolic, and becomes flatter in
turbulent flow.

The turbulent region can be considered of three regions: laminar sub layer (where viscous
effects are dominant), buffer layer (where both laminar and turbulent effects exist), and
turbulent layer.

The intense mixing of the fluid in turbulent flow enhances heat and momentum transfer between
fluid particles, which in turn increases the friction force and the convection heat transfer
coefficient.

1.4 Non-dimensional Groups

In convection, it is a common practice to non-dimensionalize the governing equations and
combine the variables which group together into dimensionless numbers (groups).

Nusselt number: non-dimensional heat transfer coefficient

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Where δ is the characteristic length, i.e. D for the tube and L for the flat plate. Nusselt number
represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid as a result of convection relative to
conduction across the same fluid layer.

Reynolds number: ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in the fluid

At large Re numbers, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the density and the velocity
of the fluid, are large relative to the viscous forces; thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the
random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid (turbulent regime).

The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical Reynolds
number. For flat plate the critical Re is experimentally determined to be approximately Re
critical = 5 x105.

Prandtl number: measure of relative thickness of the velocity and thermal boundary layer

Where fluid properties are:

Mass density: p, (kg/m3) specific heat capacity: Cp (J/kg. K)

Dynamic viscosity: g, (N. s/m2) kinematic viscosity: v, g/p (m2/s)

Thermal conductivity: k, (W/m. K) thermal diffusivity: a, k/ (p.Cp) (m2/s)

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 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO HEAT EXCHANGER

2.1 Heat Exchanger

Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that
are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat exchangers
are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and air-
conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power production in large
plants. Different heat exchangers are named according to their applications. For example, heat
exchangers being used to condense are known as condensers, similarly heat exchangers for
boiling purposes are called boilers. Performance and efficiency of heat exchangers are measured
through the amount of heat transferred using least area of heat transfer and pressure drop.

Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and conduction
through the wall separating the two fluids. In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient
to work with an overall heat transfer coefficient U that accounts for the contribution of all these
effects on heat transfer. The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat
exchanger depends on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies
along the heat exchanger.

2.2 Types of Heat Exchanger

Different heat transfer applications require different types of hardware and different

configurations of heat transfer equipment.

The simplest type of heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes of different diameters, as
shown in Figure, called the double-pipe heat exchanger. One fluid in a double-pipe heat
exchanger flows through the smaller pipe while the other fluid flows through the annular space

Figure 2.1 Parallel flow & Counter flow Heat Exchanger

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 between the two pipes. Two types of flow arrangement are possible in a double-pipe heat
exchanger:

In parallel flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at the same end and
move in the same direction. In counter flow the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at
opposite ends and flow in opposite directions.

Another type of heat exchanger, which is specifically designed to realize a large heat transfer
surface area per unit volume, is the compact heat exchanger. Compact heat exchangers enable
us to achieve high heat transfer rates between two fluids in a small volume, and they are
commonly used in applications with strict limitations on the weight and volume of heat
exchangers.

Compact heat exchangers are commonly used in gas-to-gas and gas-to liquid (or liquid-to-gas)
heat exchangers to counteract the low heat transfer coefficient associated with gas flow with
increased surface area. Examples of compact heat exchangers are car radiators, glass ceramic
gas turbine heat exchangers, the regenerator of a Stirling engine

In compact heat exchangers, the two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other, and such
flow configuration is called cross-flow. The cross-flow is further classified as unmixed and
mixed flow, depending on the flow configuration, as shown in the Figure;

(a) The cross-flow is said to be unmixed since the plate fins force the fluid to flow through a
particular interfin spacing and prevent it from moving in the transverse direction (i.e., parallel
to the tubes).
(b) The cross-flow is said to be mixed since the fluid now is free to move in the transverse
direction. The presence of mixing in the fluid can have a significant effect on the heat transfer.

Figure 2.2 Unmixed-flow and mixed-flow

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 2.3 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
The most common type of heat exchanger in industrial applications is the shell-and-tube heat
exchanger, as shown in Figure. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers contain a large number of tubes
(sometimes several hundred) packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat
transfer takes place as one fluid flows inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the
tubes through the shell.

Figure 2.3 Simple Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger

Following are the major components of STHX.

2.3.1 Tubes
Tubes are used to increase the surface area for exchanging heat. The outside dia ranges from

¼” to 2 ½”. Commonly used size is ½”, 3/4” and 1”.

2.3.2 Tube Arrangement Pitch
The tubes can be arranged inside the shell in several different ways.

1) Square Pitch
2) Triangular Pitch
3) Diagonal Square Pitch

2.3.2.1 Square Pitch

In this configuration the tubes are set in square pattern. This is shown in figure here. This type
of arrangement as shown is known as the square pitch. It has certain advantages and due to them
it is used in different applications.

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 Figure 2.4 Square Pitch

The one basic advantage of square pitch is that the dirty and fouling fluids can be used in this
type of arrangement because the tubes can be cleaned mechanically very easily. The heat
transfer rate is quite less than triangular pitch. The number of tubes because of this arrangement
is lower than other arrangement.

2.3.2.2 Triangular Pitch

In this type of configuration, the tubes are set in triangular pattern. This is called triangular pitch
as shown in figure below;

Figure 2.5 Triangular Pitch

Because of this configuration, the number of tubes in this type of arrangement is quite high as
compared to square and diagonal pitches and thus highest heat transfer rate can also be achieved.
The tubes having configuration of triangular pitch cannot be properly cleaned with a cleaning
bar, hydro blast or jetting. The dirty and scale forming fluids are not preferred to use in
triangular pitch arrangement.

2.3.2.3 Diagonal Square Pitch

The third type of tube arrangement is called diagonal square pitch. This is similar to square
pitch but different in the way that in this the square is tilted at an angle thus giving it the name
of diagonal square pitch. The arrangement is shown in the figure.

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 Figure 2.5 Diagonal Pitch

2.3.3 Tube Sheets

A pair of tube sheets are used to fasten the tube ends in its holes. It also prevents the mixing of
shell side fluid into the tube side fluid. Connection between the tube and tube sheet is called
tube joint. Tube joint may be welded or rolled press fitted.

2.3.4 Baffles
Baffles are simple plates which serves two functions; most importantly to support the tubes for
structure rigidity, preventing tube vibration and sagging, and secondly to divert the flow across
the bundle to obtain a higher heat transfer coefficient.

Baffles may be classified as transverse and longitudinal types. Transverse Baffles may be
classified as plate baffles and rod baffles. The single segmented and double segmented baffles
are most frequently used. They divert the flow most effectively across the tubes.

To improve the thermo hydraulic performances of STHXs helical baffles are used. These baffles
generate the spiral flow patterns and they are used as tube supports to induce the shell side fluids
spirally flowing across tube bundles, which facilitates large heat transfer rates. As a contrast,
rod baffles induce shell side fluids flowing longitudinally thus the flow resistances on the shell
side of rod baffles heat exchangers are considerably lower than the counterparts of STHXs with
segmented baffles.

Figure 2.6 Single-segmented & Double-segmented baffle

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 Round orifice baffles are also used as tube supports to generate longitudinal flow patterns on
the shell side because the gaps between the orifice baffles and tubes can induce the jet flows
along tubes. Trefoil-holes baffles are among the category of round orifice baffles, which are
normally applied in steam generators.

Figure 2.7 Trefoil-holes baffle

2.3.5 Tie-Rods
Tie-rods are the metal rods which support the baffles. Baffles have drilled holes through which
tie-rod is inserted and screwed at both ends into the tube sheet.

2.3.6 Channel Head

The part of the exchanger used to feed or collect the tube side fluid to or from the tubes is the
channel head.

2.3.7 Gaskets
Three types of gaskets are commonly used;

1) Asbestos gaskets
2) Soft iron/Aluminum gaskets
3) Metal covered asbestos gaskets

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are further classified according to the number of shell and tube
passes involved.

2.4 Tube side flow arrangement

2.4.1 Single (One) tube pass
When fluid enters at one end of tubes and leaves at the other end.

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2.4.2 Double tube pass
When fluid enters at one end, re-directed at the other and leaves the exchanger at the entering
end.

Figure 2.8 one shell and two-tube passes

2.4.3 Multiple tube pass

When the number of tube passes are more than two, it is called multiple tube pass.

2.5 Shell side flow arrangement

2.5.1 Single (One) shell pass
Fluid enters at one side and leaves at the opposite.

2.5.2 Double shell pass

A heat exchanger that involves two passes in the shell and four passes in the tubes is called a
two-shell-passes and four-tube-passes heat exchanger.

Figure 2.9 Two shell and four-tube passes

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 CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS
3.1 What is CFD
CFD stands for computational fluid dynamics. It was introduced in 1960’s when it was only in
the field of aeronautics and astronautics, but now it is becoming rapidly adopted methodology
for solving complex problems win modern engineering
practices. basically CFD is derived from disciplines off
fluid mechanics and heat transfer, but now it considered as
an important tool in the areas of chemical, civil and
environmental engineering.

Modern CFD evolved as integration of disciplines of fluid

mechanics, heat transfer and computer science as shown in
figure. Now here in the section below all of these individual Figure 3.1 CFD

discipline will be defined briefly.

3.1.1 Fluid mechanics

Fluid mechanics is study of behavior of fluids, either at rest or motion. Most of the times we
are interested in the fluids in motion, also called fluid dynamics. The behavior of fluid flow
influences processes that may include heat transfer and chemical reactions etc. Besides this fluid
behavior also shows the effect of flow on the forces and stresses generated in the conduit in
which fluid is flowing.

3.1.2 Mathematics
Characteristics of fluid motions are described through fundamental mathematical equation,
usually in integral or differential form. These equations govern the flow of fluid and allow us
to calculate the effects of fluid motion on a system, these equations will be discussed in later
sections of this chapter. This is where we need mathematics to solve and understand the
governing equations of fluid mechanics and CFD.

3.1.3 Computer science

In CFD all the governing equations are solved numerically and numerical method for these
equations need high computational power.

22
In order to solve these equations computer scientists, use computer programming languages to
convert the equations into computer program or software packages, which allows us to solve
all of the governing equations numerically while consuming less time and effort.

In order to make good use of CFD, user must have knowledge about fluid mechanics,
mathematics and all the other theory related to the problem he wants to simulate.

3.2 Basic Approaches to Solve Problems

Traditionally experimental and analytical methods were used to study veracious aspects of fluid
dynamics. The arrival of high tech computers, CFD has emerged as third method which can be
used to study fluid dynamics. As shown in figure, all of these three approaches or methods are
strongly interlinked and cannot work in isolation.

