Extensometr Type

Adam Paweł Zaborski
2. Mechanical and electric gauges
Introduction
There are several devices used to measure very small values of strains. Before selecting particular type of
device some requirements should be considered:
− readability
− ease of mounting
− sensitivity
− accuracy
− required operator skill
− repeatability of readings
− range of measurement
− size
− frequency response.
Beside the first purely mechanical gauges, many physical phenomena are used to magnify relatively small
motion to values that are readable by eye. The most common are
− photocell
− variation of magnetic field
− variation of transformer coupling (inductance)
− variation of condenser capacity
− air pressure and low variation due to orifice restriction
− optical flats
− electric-resistance strain gauge
− slide-wire resistors
− carbon pile
Mechanical gauges
Mechanical strain gauges: the mechanical devices or generally known as extensometers and are used to
measure strain under static or gradually varying loading conditions.
Dial gauges
hand
spring
gear
sliding mandrel
s
Fig. 2.1 Dial gauge and its scheme
They are used mainly as extensometers and deflectometers. Typical magnification is 100.
Project “The development of the didactic potential of Cracow University of Technology in the range of
modern construction” is co-financed by the European Union within the confines of the European Social Fund
and realized under surveillance of Ministry of Science and Higher Education.
Simple mechanical gauges
Principle: extensometer is usually provided with two knife edges. They are clamped firmly in contact with
the test component at the specific distance. When the test component is trained the knife edge undergoes a
small relative displacement. This displacement is amplified through a mechanical (or sometimes optical)
linkage and magnified displacement or strain is displayed on calibrated scale.
The simplest strain amplification is the use of simple lever gauge, like the Berry’s strain gauge, Fig. 2.2.
Another, simple gauge is the Martens-Kennedy’s gauge, Fig. 2.3. The Tuckerman’s gauge is similar, but
instead of the mechanical uses the optical amplification, Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.2 Berry strain gauge
Fig. 2.3 Martens-Kennedy gauge
Fig. 2.4 Tuckerman gauge
Huggenberger’s extensometer
This is a type of extensometer having a short gage length (10 to 20 millimeters) and employing a
compound lever system that gives a magnification of about 1200.
Fig. 2.5 Huggenberger’s gauge

The gauge amplification may be calculated from the lengths ratio:
l1 l 2
i= ⋅
a1 a 2
and the minimal value of strain that can be determined is:
lt
ε= ,
il g
where l t and l g are the length of scale tic and the length of the gauge, respectively.
Other mechanical gauges

With the pneumatic gauge, Fig. 2.6, the amplification is obtained by a differential pressure output.
Fig. 2.6 Pneumatic strain gauge

The extensometer historically created first, is the string extensometer, which makes use of the well known
phenomena of guitar strings tuning. The relationship between the change of the vibration frequency square
and the strain is:
ε ≈ C ( f 22 − f 12 ).
Nowadays the vibrating wires gauges are often used in soil research.
Tests with use of mechanical gauges

Use of deflectometers to determine Young’s modulus
The 4-point bending beam, Fig. 2.7, is loaded at the cantilevers of the length a. The load increases step by
step by ∆P = 2 ⋅ 9.81 N. The beam deflections are measured by two dial gauges at the same distance from the
supports, c. The span length is l, the cross-section dimensions are: b × h .
∆P ∆P
h
b
a c l-c a
∆M
Fig. 2.7 Beam and bending moment diagram

We start from the equation of displacements:
EJ y w' ' ( x) = − M ( x)
and for the loading step-by-step, we have:
∆P ⋅ a
∆w' ' ( x) = .
EJ y
Integrating, we have:
2
∆P ⋅ a x
∆w ( x ) = + C1x + C2 .
EJ y 2
From the kinematic boundary conditions we know, that:
∆w ( 0) = ∆w ( l ) = 0 ,
hence
∆P ⋅ a l
C1 = − , C2 = 0 .
EJ y 2
Finally:
∆P ⋅ a
∆w ( x ) = x(x − l ) .
2EJ y
The last equation is the relationship between deflections and loading. Knowing deflections ∆w , losding
∆P , cross-section inertia moment J y and position of the gauges x = c , we can determine the Young
modulus E.
Use of Huggenberger gauge to determine Young’s modulus

