Airplane Performance

Dr. Brian Kish

1
 Big Picture on Airplane Performance
• Most important feature which defines an airplane’s suitability for a specific mission
– Ability of airplane to land and take off in a very short distance

– Ability to carry heavy loads long distances

– Ability to stay airborne for long durations

– Ability to fly fast

• These different missions generate requirements that are often directly opposed
• Regardless of the mission, performance sells airplanes
2
 Thrust vs Power Review

• All principal items of flight performance involve

steady-state flight and equilibrium of the airplane
• In turbojets, thrust is produced from the engine
• In propeller aircraft, the engine does not produce
thrust directly
– The engine produces power, which turns a propeller
– The propeller develops an aerodynamic force (thrust)
• Basic definitions and units:
Thrust = Force (lbs)
Work = Force ∙ Distance (ft ∙ lbs)
Work Force ∙ Distance ft ∙ lbs
Power = =
Time Time sec
Distance ft
= Velocity
Time sec
ft ∙ lbs
Power = Force ∙ Velocity
sec

3
 Thrust-Required Curves

• In straight, level, un-accelerated flight (SLUF), 𝐹thrustreq = 𝐷 and 𝐿 = 𝑊

• Thus,
1 2
𝐹thrustreq = 𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 ∙ 𝜌∞ 𝑣∞ 𝑆
2
1 2
𝐿 = 𝑊 = 𝐶𝐿 ∙ 𝜌∞ 𝑣∞ 𝑆
2
• Diving the two equations gives
𝐹thrustreq 𝐶𝐷
=
𝑊 𝐶𝐿
• Or
𝑊 𝑊
𝐹thrustreq = =
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷 𝐿 𝐷
• To generate points on the thrust-required curve (knowing 𝑊, 𝜌∞ , 𝑆, 𝑘)
1. Choose a value for 𝑣∞
𝑊
2. Calculate 𝐶𝐿 using 𝐶𝐿 = 1
𝜌 𝑣2
2 ∞ ∞
3. Calculate 𝐶𝐷 from the known drag polar of the airplane: 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2
𝑊
4. Calculate 𝐹thrustreq using: 𝐹thrustreq =
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷
5. Plot 𝐹thrustreq versus 𝑣∞ 4
 Power-Required Curves

• Since 𝑃req = 𝐹thrustreq ∙ 𝑣∞

𝑊
𝑃req = ∙𝑣
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷 ∞
• From the lift equation with 𝐿 = 𝑊,
2𝑊
𝑣∞ =
𝜌∞ ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝐶𝐿
• So,
𝑊 2𝑊 2𝑊 3 1
𝑃req = ∙ = ∙ 3 2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷 𝜌∞ ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝐶𝐿 𝜌∞ ∙ 𝑆 𝐶 𝐶𝐷
𝐿
• Or,
1
𝑃req ∝ 3 2
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷
• To generate a power-required curve
1. Calculate 𝑃req using: 𝑃req = 𝐹thrustreq ∙ 𝑣∞ for each point on the thrust-required curve
2. Plot 𝑃req versus 𝑣∞

5
 Combination of Aircraft and Powerplant Characteristics

• Aircraft aerodynamic characteristics define the power and thrust required

• Powerplant characteristics define the power and thrust available

𝐷𝑝 ∝ 𝑣 2

1
𝐷𝑖 ∝
𝑣2

𝑃req = 𝐹thrustreq ∙ 𝑣
𝐷𝑖2 𝑣12 𝑃reqi 𝐷𝑖2 ∙ 𝑣2 𝑣12 𝑣2 𝑣1
2
= = = ∙ =
𝐹thrustreq = 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖 + 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑖1 𝑣22 𝑃reqi 𝐷𝑖1 ∙ 𝑣1 𝑣22 𝑣1 𝑣2
1

𝐷𝑝2 𝑣22 𝑃reqp 𝐷𝑝2 ∙ 𝑣2 𝑣22 𝑣2 𝑣23

𝑃req = 𝑃reqi + 𝑃reqp = 𝐷𝑖 ∙ 𝑣 + 𝐷𝑝 ∙ 𝑣 = 2
= = ∙ =
𝐷𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑃reqp 𝐷𝑝1 ∙ 𝑣1 𝑣12 𝑣1 𝑣13
1

Let 𝑣1 = 100 kts 1 1

𝐷𝑖2 = ∙𝐷 𝑃reqi = ∙𝑃 𝐷𝑝2 = 4 ∙ 𝐷𝑝1 𝑃reqp = 8 ∙ 𝑃reqp 6
Let 𝑣2 = 200 kts 4 𝑖1 2 2 reqi 1 2 1
 Angle-of-Attack and Thrust-Required Curves

• Different points on the thrust-required curve correspond to different angles of attack

• As we move from right to left on the thrust-required curve, angle-of-attack increases
– At high velocities, most of required lift is obtained from high dynamic pressure 𝑞∞ ; hence 𝐶𝐿 and
therefore angle-of-attack are small
– At low velocities, dynamic pressure 𝑞∞ is small; hence 𝐶𝐿 and therefore angle-of-attack are large