CFD needs verification of results either through

analytical methods or by experiments. Sometimes
results obtained from CFD can be ambiguous and
depicted picture could be unrealistic, the data from
CFD results must be verified to ensure that the result
are not defying physics.

Advantage of use of CFD is it allows us to visualize the

Figure 3.2 CFD Approaches
whole process through different pictures and
animations. Besides that, some of the designing processes are iterative, which means high
manufacturing and setup cost. In this case CFD not only reduces the project cost but also
reduces the time and effort required to get final result.

3.3 CFD Solution Procedure

With the advent of high power computers and large variety of commercial software, CFD has
become is easy even for new comers to this field of study. Commercial software has inbuilt
codes for simulations which can be used to get the CFD solutions.

These codes are usually structured around robust numerical algorithms that can tackle fluid-
flow problems. In order to get easy access to these codes CFD software are provided with use
interface called GUI, which allows us to get a sight into to the solutions as well as results.

The code that provides a complete CFD analysis consists of following three elements.

1) Pre-processor.

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 2) Solver.
3) Prost-processor.

domain of all of these elements is shown in figure.

Figure 3.3 CFD solution procedure

There are many commercial software available, which have all of these elements or any of these
elements. But the basic purpose of the software is to assist the user to get the final results by
requiring minimum effort, cost and time.

One of the most commonly used commercial software is ANSYS. This package contains
different modules or solvers for different types of solution required, but for the fluid flows
ANSYS FLUENT or ANSYS CFX is used. Along with different solvers, different pre-
processors and post-processor are also available for the sake of user friendliness. This all is to
be discussed in the coming few paragraphs.

3.3.1 Pre-processor
Pre-processor is used to meet all the prerequisites for the solver. These include a well-defined
geometry and generation of mesh or grid generation.

24
Both the processes of geometry and grid generation will be discussed separately.

3.3.2 Geometry generation

First step in any CFD analysis is the definition and creation of well-defined geometry.
Geometry that defines all the flow region, walls and solid regions. All the boundary
conditions are specified to the geometry before exporting to the solver.

ANSYS package have provides different modules for the geometry generation, which are.

1) Design modeler.
2) ICEM CFD.
3) BladeGen.

3.3.2.1 Design modeler

This module comes with the ANSYS package and is used to make the geometries or to modify
the existing geometries. Most of the people use this software to define different parts in the
geometry, parts like, walls, flow regions, solids and the other important features of the
geometry.

Sole purpose of design modeler is to make or define different parts geometry. The geometry
file from design modeler can be exported to different file formats like, parasolid, IGES and
STEP etc. User interface of design modeler allows the access to different features and option
on available to carry out he required operation while making a geometry. Main window of
design modeler is shown in figure.

Figure 3.4 Design Modeler

25
After making the geometry, design modeler also allows us to name different parts of the
geometry. The process of naming different parts is called “named selection”. Named selection
makes it easy to specify boundary condition in the solver later on. Process of specifying
boundary conditions will be discussed in description of solvers.

3.3.3 ICEM CFD

Like design modeler, ICEM CFD can also be used for making geometries. But its geometry
generation features are less user friendly than design modeler, but on the other hands it allows
us to generate mesh.

Most of the user make geometry in any other design software and then use ICEM CFD for grid
generation. Boundary condition types can also be specified within ICEM CFD before exporting
the mesh file to solver.

Figure 3.5 features of a sample problem

This geometry represents the setup for flow over to cylinders. The outer box represents fluid
flow zone and the cylinder represent solid domain. Rest of the features are labelled.

26
Besides using the software provided by ANSYS, one can use any other CAD software to make
geometry and export geometry file to ANSYS or any other solver. These CAD softwares
include SolidWorks, Catia, Proe, Creo and AutoCAD etc.

3.3.3.1 Grid generation

The is the second and most important step in the pre-process stage. It is the process of division
of domain into number of small volumes. Each volume is called an element. The accuracy of
CFD results is highly effected by number, types and distribution of elements.

Like geometry generation, ANSYS package gives numerous choices for grid generation as
well. Most commonly used are.

1) ANSYS grid generator, also called Tgrid.

2) ICEM CFD.

Along with them other commercial software like Gambit, Pointwise etc. can also be used for
grid generation.

As most of the users use ICEM CFD for grid generation, we have also used it for our project.
So only ICEM CFD will be discussed here.

3.3.3.2 Grid generation in ICEM CFD.

It is software which come with ANSYS package. As described earlier, it is used not only make
geometry but also for grid generation. Advantage of ICEM CFD over other software is that it
gives authority to make changes to geometry and generate mesh at the same time. While along
with these tasks, all the types of boundary conditions can be assigned before exporting the mesh
file to solver.

3.3.3.3 Types of meshes in ICEM CFD.

ICEM CFD can be used to make both structured (Sometimes also called hexa mesh) and
unstructured mesh (Sometimes called tetra mesh). Structure mesh gives better results but it
demands time and experience. Structured mesh is mostly used for 2D problems or for simple
geometries. Figure shows the example of structured mesh. Due to its better result it has a lot of
applications and it is used widely.

27
 Figure 3.6 Structured (Hexa) Mesh

On the other side tetra mesh is used when the geometries are complicated and intricate. It
consumes less time as compared to structured mesh but number of elements are increased for
same geometry to get same accurate results as compared to structured mesh. The problem with
tetra mesh is that is requires better local controls and it can give you unrealistic results. So the
interpretation requires more keen observation of results. Figure shows tetra mesh for the domain
in the problem discussed for the geometry generation.

Figure 3.7 Unstructured (Tetra) Mesh

Sometimes geometry is much complicated for only structured or unstructured mesh. The reason
is that the structured mesh is very difficult to generate and tetra unstructured need very small
size mesh in local area. The example is capturing the boundary layer, where pressure and
temperature gradients etc. are very large. In this case we use combination of structured and
unstructured mesh, this type of mesh is called hybrid mesh.

Figure 3.8 Hybrid Mesh

28
3.3.3.4 Assigning boundary conditions.
One of the advantage of ICEM CFD is that it allows users to assign the boundary condition to
the geometry before exporting it to solver. It makes our work easy when we are working in
solver and specifying different values to boundary conditions.

Different boundary conditions like domains or volumes (Solid or fluid), walls, interfaces, inlets
and outlets, symmetry and periodicity etc. can be assigned.

3.3.4 Solver
Solver is a software which solves the codes of CFD. These codes are the program which are
used to solve all the required equations in order to get the solution. As described earlier all of
the fundamental equation are solved numerically with help of a programming code. Solver
allows user to select and make use of required equations according to the physics of problem
which is being simulated.

Figure 3.9 Steps of Solution

Before initialization, some numeric values are given to the boundary conditions. This can be
done through GUI of solver. Boundary conditions for our problems are shown in the figure.

29
 Figure 3.10 Boundary Conditions

Before understanding the working of solver we need some knowledge of all the components
of flow figure shown earlier.

3.3.4.1 Initialization and solution method

Initialization acts as some input values for solution methods to get the final solution.

3.3.4.2 Initialization
Most of the CFD solvers are iterative solvers, they assume some value to each of the grid and
then start numerical iterations to get the final solution. The process of assigning this starting
values is called initialization. And these values are called initial conditions.

The value given as initial condition is purely arbitrary, it does not affect final results but the
time required to get final results of required accuracy can be increased or reduced by guessing
appropriate initial conditions.

 If the initial conditions are close to the final solution, the time required to get result with
required accuracy will be reduced.
 If given initial conditions are far away from reality, they time required to get the final
solution will be increased or in extreme cases the solution may crash.

ANSYS FLUENT allows us the give more accurate initial conditions. Some methods of
initializing the solution are given as under.

1) Standard initialization.
2) Hybrid initialization.
3) FMG initialization.
30
In standard initialization some initial condition, any of our choice, can be given to the solver.
This value is then assigned to every single element or grid. After assuming these values
numerical iterations start in order to get the final solution.

While in the hybrid initialization, some value is assigned to every element and then few
iterations are performed to get some refined initial conditions. Rest of the iterative process for
getting solution is same.

FMG initialization stands for full multigrid initialization. It is not used very often because it
requires more time in refining the initial conditions. It is used when standard and hybrid
initialization fail to give a reasonably stable input to solver, in other word solution crashes.
Unlike the other two, which can be applied by GUI of ANSYS FLUENT, FMG initialization is
applied ty TUI command “solve/initialize/fmg-initialization”.

3.3.4.3 Solution methods

After giving initial conditions, solver solves the fundamental equations, particularly Navier
Stoke equation, which are in differential form. ANSYS FLUENT gives different methods to
solve them, methods like SIMPLE, SIMPLEC AND COUPLED.

SIMPLE (Semi Implicit Method for pressure Linked Equations) solve pressure for the velocity
calculation for next step or iterations. In other word both pressure and velocity variables are
solved separately, first pressure and then velocity. SIMPLEC or SIMPLER is revised version
of SIMPLE with some pressure corrections added to get better results with reduced
computational time.

Other method which is used to solve the Navier Stoke equations in COUPLED scheme or
method. This method calculates both pressure and velocities in single step for each iteration.
This requires more memory (RAM) to handle all the variables at the same time.

Usually SIMPLE or SIMPLEC method give very much good results but take more iteration
steps to get the final solution but require less memory, while COUPLED needs less iterations
to get final results but more memory. It takes more time per iteration as compared to SIMPLE
or SIMPLEC. COUPLED schemes also gives better accuracy and more stability.

3.3.4.4 Convergence and residuals

This step is performed when solver is making calculations based on input data. Convergence is
a measure of imbalances in the results produced by calculations made by solver. Imbalance is

31
present in the variables which are dealt during calculations. Imbalances are also called as
residuals.

In ANSYS FLUENT the measure of residuals is given on GUI, in the form of a graph or
different lines. Each line in the residual graph represents individual variable. These residual
lines give a track of imbalances in the solution, fall in the lines represents decay in imbalances
while rise in the residual line means increase in instability and imbalances.

Sometime terms convergence or divergence are used to define the behavior or residual lines.
Fall in residuals is considered as convergence and rise is called divergence. Solution is
considered fully converged when residual lines become straight.

3.3.4.5 Checking convergence

Usually only straightening of residual lines is not enough to judge the convergence of solution.
We give different values to residual line to set convergence criteria. These values are based
upon the type of problem which is being solved. For incompressible flows, energy residuals
should be order of 10-6 while rest of residual lines should be around 10-3. Figure shows the way
to assign convergence criteria to residuals and to read them from the graph during the
calculations.