The 4-point bending beam, Fig. 2.8, is loaded at the cantilevers of the length a. The load increases step by
step by ∆P = 2 ⋅ 9.81 N. The strains in outer fibers are measured with the Huggenberger’s gauge. The span
length is l, the cross-section dimensions are: b × h .
∆P Huggenberger’s gauge
∆P
h
b
a l a
∆M
Fig. 2.8 Beam with Huggenberger’s gauge

The bending moment value in the span is constant:
∆M = − ∆P ⋅ a ,
and increase of the stress at the upper/outer fibers is also constant
∆M
∆σ =
W
and the same the strains:
∆l 0
∆ε = ,
l0
so, the position of the Huggenberger’s gauge in the span is irrelevant.
Measuring the strain change and knowing all data except the Young’s modulus, we can determine its value
by the calculation:
∆σ ∆P ⋅ a ⋅ l 0 6al 0 ∆P
E= = = .
∆ε W ⋅ ∆l 0 bh 2 ∆l 0
Electric-resistance strain gauges
The electric resistance strain gauges have strain-dependent electric resistance. They are the most widely
used gauges to measure the mechanical quantities. They transform force, pressure, strain etc. into the
resistance change that can be measured.
The gauges measure strain, elongations as well as contractions. The strains, caused by external factors or
by internal factors (e.g. shrinkage), can be used to measure the value of the causes. For instance, measuring
the elongation of a steel mandrel we can determine the force applied, getting a dynamometer (a force
gauge).
Basic types of electro-resistant strain gauges and their structure

There are two main types of the strain gauges (gages): “snake” type and “grill” type, Fig. 2.9. The “grill”
type is more complex but mostly insensitive on lateral strain.
„snake” „grill”
Fig. 2.9 Strain gauges types
The strain of material is transmitted across the glue and foil film onto resistant wire, Fig. 2.10, made from
Ni-Cr or constantan (the materials with the resistance nearly not depending on temperature).
Fig. 2.10 Strain gauge

Resistance of the wire, from physics, is proportional to material resistivity and the length of the wire and
inversely proportional to the wire area :
ρl
R= .
A
The tensioned bar becomes thinner while lengthen. The original diameter, r0, changes by ∆r. Then, the
strain in the radial direction is:
∆r
ε lat = −
r0
Fig. 2.11 Wire deformation

Strain in the orthogonal direction to the external force is called lateral strain. Each material has a certain
ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain, with most materials showing a value around 0.3. This ratio is
called Poisson’s ratio, which is expressed in ν (nu):
ε lat
ν=− = 0 .3 (ν = 0.27 for steel).
ε long
The resistance change of the wire under loading is now:
ρl1
R1 =
A1
From the Hooke’s law we get:
l1 = l (1 + ε x ), A1 = A(1 − νε x ) 2
so, the resistivity change reads:
∆R = R − R 0
and the relative change is equal to:
∆R R ρl 0 (1 + ε x ) A0 (1 + ε x ) − (1 − νε x )2 1 − 1 + ε x + 2νε x − ν 2 ε 2x
= −1 = − 1 = = ≈
R0 R 0 A0 (1 − νε x )2 ρl 0 (1 − νε x )2 1 − 2νε x + ν 2 ε 2x
(1 + 2ν )ε x
≈ = kε x
1
∆R
= kε
R
(is proportional to the strain value), where k – the gauge factor.
The gage factor, k, differs depending on the metallic materials. The copper-nickel alloy provides a gage
factor around 2.
Thus, a strain gage using this alloy for the sensing element enables conversion of mechanical strain to a
corresponding electrical resistance change. However, since strain is an invisible infinitesimal phenomenon,
the resistance change caused by strain is extremely small.
For example, let’s calculate the resistance change on a strain gage caused by 10 10–6 strain. Generally, the
resistance of a strain gage is120Ω, and thus the following equation is established:
∆R = 2 x 10 x10–6 x 120 (Ω)
∆R = 120 x 2 x 10 x10–6 = 0.0024Ω
The rate of resistance change is:
∆R/R = 000.24/120 = 0.002 = 0.002%
In fact, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure such a minute resistance change, which cannot be
measured with a conventional ohmmeter. Accordingly, minute resistance changes are measured with a
dedicated strain amplifier using an electric circuit called a Wheatstone bridge.
Since the handling method is comparatively easy, a strain gage has widely been used, enabling strain
measurement to imply measurement with a strain gage in most cases. When a fine metallic wire is pulled, it
has its electric resistance changed. It is experimentally demonstrated that most metals have their electrical
resistance changed in proportion to elongation or contraction in the elastic region. By bonding such a fine
metallic wire to the surface of an object, strain on the object can be determined through measurement of the
resistance change. The resistance wire should be 1/50 to 1/200mm in diameter and provide high specific
resistance. Generally, a copper-nickel alloy wire is used. Usually, an instrument equipped with a bridge
circuit and amplifier is used to measure the resistance change. Since a strain gage can follow
elongation/contraction occurring at several hundred kHz, its combination with a proper measuring
instrument enables measurement of impact phenomena. Measurement of fluctuating stress on parts of
running vehicles or flying aircraft was made possible using a strain gage and a proper mating instrument.
Wheatstone bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit suitable for detection of minute resistance changes. It is
therefore used to measure resistance changes of a strain gage. The bridge is configured by combining four
resistors as shown in the figure.
Rc Rk
G
Rs Rr
Fig. 2.12 Wheatstone bridge