1 2
𝐿 = 𝑊 = 𝐶𝐿 ∙ 𝜌∞ 𝑣∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝑘𝐶𝐿2
2

𝐹thrustreq

7
 Thrust-Available Curves

𝐹thrustavail

• Thrust available for reciprocating engines

decreases with forward velocity
– Thrust at zero velocity (static thrust) is maximum
– At near-sonic speeds, the propeller tips encounter
compressibility effects resulting in the rapid deterioration
of thrust available

𝐹thrustavail
• Thrust available for turbojet engines is relatively
constant with forward velocity

8
 Power-Available Curves

Shaft Horsepower Available

• Power available for reciprocating engines 𝜂𝑝

THP
depends on propeller efficiency 𝜂𝑝 = SHP

• Power available for turbojet engines is calculated

using 𝑃avail = 𝐹thrustavail ∙ 𝑣
– Since 𝐹thrustavail is relatively constant, 𝑃avail is essentially
linear with forward velocity

9
 Analysis of Level Flight Performance Curves

• Maximum level flight velocity 𝑣ℎ

• Minimum level flight velocity 𝑣𝑠
• Maximum angle of climb (AOC)
• Velocity for maximum angle of climb 𝑣𝑥
• Maximum rate of climb (ROC)
• Velocity for maximum rate of climb 𝑣𝑦
• Velocity for maximum endurance
• Velocity for maximum range

10
 Climb Performance
• Up to now, we’ve assumed straight, level, un-accelerated flight (SLUF)
• We’ll eventually have to “move” the airplane (i.e. climb, descend, turn)
– Transform energy
– Add or remove energy
• Energy comes in two forms: potential and kinetic
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
• At constant energy, a pilot can trade airspeed for altitude to climb
• The pilot can add energy over time (using excess power) to climb
𝑑𝐸 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑣
𝑃= = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
– Can define specific excess power
𝑃 𝑑ℎ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑃𝑠 = = + ∙
𝑚𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
– Example: an airplane capable of 200 HP (at a given altitude) is only using 130 HP to
maintain level flight. This leaves 70 HP available (or in excess) to climb. The pilot can
hold airspeed constant and increase power to perform the climb.
11
 Climb Performance
• Two reasons to evaluate climb performance
1. Determine if an airplane can climb over an obstacle
2. Determine how quickly an airplane can climb to a specific altitude
• Angle Of Climb (AOC) is a comparison of altitude gained relative to distance traveled
– AOC is the inclination (angle) of the flight path 𝛾
– Maximum AOC occurs at the airspeed and angle-of-attack combination related to maximum excess thrust
• Rate Of Climb (ROC) is a comparison of altitude gained relative to time
– ROC is simply the vertical component 𝑣𝑣 of the airplane’s velocity vector 𝑣∞
𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑣∞ sin 𝛾
– Maximum ROC occurs at the airspeed and angle-of-attack combination related to maximum excess power
𝑣∞
𝐹thrustavail
𝐹thrustavail = 𝐷 + 𝑊 sin 𝛾
𝐷
= 𝑣𝑣

𝐹thrustavail ∙ 𝑣∞ = 𝐷 ∙ 𝑣∞ + 𝑊 ∙ 𝑣∞ sin 𝛾
𝑊
𝑑𝐻
𝑑𝑡

𝐹thrustavail ∙ 𝑣∞ − 𝐷 ∙ 𝑣∞ = 𝑊 ∙ 𝑣∞ sin 𝛾
𝑅𝑂𝐶 =

𝐹thrustavail ∙ 𝑣∞ − 𝐷 ∙ 𝑣∞ = 𝑃𝑠

𝑃𝑠 = 𝑊 ∙ 𝑣∞ sin 𝛾 𝛾
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑠
= 𝑣∞ sin 𝛾 = 𝑅𝑂𝐶 𝑑𝑥 12
𝑊 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡
 Climb Performance
• Both maximum AOC and maximum ROC use maximum throttle setting (Full Throttle for jets or Full PCL for propeller airplanes)
• Max AOC for a jet occurs at an airspeed and angle-of-attack combo close to the 𝐿 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 combo
• In contrast, max AOC for a propeller airplane occurs at an airspeed and angle-of-attack combo less than the 𝐿 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 combo
• Max ROC for a jet occurs at an airspeed greater than 𝐿 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 and at an angle-of-attack less than 𝐿 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
• In contrast, max ROC for a propeller airplane occurs at an airspeed and angle-of-attack combo close to the 𝐿 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 combo

Jet Propeller

Max AOC occurs

at 𝑣 and 𝛼
combination
related to max
excess thrust TE

Max ROC occurs

at 𝑣 and 𝛼
combination
related to max
excess power PE

13
 Climb Performance
• Velocity for maximum angle of climb 𝑣𝑥
• Maximum rate of climb (ROC)
• Velocity for maximum rate of climb 𝑣𝑦

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣∞ sin 𝛾
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣∞ cos 𝛾

𝑣𝑣

𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝑣∞
𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑂𝐶

𝑅𝑂𝐶

𝑅𝑂𝐶
𝛾

𝑣𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑅𝑂𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑣∞
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 𝑣ℎ

14
 Climb Performance
• Weight, altitude, and configuration (gear, flaps) affect excess thrust and power.
Thus, they affect climb performance.
– An increase in weight, an increase in altitude, or an increase in drag (gear, flaps) all decrease excess
thrust and power for all aircraft (jet or propeller)
• The airspeeds for max AOC and max ROC, as well as the max and min level flight
speeds, vary with altitude.
– The airspeeds for max AOC and max ROC converge at the “absolute ceiling”, where there is no excess
power and only one speed for steady, level flight
– The “service ceiling” is the altitude at which the airplane is unable to climb at greater than 100 ft min

15
 Propeller Aircraft Cruise Performance
• Four reasons to evaluate cruise performance
1. Determine maximum flying distance for a given fuel load
Range
2. Determine minimum fuel expenditure for a given flying distance
3. Determine maximum flying time for a given fuel load
4. Determine minimum fuel expenditure for a given flying time
Endurance

Range Equations
NM
specific range =
lbs of fuel
NM
specific range = hour
lbs of fuel
hour
knots
specific range =
fuel flow

Endurance Equations
flight hours
specific endurance =
lbs of fuel
flight hours
specific endurance = hour
lbs of fuel
hour Rule of thumb: 𝑣max endurance = 0.75 ∙ 𝑣max range

1 Actual long-range cruise is flown at speed that gives 0.99 ∙ specific range
specific endurance = • A 1% reduction in range gives 3% to 5% higher cruise speed 16
fuel flow
 Propeller Aircraft Cruise Performance
• Powerplant fuel flow is determined by shaft power put into the propeller rather than thrust
• Since fuel is consumed during long-range cruise operations, the gross weight varies and the
optimum airspeed and power setting also vary
• It’s important to note that for a given aircraft configuration, 𝐿 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs at a particular angle-
of-attack and lift coefficient and is unaffected by weight or altitude
• A variation in weight alters the value of airspeed and power required to get 𝐿 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑊2 = 1.1 ∙ 𝑊1
𝑣2 𝑊2 𝑣2
= = 1.1 = 1.05
𝑣1 𝑊1 𝑣1

3
𝑃req2 𝑊2 2 𝑃req2 3
= = 1.1 2 = 1.15
𝑃req1 𝑊1 𝑃req1

𝑆𝑅2 𝑊1 𝑆𝑅2 1
= = = 0.9
𝑆𝑅1 𝑊2 𝑆𝑅1 1.1

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 Propeller Aircraft Cruise Performance
• A flight conducted at high altitude has a greater true airspeed, and the power required is
proportionately greater than when conducted at sea level
– The drag at altitude is the same as sea-level drag, but the higher true airspeed is the reason
• Note: the straight line tangent to the sea-level power curve is also tangent to the altitude
power curve

At sea level
𝜎1 = 1
At 22,000 feet
𝑣2 𝜎1 𝜎2 = 0.498
=
𝑣1 𝜎2
𝑣2 1
= = 1.42
𝑃req2 𝑣1 0.498
𝜎1
=
𝑃req1 𝜎2
𝑃req2 1
= = 1.42
𝑃req1 0.498

18
 Jet Aircraft Cruise Performance
• For turbojets, fuel flow is determined mainly by thrust rather than power
• Maximum endurance occurs at 𝐿 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 since this would incur the lowest fuel flow
• Maximum range occurs where the proportion between velocity and thrust required is greatest
– This point is located by a straight line from the origin tangent to the curve
– Aerodynamically, this occurs at 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
– In subsonic flow, 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs at a particular angle-of-attack and lift coefficient and is
unaffected by weight or altitude

19
 Jet Aircraft Cruise Performance
• The flight condition of 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
is achieved at one value of lift coefficient
• A variation in weight alters the value of airspeed, thrust required, and specific range obtained
at 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑊2 = 1.1 ∙ 𝑊1
𝑣2 𝑊2 𝑣2
= = 1.1 = 1.05
𝑣1 𝑊1 𝑣1

𝐹thrustreq2 𝑊2 𝐹thrustreq2
= = 1.10
𝐹thrustreq1 𝑊1 𝐹thrustreq1

𝑆𝑅2 𝑊1 𝑆𝑅2 1
= = = 0.95
𝑆𝑅1 𝑊2 𝑆𝑅1 1.1

20
 Jet Aircraft Cruise Performance
• The effect of altitude on range of a turbojet is of great importance because no other single
item can cause such large variations of specific range.

At sea level
𝜎1 = 1
At 40,000 feet
𝑣2 𝜎1 𝜎2 = 0.246
=
𝑣1 𝜎2
𝑣2 1
= = 2.02
𝑣1 0.246
𝑆𝑅2 𝜎1
=
𝑆𝑅1 𝜎2
𝑆𝑅2 1
= = 2.02
𝑆𝑅1 0.246

21
Questions

22