Besides these residual lines, different monitoring variables like drag, lift and static pressures
etc. can be used for further confirmation of convergence of solutions.

Sometimes residual lines do not meet the criteria of convergence, in this case fluxes like masse
flow and heat transfer must be checked manually. The error for the surface of minimum flux
must be less than 2 percent to get reasonable results. The figure is shown on the next page.

32
 Figure 3.11 Convergence checking

3.3.5 Post-processing
The process of extracting results is included in post-processing. Post-processing includes
obtaining final results in form of numeric values, graph, colors or animations etc.

Different commercial software are available for post-processing, like TECHPlot, Ensight and
FIELDVIEW etc. by ANSYS have its own integrated module which is called CFD post. Or
even FLUENT has its own post-processing module, which can be accessed through FLUENT’s
GUI.

33
 CHAPTER 4
FUNDAMENTALS OF CFD
In this chapter the equation that solver uses are discussed along with the methods used to solve
these equations.

4.1 Fundamental Equations

CFD is based on equations which govern law of conservation of physical quantities, like mass,
energy and momentum etc. and solvers solves these equations to get final solution. These
equations are called governing equations or fundamental equations of CFD.

As stated earlier, solver solves these equations numerically. In CFD differential form of
governing equations is used, these equations are solved for every single cell, element or mesh
in the geometry representing problem or system.

These equations are discussed one by one as under.

4.1.1 Continuity equation

This equation represents law of conservation of mass, which state that mass can neither be
created nor destroyed within system.

As CFD solver solves this equation for every single cell, which is representative of small
control volume. So for CFD solver, we can say that mass is conserved for every single and
each individual control volume or element.

In Figure small cube placed in the flow domain is representing an element (Control volume).
Many of these elements are combined to make full flow domain.

Figure 4.1 control volume with mass fluxes

34
Now for this element, final form of continuity equations is given as.

⃗)=0
𝛻. (𝜌𝑢𝑉

⃗ respectively.
In this equation u, v and w are x, y and z components of velocity 𝑉

4.1.2 Momentum equation

This equation represents law of conservation of momentum, also called Newtons second law of
motions. It states that, for a control volume with zero acceleration, net change in momentum is
zero. In other way, momentum can never be created or destroyed. Net momentum is always
conserved.

Momentum equation for each axis (For Cartesian coordinates x, y z axis) is solved
independently, then net momentum change is obtained by adding all of these momentums in
every direction.

Momentum equation for each direction is given as follows.

⃗ ) = − 𝜕𝑝 + 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 + 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

x-momentum: 𝛻. (𝜌𝑢𝑉 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦

⃗)=− +
y-momentum: 𝛻. (𝜌𝑣𝑉 + +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗ ) = − 𝜕𝑝 + 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧 + 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧 + 𝜌𝑔

z-momentum: 𝛻. (𝜌𝑤𝑉 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The term 𝝆𝒈 is for gravitational forces on the system. Equations written above are also called
Navier-Stokes equations, named after name of scientist who obtained these equations.

35
 Figure 4.2 stresses acting on a control volume

In these equations τ is shear stress.

This change in momentum is responsible for the forces which are exerted on the control volume
and tend to deform the shape of system.

These equations deal with body forces and surface forces. Body forces include forces due to
gravity and electro-magnetic forces while surface forces include pressure forces, reaction forces
and viscous forces due to shear stresses.

4.1.3 Energy equation

The equation for conservation of energy comes from first law of thermodynamics, which is
given as.

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 + 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒

The differential form of this equation is given as.

Energy equation: ⃗ ) = −𝑝𝛻. 𝑉

𝛻. (𝜌𝑒𝑉 ⃗ + 𝛻. (𝑘𝛻𝑇) + 𝑞 + 𝜙

Where e is internal energy per unit mass of system due to random motion of particles. Where
the dissipation function 𝝓, which represents effects due to viscous stresses, is calculated using
as

36
 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑤 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 2 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 2
𝜙 = 𝜇 [2 [( ) + ( ) + ( ) ] + ( + ) + ( + ) +( + ) ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
2
⃗)
+ 𝜇(𝛻. 𝑉

Here 𝝁 is called viscosity coefficient.

4.2 What is turbulence?

Turbulence in fluid refers to the three dimensional, unsteady motion of particles in practically
chaotic manner. It appears as random process that is completely unpredictable. This randomness
is not only in velocity, but also in other variables like temperature, pressure and concentrations
etc. Unlike laminar flows, there are limitations in mathematical representation of turbulent
flows.

Velocity of particles in fluid motion for both laminar and turbulent flows are given in the figure.

Figure 4.1 Laminar & Turbulent flow

As from figure, velocity profile in laminar flows is periodic thus can be represented by
mathematical equations. But on the other side in turbulent flows, velocity profile is not periodic
and cannot be represented by mathematical equations without making some assumptions.

Experiments have revealed that, in turbulent flows, the macroscopic fluctuations are
superimposed on a well behaved base flow. Base flow can be described by mathematical
equations while momentum equations and conservation of energy and mass applicable on
fluctuations.

4.2.1 Time and length scale

Importance parameters in defining these fluctuations are time scale and length scale.

37
Length scale is denoted by Δx. It is defined as the distance after which macroscopic
superimposed fluctuations repeat themselves.

So mathematically we can write velocity u as follows.

𝒖 = 𝒖(𝒙 ± 𝚫𝐱, t)

In the same way time scale is defined as time period over which fluctuations repeat
themselves while riding the base flow.

𝒖 = 𝒖(𝒙, t±𝚫𝐭)

To get in to the physics of time and length scale, assume there is a base flow with the velocity
of U (Shown in figure). and superimposed on it are recirculations, or also called eddies. During
the flow at some instant of time eddies emerge are the point a, and after time 𝚫𝐭 it reaches point
b. At the same moment at time 𝚫𝐭 new eddies will rise at point b.

Figure 4.3 Time & length scale

Presumably, eddy will cover distance 𝚫𝐱 to reach point b from point a while taking the time
𝚫𝐭. As eddies repeat themselves after time 𝚫𝐭 and distance 𝚫𝐱, these are time and length scale
of these eddies.

Now by simple mathematics, relations between time scale and length scale can be derived as
follow.

𝚫𝐱
𝚫𝐭 =
𝑼

4.2.2 Structure of turbulence

Nature of turbulence is chaotic. For engineers understanding this nature is very important, when
it comes to managing or controlling the turbulence.

38
Behavior of turbulent flows is governed by three dimensional Navier-Stokes equations. But,
unfortunately, analytical solution to these equations does not exist. The alternative to get
numerical solution, which requires a mesh to solve the equations.

Another phenomenon of energy cascade is very much profound in turbulent flows. Cascading
is defined as conversion of macroscopic turbulence to microscopic turbulence (At molecular
lever). Or in other words fluid loses its kinetic energy to internal energy, thus increasing
temperature of the fluid. The rate at which kinetic energy is converted into molecular energy is
called dissipation rate of turbulence.

4.2.3 solution to equations

Most of the CFD solver solve Navier-Stokes equation with the time average variables, thus
predicts time-averaged flow behavior. In order to solve equations, shear stresses and turbulence
are related to velocity gradients. This method of solutions is called eddy viscosity hypothesis.

Eddy viscosity hypothesis needs assistance of a variable which gives relation between kinetic
energy and dissipation rate in the turbulent flows. This variable is called eddy viscosity.

There are many models which provide solution to Navier-Stokes equation and energy
conservation equation like k-w, k-w sst etc., but one the most famous is k-ε model. Which is
two equation model, it means it uses two extra equations to solve the dissipation function 𝝓.
Which is given as.

𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑤 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 2 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 2
𝜙 = 𝜇 [2 [( ) + ( ) + ( ) ] + ( + ) + ( + ) +( + ) ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
2
⃗)
+ 𝜇(𝛻. 𝑉

Here 𝝁 is called viscosity coefficient.

And for k-ε model, two extra equations required are given as.

And

39
And eddy viscosity is given as

And modeling constants are given as follows

These values to constants are given as default by ANSYS FLUENT and are found
experimentally.

Until now we have been mentioning terms like grid, mesh, element or control volumes but we
have not described them. Here it is some brief discussion of these terms.

4.3 Grid or mesh

To solve any equation numerically we need set of points or nodes on which variables are
calculated. In other sense we need an array or set of points or nodes on which solver can solve
variables in the equations. The process distributing those nodes over the region of interest is
called grid generation or meshing process.

Meshing is the process in which region or domain is divided into smaller subdomains or
volumes. This is depicted in the figure.

Figure 4.4 Meshing, nodes

40
Here a large volume is divided into smaller volumes, shown by grid lines. Each of these small
volumes (Grid or elements) have some terms associated to them. These are shown in the
figure below.

Figure 4.5 Meshing elements

Scripts “m” and “n” are used to represents the position of nodes it the space.

Now shape of the grid or element is also of importance. Different commercial software have
inbuilt shapes for the grid.

Figure 4.6 Meshing shapes

It is advised to read about these types and also their use. All of types have their own pros and
cons, trade off must be made between them.

Besides the shape of element, size also have great importance when it comes to calculation time
and accuracy. Element size is kept small where pressure, velocity and temperature gradients are
high. When it comes to size control, most important area the flow near the walls with in the
boundary layer.

41
4.3.1 Near wall treatment
In the wall bounded flow, the emergence of boundary layer is observed. The most important of
boundary layers is velocity boundary layer. This layer consists of different regions which are
show in the figure.

Velocity boundary layer is important because different regions behave differently, thus need
different treatment. These regions are distinguished by a parameter called Y+. This parameter
is discussed in next few paragraphs. The parameter Y+ is wall function. CFD solver need the
first element, adjacent to the wall, with in some specific range of Y+. For most of the models
the recommended value is approximately zero to five.

Figure 4.6 velocity boundary layer

Figure 4.7 Graphical representation of Y+

42
Problem arises, when selecting the range of Y+, because for different regions the mathematical
equation for Y+ is different. Most of the solvers are capable of solving only the equations for
viscous sublayer which has different mathematical expression from equations for buffer layer.
this difference is shown in the following figure, which show graphical representation of Y+ in
different regions. +

For 0< Y+<10 is the region where there is linear relation between U+ and Y+. While after that
the relation become exponential. The term U+ and its effect on Y+ is given as under.

𝑢𝜏 . ∆𝑦1 . 𝜌
𝑌+ =
𝜇

𝜏𝑤
𝑢𝜏 = √
𝜌

And

𝜏𝑤 = 0.5 𝐶𝑓 𝜌 𝑢2

For Cf is given for internal and external flows as.