The four resistors are: Rc – active resistor resistance, Rk – compensation resistor resistance (compensation
of temperature change), Rs – constant resistance, Rr – adjusted resistance
The condition of the bridge balance is the zero current in the galvanometer.
Kirchhoff law (the charge balance): the sum of currents at the node equals zero.
Ic Ik
Ic = Ik , I s = Ir ⇒ =
Is Ir
Ohm law: from IG = 0 follows that at nodes, adjacent to the galvanometer, the voltage is the same (because
difference of the potential is zero at galvanometer branch), so:
I c Rs
U c = U s ⇒ I c Rc = I s R s ⇒ = ,
I s Rc
Ik R
U k = U r ⇒ I k Rk = I r Rr ⇒ = r ,
Ir Rk
and consequently:
R s Rr
=
Rc R k
or, finally, the condition of the bridge balance is:
Rc Rr = Rk Rs .
(the products of the resistances of opposite branches are equals)
Then, whatever voltage is applied to the input, the output, eG, is zero. Such a bridge status is called
“balanced.” When the bridge loses the balance, it outputs a voltage corresponding to the resistance change.
Fig. 2.13 One-gauge system

As shown in Fig. 2.13, a strain gage is connected in place of R1 in the circuit. When the gage bears strain
and initiates a resistance change, ∆R, the bridge outputs a corresponding voltage, e.
1 ∆R 1
e= E , that is, e = kεE
4 R 4
Since values other than ε are known values, strain, ε, can be determined by measuring the bridge output
voltage.
Bridge structures
The structure described above is called a 1-gage system since only one gage is connected to the bridge.
Besides the 1-gage system, there are 2- gage and 4-gage systems.
2-gage system
Fig. 2.14 2-gauge systems

With the 2-gage system, gages are connected to the bridge in either of two ways, shown in the figure at left.
Two sides among the four initiate resistance change.
Thus, the 2-gage system in the first case of the figure, provides the following output voltage:
Two sides among the four initiate resistance change. Thus, the 2-gage system provides the following output
voltage:
1
e= (ε1 − ε 2 )kE
4
or
1
e= (ε1 + ε 2 )kE
4
Output voltage of 4-gage system

The 4-gage system has four gages connected one each to all four sides of the bridge. While this system is
rarely used for strain measurement, it is frequently applied to strain-gage transducers.
Fig. 2.15 4-gauge system

If the gages at the four sides are equal in specifications including the gage factor, k, and receive strains, ε1,
ε2, ε3 and ε4, respectively, the bridge output voltage will be:
1
e= (ε1 − ε 2 + ε 3 − ε 4 )kE
4
•Applications of 2-gage system

The 2-gage system is mostly used for the following case. To separately know either the bending or tensile
strain an external force applies to a cantilever, one gage is bonded to the same position at both the top and
bottom, as shown in the figure.
Fig. 2.16 Two-gauge system application

These two gages are connected to adjacent or opposite sides of the bridge, and the bending or tensile strain
can be measured separately. That is, gage 1 senses the tensile (plus) strain and gage 2 senses the
compressive (minus) strain. The absolute strain value is the same irrespective of polarities, provided that
the two gages are at the same distance from the end of the cantilever.
To measure the bending strain only by offsetting the tensile strain, gage 2 is connected to the adjacent side
of the bridge. Then, the output, e, of the bridge is:
1
e= (ε1 − ε 2 )kE
4
Since tensile strains on gages 1 and 2 are plus and the same in magnitude, (ε1 – ε2) in the equation is 0,
thereby making the output, e, zero. On the other hand, the bending strain on gage 1 is plus and that on gage
2 is minus. Thus, ε2 is added to ε1, thereby doubling the output. That is, the bridge configuration shown in
the next upper figure enables measurement of the bending strain only.
If gage 2 is connected to the opposite side, the output, e, of the bridge is:
1
e= (ε1 + ε 2 )kE
4
Thus, contrary to the above, the bridge output is zero for the bending strain while doubled for the tensile
strain. That is, the bridge configuration shown in the next lower figure cancels the bending strain and
enables measurement of the tensile strain only.
Fig. 2.17 2-gauge system
Temperature compensation
Fig. 2.18 Temperature characteristics