For external flows.

0.058
𝐶𝑓 =
𝑅𝑒 0.2

For internal flows.

0.079
𝐶𝑓 =
𝑅𝑒 .25

Here in these equations ∆𝑦1 is size of element perpendicular to wall. To calculate this distance,
the value of Y+ assumed from the range of viscous sublayer. But to get better results Y+ should
be kept close to one.

While U+ is given as.

𝑈
𝑈+ =
𝑢𝜏

Where U is free stream velocity.

Now for viscous sublayer.

43
 𝑈+ = 𝑌+

While for the log region, relations is governed by following equation.

𝑙𝑛𝑌 +
𝑈+ = +𝐵
𝑘

4.4 Methods for numerical solution of partial differential

equations
Different methods are available to solve the partial differential equation representing the fluid
flow. Most famous of them are discussed briefly as under.

4.4.1 FDM
The finite difference method is the oldest method and is also the easiest method to apply for
problems with simple geometries. The computational domain represented by grid or mesh is
solved by applying Taylor expansion series. Equations are solved at each grid point or node. In
this method all the variables are solved at the node.

4.4.2 FVM
This method is called finite volume method. In this method equations are solved and saved at
control volumes or elements. Each control volume is provided with a point or node at which
variables are places or stored.

Unlike FDM, FVM uses integral form of equations. Which are solved on the surfaces of the
control volume, not points or nodes. These values from surface are interpolated to the node or
point at the middle of each control volume.

This method is used for complex geometries. Modern commercial CFD solvers use code based
on FVM to solve heat transfer and convective flows.

4.4.3 FEM
Finite element analysis is used for the problems related to solid mechanics. Like FVM this
method also uses control volumes but instead of solving Navier-Stokes equation, it solves
energy theories for the material properties.

This is mostly used to stress analysis, vibrations due to loads and fracture analysis etc.

44
 CHAPTER 5

DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
The heat exchanger to be modelled was shell and tube heat exchanger. There are different
main parts of shell and tube heat exchanger.

1. Tubes
2. Baffles
3. Shell
4. Channel
5. Connecting pipes
6. Tube sheet

Dimension of all these parts along with drawings are listed below.

5.1 Tubes
The diameter of tubes is 0.623 in or 15.8mm. length of the tubes excluding bend was 56 in.
diameter of the outer tubes is 6.9 in and the diameter of inner tubes is 2.3 in.

Figure 5.1 Tubes

5.2 Baffles
The baffle used in the whole sets of simulations are,

1. Single segmented baffle

2. Trefoil baffle

45
 3. Cut trefoil baffle

5.2.1 Single Segmented Baffle

The cut used in single segmented baffle is 20% of the whole area. The portion to be cut was
related with the angle subtended at the center of the baffle and was symmetric around the
vertical axis. For different cuts the angle subtended at the center is different and for different
cuts the angle required at the center is given in the tables.

Figure 5.2 Single-segmented baffle

The distance between each hole of baffles or in other words spacing of tube bundle is calculated
and the detailed dimensions of the baffles hole layout is,

46
Horizontal distance between the holes is 2.88in

Vertical distance between the horizontal lines passing through the hole center is 2.3 in.

Figure 5.3 Single-segmented baffle with Cut

5.2.2 Full Trefoil Baffles

Distance between the center of holes is same as for single segmented baffles but here no cut of
area is made and instead a full baffle is used. Space for the flow of water is provided by making
or providing trefoils around the tubes passing through the baffles. Detail dimension of a trefoil
hole are given in the figure.

Figure 5.4 Full trefoil baffle

47
5.2.3 Cut Trefoil Baffles
These baffles are the combination of trefoil and singles segmented baffles i.e they have cut
area as singles segmented baffles and trefoil hole as trefoil hole baffle.
The dimension of trefoil hole is same as in full trefoil baffles and the area of cut is same as
that of singles segmented baffle i.e 20% of whole area.

Figure 5.5 Cut trefoil baffle

5.3 Shell
The internal diameter of the shell is 12 in and distance between the centerlines of inlet and
outlet pipes is 54.5 in while the overall length of the shell is 60 in. inlet pipe of the shell inlet
is 2.5 in away from the leading edge of the shell.

Figure 5.6 Shell

48
5.4 Channel
Similar to shell the internal diameter of the channel is also 12 in. inlet and outlet pipes of the
channel are 5 in away from the leading edge of the channel and the plate separating the in and
out fluid is 0.5 in thick and is located at the center of the channel.

Figure 5.7 Channel

5.5 Tube Sheet

It is the tube which connects the tubes with the fluid in the channel. The layout of the tube
sheet is the same as that of the baffles but there is not cut as in single segmented baffle.

Figure 5.8 Tube sheet

49
 CHAPTER 6
MODELLING TECHNIQUE & FABRICATION
6.1 MODELLING TECHNIQUE
Simple perceived modeling technique does not work for modelling in ANSYS. To model in
ANSYS you have to make geometry according to some specific requirements. In other words,
instead of making ANSYS to play on your pitch you have to play according to the rules
governed by the ANSYS.

e.g. to model simple flow in a straight pipe the idea that comes in mind of a lay man is that
you will make a pipe with a certain thickness and will then ask ANSYS to make fluid flow in
it. But it does not happen, in order to make flow happen in a straight pipe you will have to
make a cylinder equal to the length of the pipe and then in ANSYS you will name this
medium as a fluid and will next ask ANSYS to make a flow of fluid in this medium.

Figure 6.1 Modeling Technique

Similarly, to model a heat exchange in ANSYS simple geometry that we can use for
fabrication will not work but instead you will have to modify the geometry so as that all the
fluid medium is modeled or in other words the cavities in the shell, tube, baffles and channels
must be filled and modeled in such a way that they are distinguishable while modeling in
FLUENT.
This modification is done in following way.

50
6.1.1 Tubes
In order to make the tubes according to the requirements of the modeling the tubes are made
solid by first drawing circle and them extruding it.

As the tubes are U-tube and there are 5 tubes, so 10 circles were made and then extruded. At
one end of the extruded tubes again circles were made and then revolved to make u tube bent
of the tubes as shown.

Figure 6.2 Tubes

6.1.2 Baffles
In the same way as mentioned above the sketch of the baffles was first made in 2D and then
extruded to give it the thickness.

Figure 6.3 Baffle

6.1.3 Channels
Channels were also filled using solid entities made separately.

51
 Figure 6.4 Channels

Similar to the channel shell modelled was also filled which was separately made by using
Creo 3.0

Figure 6.5 Shell

6.2 FABRICATION
Fabrication of the model used for simulation was done in order to verify the simulation results.
The whole model was fabricated using MS steel. An effort is made to achieve the exact model
dimensions but however due to limited resources and technology available approximation is
done where the exact dimensions were not achievable. Whole fabrication was done locally at
Peshawar from a local vendor by giving guidance to him ourselves.

The basic components and steps of their fabrication are as follows.

52
6.2.1 Tubes
The tubes were made by using the steel pipe that is commonly used for designing purpose of
gates etc. as there are 2 rows of tubes having 2 passes so in order to bend the tubes at required
radius, 2 separate dies were required. Die for bending the inner parts was available in the market
and was therefore used to bend the pipe of inner row. The die required for the outer row was
not available so instead of bending the pipes in circular radius and approximate bending was
made.

6.2.2 Baffles
Baffles were also made of MS sheet that was first cut into circular shape and was then cut to
achieve the required cut. In simulation model there was no gap between tubes and baffles but
due to the requirement of moving baffles there are gaps between tubes and baffles.

Figure 6.6 tube and baffle assembly

6.2.3 Shell
Shell is made by using the MS sheet available in market. Sheet was cut according to the required
perimeter i.e length was equal to the length of the shell and width was equal to the circumference
of the shell. After cutting the shell was rolled into circular shape by using rollers and was welded
at the seam and was rolled again to smoothen out the dia variations.

The end of the shell opposite to tube sheet was actually round at the corners with the
closing end plate but this was difficult to make in practice so instead of the round the ends were
made straight.

53
 Figure 6.7 Shell body

6.2.4 Channel head

Dimensions of the channel head are same as that of simulation model and is made of MS. To
separate the inlet water from outlet water, two sheets were welded at side by side and gap
between them is filled with plaster of pairs.

Figure 6.8 Channel head

54
6.2.5 Tube sheet
To connect tubes with tube sheet nozzles are made on the tube sheet and tubes are inserted in
those nozzles and are staggered to prevent falling of tubes during vertical position.

Figure 6.9 Tube Sheet

6.2.6 Connection pipes

The connection pipes are used to connect the water supplies and nozzles are mounted at the
ends of these pipes so as to enable the plastic pipes to get attached to these connection pipes.
Valves are used in order to control the flow rates.

Figure 6.10 Connection Pipes

55
6.2.7 Tube collars
To attach the tubes with tube sheets collars were welded with the tube sheet and tubes are
inserted in these collars. The joints of these two are wrapped with the insulation tape to
prevent leakage.

Figure 6.11 Tube Collars

6.2.8 Blocking of gaps

To block the gaps between the tubes and baffles plastic plug were inserted in the gaps and were
covered with the insulation tapes.

Figure 6.12 gap blocking

56
 CHAPTER 7
ANSYS
After the model is developed in CREO 3.0, then it is imported to ANSYS for further solution.
Now the import to ANSYS and the road to final solution is a systematic procedure which
involves certain steps. These steps are listed below.

1. Design modification

2. Mesh generation

3. Final Solution and its settings.

Each of these steps is necessary for the final solution and each of these involves different
modules of ANSYS. Each of these step is explained below.

7.1 Design Modification

Design modification is done in design modeler. In this part we usually modify the design
according to our requirement and we also modify the design to simplify the solution. In our case
we simplified the design and by doing that we simplified the solution. The reason for the
simplified design is the limited capacity of our operating systems. The more complex is the
geometry imported in ANSYS, the more time it takes to generate mesh and solve the mesh in
Fluent. Apart from time it also requires a high processing machine for its smooth operation. We
did the design modification by introducing symmetry in our geometry.

Figure 7.1 CREO model without symmetry

7.1.1 Symmetry
This is done in the design modeler module of ANSYS. The basic purpose of introducing
symmetry is to simplify the design. In introducing symmetry, we cut the geometry into half
through the whole plane. By doing this we reduce the whole geometry into half thus reducing

57
the number of elements of the mesh that we are generating. Another advantage of introducing
symmetry is less complex geometry hence less computational time. After introducing symmetry
on one surface we have to tell ANSYS about that specific surface and we have to select it as
symmetry in the boundary condition and ANSYS itself will assume the same conditions on the
other half of that body as well. Our full geometry and its symmetrical view is shown in the
figure.

After we are done with the modification of geometry in design modeler the next step is
to import this geometry in ICEM CFD, another module of ANSYS which helps us in generation
of mesh.

7.2 Mesh Generation using ICEM

After we are done with the generation and modification of geometry the next step in the
simulation is to generate a mesh. In mesh generation we divide the geometry into small parts to
analyze different phenomenon.

Mesh can be generated by using different software like Gambit, Fluent Mesher and
ICEM CFD. In our project we used ICEM CFD because of its versatility and also because it is
user friendly and give a wide range of control to the user over the mesh.

When generating the mesh, we have to control the number of elements, number of
elements means the number of parts in which the geometry is divided for analysis. As the
number of elements increases the time required for simulation increases and we need a faster
computer to run the simulation. To control the number of elements we usually start with
generating a mesh which has a higher number of elements and we run the solution. Then we
start decreasing the number of elements.

58
 We keep on decreasing the number of elements and running the solution. After a certain
decrease in number of elements the solution gets affected by further decrease. That is the point
we want to find out. That is the point which have the minimum number of elements and which
provides the same solution as the mesh with greater number of elements. This is usually called
as checking of Mesh Independence. We see that how much mesh is independent of the solution
and whether it provides a similar or different solution as the number of elements in a mesh are
increased or decreased.

Types of Mesh:

There are 2 types of meshes which were generated in our project using ICEM CFD.
Those 2 types are.

1. Tetra Mesh

2. Prism Mesh

Tetra mesh was preferred because it is less time consuming as compared to hexa mesh. Hexa
mesh is usually used when we have more time and skill. Tetra mesh however is easy to manage
and less time consuming. Sometimes tetra mesh can give us unrealistic results as well.

Apart from tetra mesh we also used Prism mesh in our analysis. This type of mesh usually deals
with complicated flow areas and they are usually used to capture boundary layers as the flow is
more complicated on the boundaries so simple tetra mesh cannot give us the results that we
expect and because of that we use prism mesh to capture and let the software analyze the
boundary conditions properly.

The combination of these 2 types of meshes is called as Hybrid Mesh.

7.2.2 Steps in Generating Mesh

7.2.2.1 Named Selection
This is the first step in the meshing process. In this step we name all of the corresponding
surfaces. i.e. tube inlet, shell inlet, outlet, tube sheet etc. this part is important because we should
be able to identify all parts and each part have its own boundary condition in the end. The side
which was cut in the design modeler, the surface of that side is also selected and named as
symmetry.

59
7.2.2.2 Tetra Mesh generation
Robust Octree
After the named selection is over, the next step is to create an initial mesh. It is
commonly called as Robust Octree mesh. It distributes the geometry into small pieces and
generate a rough mesh. Another thing we do is we create a density in areas which from where
flow is entering or leaving the system. i.e. tube and shell inlets and outlets. This density creates
a denser mesh which helps the solver to analyze the complicated flow in these areas. As this
mesh is rough, in order to save time, we delete the volume mesh of this robust octree mesh to
reduce the number of elements and make the next step quicker. After deleting the volume mesh
we are left with only surface mesh and number of elements is around 2 to 3 Lac according to
our settings. After this is done then we check the quality of this mesh. If the quality is above
0.35-0.4 then we proceed to the next step. If not then we improve the quality using different
smoothing techniques.

Quick Delaunay
The next step is to refine this mesh and upgrade this mesh. We also introduce the volume
mesh again in this step. This mesh is called as Quick Delaunay. The volume mesh produced
in this step is much finer than in the robust octree. This change increases the number of elements
in our mesh because of the volume mesh introduced and also because the old mesh is reshaped.
The quality drops after the mesh is rebuilt. It should be greater than 0.2 according to literature
review. In our case it was between 0.25 and 0.30. The number of elements in our case after
robust Octree was around 1.5-2 million. After this step the tetra mesh looks like as shown in the
figure below.

Figure 7.3 Tetra Mesh

60
Prism
The last step in the mesh generation is generation of prism. This is used to capture
boundary layers because the flow on the boundaries is complicated and simple tetra mesh cannot
be used to analyze the flow. Prism mesh increases the number of elements and prism layers are
usually kept more than 10 for better results. In our case the number of elements went around 3-
3.5 million after prism and the quality was between 0.05-0.15. according to literature review
the quality after prism should be above 0.05. The process of mesh generation is complete after
the prism. The figure below shows how the prism mesh looks like.

Figure 7.4 Prism Layer

The final mesh after the development of prism and tetra mesh is the combination of both
these mesh. This is called as Hybrid Mesh. The hybrid mesh is shown in the figure below in
which both tetra and prism mesh are present. The mesh around the boundaries is prism mesh
while the rest is tetra mesh.

Figure 7.5 Hybrid Mesh

61
7.2.2.3 Boundary Conditions
After we are done with the generation of mesh, we define the different conditions at
different places of the geometry. We define the shell to be filled by liquid, tube to be filled by
liquid. We define shell outer boundary as a wall. Then we define the baffles as solid. We also
define different conditions at the inlet and outlet of the shell and tube i.e. whether the inlet is
mass flow or velocity flow and the outlet is pressure outlet etc. we also give the symmetry
boundary condition to the symmetrical side. The figure below shows how the boundary
conditions are given and how the table looks like.

Figure 7.6 Defining Boundary condition

7.2.2.4 Export to Fluent

After the boundary conditions are defined and we know the inlet and outlet conditions
and solid and liquid parts in the geometry, this geometry can then be taken to fluent for further
analysis. In fluent we give the values to inlet and outlet conditions and how the solution will
run etc. for this we export this mesh to fluent from ICEM CFD. After we are done with export
we can open fluent in the ANSYS workbench and we will load the mesh in fluent. The next
section describes how we will start our work in fluent up until the end.

62
7.3 Solving in Fluent
The mesh is opened in fluent when it meets the required quality and skewness criterion.
If the quality is less than what is mentioned above, Fluent will either not run the solution or it
will give us wrong results consuming more time than expected in the process as well so it is
very important that the mesh is up to the mark in terms of quality and skewness. There are
several things we have to follow in Fluent which leads to the solution. These are explained in
the order in which they are done.

7.3.1 Scaling
The first step after importing the mesh into Fluent is its scaling. Scaling means that the
units of measurements we used in ICEM to make the mesh must also be used in Fluent for the
analysis. We used millimeters in ICEM so after importing to Fluent we used scaling to change
the units in Fluent from meters to millimeters.

7.3.2 Equations and Models Used

We use the basic energy equation for our analysis. In addition to this we also have to tell Fluent
whether our analysis will be of streamline flow or turbulent flow. Since streamline flow is
simple we do not have to select any further model but in case of turbulent flow we have to select
different turbulence models. The model we used for our analysis was K-epsilon standard wall
function. The choice of the model was based on literature review.

7.3.3 Materials
This is the part in which we define which materials we will use for the analysis. The liquid we
are using will be air, water or some oil and also the material of the solid portion. We defined
the liquid portion as water and solid portion as steel.

7.3.4 Cell Zone Conditions

In this part we define the materials of the bodies which we defined in ICEM as solid and fluid.
These are the parts like the baffles, the fluid inside the tube and the shell. The materials are the
same as selected above i.e. water for liquid and steel for solid.

7.3.5 Boundary Conditions

This part tells ANSYS what should be the conditions at the inlets and outlets and also the
conditions of the different parts of the geometry. In normal conditions if the mesh is built with
the help of fluent mesher we have to define each and every part in this section, like defining
interfaces, coupled sections etc. Since we developed the mesh in ICEM, we already defined two
sided walls as interfaces and the inlets are defined as mass flow inlets while the outlets are

63
defined as pressure outlets. There are 2 inlets and 2 outlets. Tube inlet, outlet and shell inlet,
outlet. Values of mass flow given at the inlet are as follows.

 Mass flow rate at tube inlet is 0.2 kg/sec.

 Mass flow rate at shell inlet is 0.4 kg/sec.

7.3.6 Solutions Methods

In this part we tell Fluent which type of method it uses for the solution. There are four solution
methods in total. These are SIMPLE, SIMPLEC, PISO & Coupled. SIMPLE and SIMPLEC
takes more iterations to converge while Coupled takes more time per iteration and less iterations
to converge. We used SIMPLE and SIMPLEC solution methods due to their good results
according to literature review. Other than this the pressure, momentum, turbulent kinetic energy
and the total energy are all kept at second order because it provides better results as compared
to first order.

7.3.7 Solution Initialization

There are two types of initialization. One is standard and other is hybrid. We mostly used hybrid
due to its effective results according to the literature review.

7.3.8 Run Calculations

This is the part where we start the solution in Fluent and Fluent reaches to the solution by
running calculations one after another. It runs the calculations and we have to define the number
of iterations i.e. number of times Fluent will run the solution again and again until the results
come out correct. In this section we first check the case in which we check if there is anything
required in the solution or not, after that we decide the number of iterations to run and then we
start the solution. The figure below shows the overview of how the fluent looks like and how
its controls are.

After running a large number of iterations, we continuously observe the pattern of

different parameters like energy, pressure, continuity equation etc. when the graph of all of
these variables gets straight i.e. all of these variables become approximately constant and with
each iteration their values do not change much that is when the solution converges. Now after
the solution is complete the next step is to observe that solution. This is done in another module
of ANSYS called as CFD post.

7.4 Result Observation

The results are observed using CFD post which is another module of ANSYS.

64
7.4.1 CFD Post
This is the part where the observation is done and results are observed. After the solution
is converged we need to see if the solution is correct or not and whether there is any kind of
irregularity in the solution. There are certain things which we can do in CFD post which helps
us in observing the result. These are explained below.

7.4.1.1 Function Calculation

We can calculate values of different parameters in CFD post. These include temperature,
pressure, turbulent kinetic energy, temperature gradient, density, viscosity and so many more
variables. Since our main concern is with temperature we only calculated unknown
temperatures like temperature at shell and tube outlets. The figure below shows the function
calculation of temperature at the outlets of 16 segmented baffles geometry.

Figure 7.7 Function Calculations

7.4.1.2 Velocity Streamlines

Apart from the function calculation we can draw velocity streamlines in CFD post which
tells us the path of the flow of the liquid inside the geometry. This is a very effective way to
study about the behavior and path of the flow. CFD post can also move these streamlines in an
animation which tells us how the fluid moves from the inlet to the outlet. A typical velocity
streamline of 16 single segmented baffles is shown below.

Figure 7.8 Velocity Streamlines

65
7.4.1.3 Temperature Contours
The next thing which the CFD post can tell us is how the temperature vary across the
geometry. This is called as temperature contours and with the help of this we can study how the
temperature is varying and where the temperature is high or low. A temperature contour of 16
baffle geometry is shown below. The results are read by the indicated scale also called as legend.

Figure 7.9 Temperature contours

66
 Chapter 8
CFD RESULTS
Different baffles design with 20 percent cut were analyzed. The idea was to vary the number
of baffles and baffle design to check different performance parameters.

The number of baffles were increased from 04 to 16 with the increment of two. i.e. Analyzed
number of baffles are 04, 06, 08, 10, 12 ,14 and 16. According to literature, which says that
the ratio of baffle spacing to the shell should be around unity, minimum number for our heat
exchanger was 4. Baffle spacing is measured between centers of two consecutive baffles. This
baffle spacing to diameter ratios for different number of baffles are given in the following
table. Dimensions are in millimeters.

No of baffles 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
(Nb)

Baffle spacing 385 221 165.3 127 102.4 85.5 73.5

(B)

B/Ds ratio 1.6 0.72 0.542 0.4166 0.335 0.280 0.2411

The heat transfer in the shell and tube can be enhanced by increasing cross flow over tube
bundles, increasing the flow area over tubes and reducing the recirculation zones. Effect of
different baffle types will be discussed individually as under.

8.1 Single Segmented Baffles

Effect of baffle spacing, thus number of baffles, on the shell side flow of shell and tube heat
exchanger was studied. And improvements in the heat transfer and the trends of pressure
drops were observed.

The baffle we chose for analysis have 20 percent cut and is shown in figure.

67
The effect of single baffles on the shell side flow characteristics is briefly discussed as under.

8.1.1 FLUID Flow Over Tubes

Heat transfer is Figure 8.1 Single Segmented Baffle maximum for the
cross flow. Well distributed cross flow
allows to get maximum heat transfer possible.

By studying velocity vectors, it is obvious that the cross flow is

maximum along the downstream baffles. This cross flow can be
enhanced by decreasing the baffle spacing. i.e. by increasing the
number of baffles. This effect is depicted in the figures below.
These figures show the velocity vector for shell flow while
passing over two adjacent baffles.

As from the velocity vectors of the four and six baffles, it can be
seen that the most of the cross flow is pushed towards the
downstream baffle. This results as stagnant fluid between
upstream baffle and cross flow. The stagnant fluid does not
Figure 8.2 Plane for longitudinal
contribute much toward heat transfer, instead this results as vector plots

localized zones with relatively higher temperature than the mean

shell fluid temperature. As we further increase the number of
baffles, the stagnant region diminishes with a significant positive effect on the main stream
cross flow.

68
 Figure 8.3 Longitudinal Vector Plots for four Baffles Figure 8.4 Longitudinal Vector Plots for single Baffles

By increasing the number of baffles stagnant zone are well treated but on the other side
recirculation zones start to emerge at the place of stagnation zones, these recirculation zone
hinder the contact of main shell side main stream flow with the tube walls. Heat transfer is
largely increased due to enhanced cross flows. Following figure for higher number of baffles
show this effect.

Figure 8.5 Longitudinal Vector Plots for eight Baffles Figure 8.6 Longitudinal Vector Plots for ten Baffles

69
 Figure 8.7 Longitudinal Vector Plots for twelve Baffles Figure 8.8 Longitudinal Vector Plots for fourteen Baffles

Along with the increase in the cross flow and velocity of cross flow stream, recirculation
zones also vanish. These are recirculation on the longitudinal plan on the shell. After a certain
number of baffles, the effect of increasing number of baffles start to fade and effect on shell
side flow almost remains the same. This can be observed by comparing the vector plots for 14
and 16 baffles.

Figure 8.9 Longitudinal Vector Plots for sixteen Baffles

Velocity stream lines of corresponding vector plots are shown in following figures.

70
Figure 8.10 Streamlines for four Baffles

Figure 8.11 Streamlines for six Baffles

Figure 1.12 Streamlines for eight Baffles

71
 Figure 8.13 Streamlines for ten Baffles

Figure 8.14 Streamlines for twelve Baffles

Figure 8.15 Streamlines for fourteen Baffles

72
 Figure 8.16 Streamlines for sixteen Baffles

As discussed in last few paragraphs, segmented baffles reduce recirculation zones and
enhance the cross flow over the tubes. But, along with the longitudinal recirculation zones,
recirculation zones in the radial direction also exist.

Radial recirculation zones grow from the center of shell and

increase as the radial distance is increased. Recirculation
zones are strongest near the shell walls. Velocity vectors are
made on the plan shown in the figure, this plan is made at
transverse cross section between two baffles as the flow
between the all of the baffles is periodic.

In the following figures velocity vectors are shown, they

depict the path of main stream cross flow and the
recirculation zones. These velocity vectors show that most Figure 8.17 Plan for Radial Vector Plots
of the cross flow remains at the center of the shell, away
from the shell walls. As the radial distance increases the cross flow becomes weaker and
recirculation zones start to appear.

Velocity vectors for four and six baffles show almost no main stream cross flow. It does not
mean there is no cross flow, when we compare radial and longitudinal vector plots, the reason
becomes obvious. For four and six baffles the cross flow is pressed closed to the downstream
baffles, thus does not pass the transverse section on which radial recirculation zones are
shown. As result the cross flow is shown as vectors coming out of the plan i.e. the cross flow
exists but in the direction out of the plan. But as the number of baffles are increased baffle

73
spacing decreases and the width of main stream cross flow also increases and reaches the plan
drawn for radial recirculation zones.

Figure 8.18 Radial Vector Plots for four Baffles Figure 8.19 Radial Vector Plots for six Baffles

Figure 8.20 Radial Vector Plots for eight Baffles Figure 8.21 Radial Vector Plots for ten Baffles

74
 Figure 8.22 Radial Vector Plots for twelve Baffles Figure 8.23 Radial Vector Plots for fourteen Baffles

Figure 8.24 Radial Vector Plots for sixteen

Baffles

These plots indicate that for four baffles there are some stagnant zones near the shell wall
which are converted to recirculation zones when number of baffles are increased.

75
Recirculation zones pass over tubes repeatedly hindering the contact of flowing fluid with the
tube walls, thus impeding the heat transfer.

Although main stream cross flow is improved by increasing the number of baffles but, still
most of the main stream cross flow is passing over only the tubes which are closer to the
center. The tubes near the shell walls are surrounded by recirculation zones and contribute
very small towards the heat transfer form tube fluid to shell fluid. So at one stage the effect of
number of baffles on the radial recirculation zones starts to die, to address this problem some
changes in the baffles design are needed.

When we consider the heat transfer and the pressure drops different number of baffles, the
results are discussed here.

8.1.2 Effect On Heat Transfer.

The graphical relation between number of baffles and heat transfer is given in the graph.

This graph shows that the heat transfer is improved significantly by the increasing number of
baffles but after some certain value this improvement starts to die. The reason is linked to the
effects of baffles on the shell side fluid flow. As shown earlier, after a certain number of
baffles the increase in number of baffles start to lose the capability of improving recirculation
or stagnant zones. This no further improvement is made in the convective heat transfer.

In our case heat transfer was largely improved for by increasing number of baffles were
increased from four to twelve, but after that adding more baffle does not increase heat transfer
that much effectively.

76
One another reason is the decrease in temperature difference between tube and shell side fluid
temperature. as the temperature difference is reduced the effect of baffles also decreases. The
temperature contours 12 baffles are shown in the figure. These contours are made on
symmetry plane.

Figure 8.25 Temperature Contours for twelve Baffles

8.1.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.

Trends for overall heat transfer coefficient were same as the heat transfer rate. In fact, heat
transfer is function of overall heat transfer coefficient, which depends on flow patterns of fluid
in both tubes and shell. As adding baffle changes the characteristics of shell side flow only, so
overall heat transfer coefficient is directly improved by enhancing shell side fluid flow.

As describe in last section, after certain number baffles the recirculation zones and stagnant
zones become constant and baffles lose the ability to reduce them. This results in almost
constant overall heat transfer coefficient from ten to sixteen baffles.

𝑤
Units of overall heat transfer coefficient are as 𝑚2 𝑘.

77
8.1.4 Pressure Drops
Sometimes when we are interested in the power to supply the fluid to shell. For this purpose,
the variable that controls that governs the pump power is pressure. By increasing the number
of baffles the heat transfer increases but on the other side pressure drop across the shell also
increases.

Unlike the heat transfer, the pressure drops keep on increasing with the increase in number of
baffles. The graph for number of baffles vs pressure drop is almost parallel.

8.1.5 Thermohydraulic Performance

Thermohydraulic performance is defined as ration of heat transfer to the pressure drops.
Higher the value better the performance of a heat exchanger is. It is parameter that tells us
about the power requirements required to pump the fluid and total heat exchanged between
fluids.

While observing number of baffles vs heat transfer one might suggest twelve or more baffles
for more heat transfer. But when we involve thermohydraulic performance, we can select a
more effective heat exchanger with minimum cost to run pumps. Thus it allows us to reduce
the cost of process.

According to thermohydraulic performance the optimum number of baffles is ten. Up to ten

baffles performance increases but the starts to decrease. While selecting or designing
thermohydraulic performance is the most important parameter to consider.

78
8.2 Trefoil-Hole Baffles
There was on weakness with single segmented baffles, it did reduce recirculation zones but
were not able to eliminate them. Tube surface area are in front of upstream baffles was not
fully utilized due to longitudinal recirculation zones. If we were able to eliminate longitudinal
recirculation zones, outer tubes were not well exposed to shell side main stream cross flow.
To address these problems some changes in baffle design were made.

Some paths were left between baffles and

tube walls to allow the flow of shell side fluid
through them. These paths or holes are called
trefoil-holes and baffles are called trefoil-hole
baffles. Baffle cut was removed with no
clearances along the shell walls. Idea was to
maximize the fluid flow along the tube walls,
thus utilizing the maximum surface area for
heat transfer. High velocity jets through
trefoil-holes will also assist to increase overall
heat transfer coefficient.
Figure 8.26 Tre-foil Hole Baffles
Geometry of trefoil-hole baffles is shown in
the figure.

Effects of baffles are given as follows.

79
8.2.1 Recirculation Zones And Effective Area Of Heat Transfer
The weakness with the single segmented baffle was its inability to eliminate recirculation
zones, thus not utilizing all the heat transfer area. In case of trefoil-hole baffles all of the tube
surface area can be used even when recirculation zones exist.

Shell fluid, while passing through trefoil-holes, make a jet parallel to the tube walls allowing
to make use of maximum are for the heat transfer. This jet becomes weaker when it moves
towards downstream baffle. During the journey from upstream baffle to downstream baffle jet
loses its energy and starts to get separated from the tube walls. Some of the fluid from jet goes
deep into the shell and towards the shell walls and fills all of the volume in the shell.

When shell side fluid reaches downstream baffle some of the fluid passes through the next
trefoil-hole while rest of it strikes the baffle and is sent back. This fluid, which is sent back,
form recirculation zones. These recirculation zones go as far to shell walls and then fall back
in jet near the upstream baffle.

Streamlines drawn on symmetry for four baffles show jet is separated from the tube walls.
Thus tube surface area near the downstream baffles is not used very effectively. This area can
be used by if the distance between the baffles is decreased. This allows to make use of all the
area by creating another jet before separation.

Following streamlines are obtained at symmetry plan.

Figure 8.27 Streamlines for four baffles

80
 Figure 8.28 Streamlines for six baffles

Figure 8.29 Streamlines for eight baffles

Figure 8.30 Streamlines for ten baffles

81
8.2.2 Effect on heat transfer
Heat transfer is improved when we increase number of baffles up to ten. But then increasing
number of baffles does not affect heat transfer. The reason is described earlier flow separation
of jets from the tube walls have is related with heat exchange. The surface area for heat
transfer is fully utilized for ten baffles, going beyond ten baffles does not affect any jet
separation because all of the tube surface area is already used.

This is phenomenon is further supplemented by graph between number of baffles and heat
transferred.

8.2.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Overall heat transfer depends upon the average velocity of fluid over the tubes. This velocity
is maximum for ten baffles and by increasing this number to 12 or beyond does not have any
effect on jet average jet velocity over tubes. Ten baffles use almost all of the surface area of
tubes, when baffle count is increase to 12 the jet is reflected back as recirculating fluid to the
shell. Thus to improvements are made to overall heat transfer coefficient.

82
 𝑤
Units of overall heat transfer coefficient are as 𝑚2 𝑘.

Trefoil-hole baffles utilize heat transfer area (Tube walls) very effectively but jet strikes
downstream baffles with relatively high velocity. These high velocity jet strikes produce
vibrations in the apparatus and produce very large pressure drops. Along with the operation
cost, maintenance cost is also increase and noises are produce as well.

Another proposed design is discussed here, which will allow us to make use of maximum area
of heat transfer with less vibrations and pressure drops.

8.3 Trefoil-Hole Baffles with Cut

Single segment baffles with cut only was able to
use produce flow over the tube near the
downstream baffles, while trefoil-hole baffles
were good for flow near the upstream baffles due
to jets. The new baffle is designed which will be
combination of trefoil-hole baffle and single
segmented baffles with a cut and will be able to
enhance the flow near both upstream and Figure 8.31 Cut Tre-foil Hole Baffle
downstream baffles.

This new baffle is called cut trefoil-hole baffle and is shown in the figure. Like single segment
baffles with cut, cut tre-foil hole baffles are also provided with 20% cut. The effect of baffles
on the heat transfer are briefly discussed.

83
8.3.1 Area of heat transfer and heat transfer.
Shell side fluid flow is characterized by jet through tre-foil holes and main stream cross flow
over tube bundles. Best flow for heat exchange is the one for which jet meets the cross flow
before separating from the tube surface.

When four baffles were used jet almost lost its all of the energy before reaching cross flow.
The tube surface area between cross flow stream and the jet is not contributing very much
towards heat transfer. As the number of baffles were increased, cross flow was pushed toward
the upstream baffles and closer to the jet. This resulted in increase in heat transfer.

Add figure

Figure 8.32 Streamlines for four baffles

Figure 8.33 Streamlines for six baffles

84
Figure 8.34 Streamlines for eight baffles

Figure 8.35 Streamlines for ten baffles

Figure 8.36 Streamlines for twelve baffles

85
Jet met main stream cross flow when ten baffles were used. Adding more baffles does not
improve any heat transfer because there was no need to, because jet and cross flow has
already covered all of the area over tube walls, resulting in using maximum area and best flow
configurations for heat transfer.

Trends of heat transfer with baffle count is given in the graph.

8.3.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Overall heat transfer coefficient is improved by adding baffles but after that baffles do not add
further enhancement. The reason pretty much same as the heat transfer, shown in last section.

𝑤
Units of overall heat transfer coefficient are as 𝑚2 𝑘.

86
8.4 Graphical Comparison of Baffle Types

87
8.5 Legends

Figure 8.37 Legends for Velocity Vectors Figure 8.38 Legends for Temperature Contours

and Streamlines

88
 CHAPTER 9
PRACTICAL RESULTS
Practical model was made according to the Creo model that was used for simulations.
Although there were some niggles like clearances along the tube wall but for small heat
exchangers like ours these deviations do not matter a lot.

All possible arrangements were made to make the model as close as possible to the conditions
given in the simulations.

 Insulation was added to the outer body to reduce heat loss to the atmosphere.
 Length of the connecting pipes was kept as close to the creo model as possible.
 Channel head inlet and outlet were insulated from each other to minimize the heat
exchange between them.

9.1 Conditions During Test;

Practical testing was conducted between the last days of April and initial days of June. As the
season was hot, less heat exchange was expected between the shell fluid and environment.

9.1.1 Hot and Cold Water Supply;

Cold water for testing was taken directly from the tap and hot water was obtained from a
series of hostel geysers.

Cold water inlet temperature fluctuated between 301 and 303K while the maximum
achievable hot water temperature was 324K.

Mass flow rate of cold water that was achievable in our hostel facility was 0.24 Kg/s and
geysers were able to provide a hot water supply of 0.18Kg/s.

As the conditions of testing were completely different from those that we used in simulations,
so in order to compare the practical results with simulations, we performed simulations again
with the given conditions for the tests that we performed.

89
9.2 Results of Simulations
The out let temperature of hot and cold water were monitored for comparison with the
practical results.

No of Channel Channel Shell inlet Shell Q Effective U

Baffles inlet outlet outlet
Temp Watt ness
Temp
Temp Temp

10 324 312 302.5 311 9024.48 0.55814 6584.505

12 324 311.9 302.5 311.4 9099.684 0.562791 6864.007

Temperatures are in kelvin and U is overall heat transfer coefficient measured by NTU
method.

9.3 Practical Results

Practical results of the above simulations are

For 10 baffles

S.NO Channel Shell inlet Channel Shell outlet

inlet outlet
Temperature Temperature
Temperature Temperature

1 324 302.5 320.9 306.4

2 324 302.5 320.3 307.1

3 324 302.5 319.8 308

4 324 302.5 319.4 308.2

5 323.2 302.5 319 308.1

6 322.4 302.5 318.7 307

7 321 302.5 318.2 306.6

90
And for 12 baffles

S.NO Channel Shell inlet Channel Shell outlet

inlet outlet
Temperature Temperature
Temperature Temperature

1 324 302 318.6 305.1

2 324 302 318.2 305.8

3 324 302 317.4 306.2

4 323.7 302 317.1 306.6

5 323.2 302 316.5 307

6 322.4 302 316.2 306.5

7 320.3 302 316.1 305.9

Each of these readings are taken after approximately 90 seconds.

From the above readings it can be observed that after about 5 minutes the hostel geysers were
not able to supply hot water at constant temperature and hot water inlet temperature begin to
drop. While on the other side the temperature of cold water outlet increased as long as
temperature of inlet hot water remain constant. As the hot water temperature begin to drop
after 5 minutes and cold water outlet temperature was still rising, its suggsests that steady
state was not achieved. It was further supplemented by the fact that the heat lost by hot water
was not equal to the heat gained by cold water.

9.4 Problem and its Remedies

As the hot water supply was not constant after 5 minutes so to have a constant water supply
there must be a storage tank after geysers of capacity sufficient to provide hot water until the
steady state is achieved. To further improve the consistency of hot water, supply an instant
water geyser must be placed in line after the storage tank.

One another way of providing the hot water supply is to use close circuit so that water from
channel outlet should be used as inlet to the geysers which will reduce the burden on geysers
and will help maintain the constant hot water supply.
Clearances between the tubes and baffles should be eliminated by using advanced
manufacturing methods.

91
 APPENDIX
Temperature contours of single segmented baffles

92
93
Temperature contours of trefoil baffles

94
Temperature contours for cut trefoil hole baffles

95
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[2] B.I. Master, K.S. Chunangad, V. Pushpanathan, Fouling mitigation osing helixchanger heat
exchangers, in: Proceedings of the ECI Conference on Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning:
Fundamentals and Applications, Santa Fe, NM, (2003) 317-322

[3] B. Sunden, Computational Fluid Dynamics in Research and design of Heat Exchanger, Heat Transfer
Engineering (2007), 898-910, DOI: 10.1080/01457630701421679

[4] R. Mukherjee, Effectively Design Shell and tube Heat Exchanger, Chemical Engineering Progress
(1998), 1-17,

[5] Kakac, S. (Sadik) & Hongtan, L. (2000). Heat Exchangers: selection, rating and thermal design.

[6] Ender , O., & Ilker, T. (2010). Shell Side CFD Analysis of a small shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Energy
Conversion and Management, 51, 1004-1014.

[7] D.B. Rhodes, L.N. Carlucci, Predicted and measured velocity distributions in a model heat exchanger,
in: Int. Conf. on Numerical Methods in Engineering, Canadian Nuclear Society/American Nuclear
Society, 1983, pp. 935e948.

[8] M. Prithiviraj, M.J. Andrews, Three dimensional numerical simulation of shelland-tube heat
exchanger. Part I: foundation and fluid mechanics, Numer. Heat. Transf. Part A 33 (1998) 799e816.

[9] J. Yang, L. Ma, J. Bock, A. M. Jacobi, W. Liu, A Comparison of four numerical modeling approaches
for enhanced shell-and-tube heat exchangers with experimental validation, Applied Thermal
Engineering,65 (2014) 369-383.

[10] Q. Wang, Q. Chen, G.Chen, M, Zing, Numerical invertegation on combine multiple shell-pass shell
and tube heat exchanger wih continuous helical baffles, Inernational Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
52(2009) 1214-1222.

[11] J. D. Anderson Jr, Computional Fluid Dynamics: The basics with applications (1995).

[12] P. J. Pritchard, FOX and McDonald’s: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (8th ed.)

[13] J. Yang, W. Liu, Numerical investigation on a novel shell and tube heat exchanger with plate baffles
and experimental validation, Energy conversion and management 101(2015) 689-696

[14] Yonghua,Y.,Yuqi,c.,Mergqian,X.,Xiaobing,L.,Loan,J., & Suyi, H. (2015). Numerical simulation and

perfomance improvement for a small size shell and tube heat exchanger with tre-foil-holes baffles.
Applied Thermal Engineering, 89,220-228

[15] B. Sunden (2007), Computational Fluid Dynamics in Research and design of Heat Exchanger, Heat
Transfer Engineering, 895-897, DOI: 10.1080/01457630701421661

[16] J.H. Ferziger, M. Peric, Computational Methods Fluid Dynamics (3rd ed.)

[17] A. Jain, Prof. K.K. Jain, Prof. S. Patel, Comparative study of different CFD models to evaluate Heat
Transfer and Flow parameters in STHE, International Journal of Engineering Sciences and Research
Technology (2015), ISSN: 2277-9655.

[18] Ansys fluent theory guide. (n.d.). http://www.ansys.com.

96
[19] H.K. Versteeg, W. Malalasekera, An introduction to computational fluid dynamics: THE FINITE
VOLUME EDITION (2nd ed.).

[20] G. Biswas, V. Eswaran, Turbulent Flows, Fundamentals, Experiments and Modeling.

[21] J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer (10th ed.).

97
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER ............................................................................................. 6
1.1 Heat Transfer ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Modes of Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................... 6
1.2.1 Conduction .............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 Convection............................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.2.1 Forced Convection........................................................................................................... 8
Mechanism of Forced Convection............................................................................................ 8
Velocity Boundary Layer........................................................................................................... 9
Thermal Boundary Layer ........................................................................................................ 10
1.2.2.2 Natural Convection........................................................................................................ 11
Mechanisms of Natural Convection ....................................................................................... 11
Grashof Number ..................................................................................................................... 11
Natural Convection over Surfaces .......................................................................................... 12
Natural Convection Correlations ............................................................................................ 12
1.2.3 Radiation ............................................................................................................................... 12
Stefan- Boltzmann Law............................................................................................................... 13
1.3 Types of Flow................................................................................................................................ 13
1.4 Non-dimensional Groups ............................................................................................................. 13
Nusselt number: ............................................................................................................................. 13
Reynolds number: .......................................................................................................................... 14
Prandtl number: ............................................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................. 15
INTRODUCTION TO HEAT EXCHANGER ........................................................................................ 15
2.1 Heat Exchanger............................................................................................................................ 15
2.2 Types of Heat Exchanger ............................................................................................................. 15
2.3 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 Tubes ..................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.2 Tube Arrangement Pitch ....................................................................................................... 17
2.3.2.1 Square Pitch ................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.2.2 Triangular Pitch .............................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2.3 Diagonal Square Pitch .................................................................................................... 18
2.3.3 Tube Sheets ........................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.4 Baffles .................................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.5 Tie-Rods ................................................................................................................................. 20

98
 2.3.6 Channel Head ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.3.7 Gaskets .................................................................................................................................. 20
2.4 Tube side flow arrangement ........................................................................................................ 20
2.4.1 Single (One) tube pass ........................................................................................................... 20
2.4.2 Double tube pass ................................................................................................................... 21
2.4.3 Multiple tube pass ................................................................................................................. 21
2.5 Shell side flow arrangement......................................................................................................... 21
2.5.1 Single (One) shell pass ........................................................................................................... 21
2.5.2 Double shell pass ................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................. 22
INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS .......................................................................................................... 22
3.1 What is CFD .................................................................................................................................. 22
3.1.1 Fluid mechanics ..................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.2 Mathematics ......................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.3 Computer science .................................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Basic Approaches to Solve Problems ........................................................................................... 23
3.3 CFD Solution Procedure ............................................................................................................... 23
3.3.1 Pre-processor ........................................................................................................................ 24
3.3.2 Geometry generation ............................................................................................................ 25
3.3.2.1 Design modeler .............................................................................................................. 25
3.3.3 ICEM CFD ............................................................................................................................... 26
3.3.3.1 Grid generation .............................................................................................................. 27
3.3.3.2 Grid generation in ICEM CFD. ......................................................................................... 27
3.3.3.3 Types of meshes in ICEM CFD. ....................................................................................... 27
3.3.3.4 Assigning boundary conditions. ..................................................................................... 29
3.3.4 Solver ..................................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.4.1 Initialization and solution method ................................................................................. 30
3.3.4.2 Initialization .................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.4.3 Solution methods ........................................................................................................... 31
3.3.4.4 Convergence and residuals ............................................................................................ 31
3.3.4.5 Checking convergence.................................................................................................... 32
3.3.5 Post-processing ..................................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................. 34
FUNDAMENTALS OF CFD ............................................................................................................. 34
4.1 Fundamental Equations ............................................................................................................... 34
4.1.1 Continuity equation............................................................................................................... 34

99
 4.1.2 Momentum equation ........................................................................................................... 35
4.1.3 Energy equation .................................................................................................................... 36
4.2 What is turbulence? ..................................................................................................................... 37
4.2.1 Time and length scale ............................................................................................................ 37
4.2.2 Structure of turbulence ......................................................................................................... 38
4.2.3 solution to equations ............................................................................................................ 39
4.3 Grid or mesh ................................................................................................................................. 40
4.3.1 Near wall treatment .............................................................................................................. 42
4.4 Methods for numerical solution of partial differential equations ............................................... 44
4.4.1 FDM ....................................................................................................................................... 44
4.4.2 FVM ....................................................................................................................................... 44
4.4.3 FEM........................................................................................................................................ 44
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................. 45
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................................................. 45
5.1 Tubes ............................................................................................................................................ 45
5.2 Baffles ........................................................................................................................................... 45
5.2.1 Single Segmented Baffle........................................................................................................ 46
5.2.2 Full Trefoil Baffles .................................................................................................................. 47
5.2.3 Cut Trefoil Baffles .................................................................................................................. 48
5.3 Shell .............................................................................................................................................. 48
5.4 Channel......................................................................................................................................... 49
5.5 Tube Sheet.................................................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................................................. 50
MODELLING TECHNIQUE & FABRICATION .................................................................................... 50
6.1 MODELLING TECHNIQUE .............................................................................................................. 50
6.1.1 Tubes ..................................................................................................................................... 51
6.1.2 Baffles .................................................................................................................................... 51
6.1.3 Channels ................................................................................................................................ 51
6.2 FABRICATION ................................................................................................................................ 52
6.2.1 Tubes ..................................................................................................................................... 53
6.2.2 Baffles .................................................................................................................................... 53
6.2.3 Shell ....................................................................................................................................... 53
6.2.4 Channel head......................................................................................................................... 54
6.2.5 Tube sheet ............................................................................................................................. 55
6.2.6 Connection pipes ................................................................................................................... 55
6.2.7 Tube collars ........................................................................................................................... 56

100
 6.2.8 Blocking of gaps ..................................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER 7 ................................................................................................................................. 57
ANSYS ........................................................................................................................................ 57
7.1 Design Modification ..................................................................................................................... 57
7.1.1 Symmetry .............................................................................................................................. 57
7.2 Mesh Generation using ICEM ....................................................................................................... 58
7.2.2 Steps in Generating Mesh ..................................................................................................... 59
7.2.2.1 Named Selection ............................................................................................................ 59
7.2.2.2 Tetra Mesh generation ................................................................................................... 60
Robust Octree......................................................................................................................... 60
Quick Delaunay....................................................................................................................... 60
Prism ....................................................................................................................................... 61
7.2.2.3 Boundary Conditions ...................................................................................................... 62
7.2.2.4 Export to Fluent .............................................................................................................. 62
7.3 Solving in Fluent ........................................................................................................................... 63
7.3.1 Scaling.................................................................................................................................... 63
7.3.2 Equations and Models Used .................................................................................................. 63
7.3.3 Materials ............................................................................................................................... 63
7.3.4 Cell Zone Conditions .............................................................................................................. 63
7.3.5 Boundary Conditions ............................................................................................................. 63
7.3.6 Solutions Methods ................................................................................................................ 64
7.3.7 Solution Initialization............................................................................................................. 64
7.3.8 Run Calculations .................................................................................................................... 64
7.4 Result Observation ....................................................................................................................... 64
7.4.1 CFD Post ................................................................................................................................ 65
7.4.1.1 Function Calculation ....................................................................................................... 65
7.4.1.2 Velocity Streamlines ....................................................................................................... 65
7.4.1.3 Temperature Contours ................................................................................................... 66
Chapter 8 ................................................................................................................................... 67
CFD RESULTS .............................................................................................................................. 67
8.1 Single Segmented Baffles ............................................................................................................. 67
8.1.1 FLUID Flow Over Tubes ......................................................................................................... 68
8.1.2 Effect On Heat Transfer. ........................................................................................................ 76
8.1.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient. ......................................................................................... 77
8.1.4 Pressure Drops ...................................................................................................................... 78
8.1.5 Thermohydraulic Performance ............................................................................................. 78

101
 8.2 Trefoil-Hole Baffles ....................................................................................................................... 79
8.2.1 Recirculation Zones And Effective Area Of Heat Transfer..................................................... 80
8.2.2 Effect on heat transfer .......................................................................................................... 82
8.2.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .......................................................................................... 82
8.3 Trefoil-Hole Baffles with Cut ........................................................................................................ 83
8.3.1 Area of heat transfer and heat transfer. ............................................................................... 84
8.3.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .......................................................................................... 86
8.4 Graphical Comparison of Baffle Types ......................................................................................... 87
8.5 Legends......................................................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................................................................................. 89
PRACTICAL RESULTS .............................................................................................................................. 89
9.1 Conditions During Test; ................................................................................................................ 89
9.1.1 Hot and Cold Water Supply; .................................................................................................. 89
9.2 Results of Simulations .................................................................................................................. 90
9.3 Practical Results ........................................................................................................................... 90
9.4 Problem and its Remedies............................................................................................................ 91
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................... 92
Temperature contours of single segmented baffles .......................................................................... 92
Temperature contours of trefoil baffles ............................................................................................ 94
Temperature contours for cut trefoil hole baffles ............................................................................. 95
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................... 96

102