One of the problems of strain measurement is thermal effect. Besides external force, changing temperatures
elongate or contract the measuring object with a certain linear expansion coefficient. Accordingly, a strain
gage bonded to the object bears thermally-induced apparent strain. Temperature compensation solves this
problem.
Active-Dummy Method
The active-dummy method uses the 2-gage system where an active gage, A, is bonded to the measuring
object and a dummy gage, D, is bonded to a dummy block which is free from the stress of the measuring
object but under the same temperature condition as that affecting the measuring object. The dummy block
should be made of the same material as the measuring object. The two gages are connected to adjacent
sides of the bridge. Since the measuring object and the dummy block are under the same temperature
condition, thermally-induced elongation or contraction is the same on both of them.
Thus, the gages bear the same thermally-induced strain, which is compensated to let the output, e, be zero
because these gages are connected to adjacent sides.
Self-Temperature-Compensation Method
Theoretically, the active-dummy method described above is an ideal temperature compensation method.
But the method involves problems in the form of an extra task to bond two gages and install the dummy
block. To solve these problems, the self-temperature-compensation gage was developed as the method of
compensating temperature with a single gage.
With the self-temperature-compensation gage, the temperature coefficient of resistance of the sensing
element is controlled based on the linear expansion coefficient of the measuring object. Thus, the gage
enables strain measurement without receiving any thermal effect if it is matched with the measuring object.
Except for some special models, all recent KYOWA strain gages apply the self-temperature-compensation
method.
Principle of Self-Temperature-Compensation Gages

Suppose that the linear expansion coefficient of the measuring object is β s and that of the resistive
element of the strain gage is β g . When the strain gage is bonded to the measuring object, the strain gage
bears thermally-induced apparent strain/°C, εT , as follows:
α
εT =
k
(
+ βs − βg ),
where α is the temperature coefficient of resistance of resistive element and k is the gage factor of strain
gage.
The gage factor, k, is determined by the material of the resistive element, and the linear expansion
coefficients, β s and β g , are determined by the materials of the measuring object and the resistive element,
respectively. Thus, controlling the temperature coefficient of resistance, α, of the resistive element suffices
to make the thermally-induced apparent strain, εT , zero in the above equation.
( ) (
α = −k β s − β g = k β g − β s )
The temperature coefficient of resistance, α, of the resistive element can be controlled through heat
treatment in the foil production process. Since it is adjusted to the linear expansion coefficient of the
intended measuring object, application of the gage to other than the intended materials not only voids
temperature compensation but also causes large measurement errors.
Cables temperature compensation

The use of the self-temperature-compensation gage eliminates the thermal effect from the gage output. But
cables between the gage and the strain-gage bridge are also affected by ambient temperature. This problem
should be solved too.
Fig. 2.19 Cables temperature influence
With the 1-gage 2-wire system shown in the figure, the resistance of each cable is inserted in series to the
gage, and thus cables do not generate any thermal problem if they are short. But if they are long, cables
adversely affect measurement. The copper used for cables has a temperature coefficient of resistance of
3.93 10–3/°C. For example, if cables 0.3mm2 and 0.062Ω/m each are laid to 10m length (reciprocating
distance: 20m), a temperature increase by 1°C produces an output of 20 10–6 strain when referred to a strain
quantity.
The 3-wire system was developed to eliminate this Input, E thermal effect of leadwires.
Fig. 2.20 Cables temperature compensation

As shown in the figure, the 3-wire system has two cables connected to one of the gage leads and one cable
connected to the other. Unlike the 2-wire system, the 3-wire system distributes the cable resistance to the
gage side of the bridge and to the adjacent side. In the figure the lower cable resistance enters in series to
the left branch and the upper cable resistance enters in series to the right one. That is, the cable resistance is
distributed to adjacent sides of the bridge. The third cable resistance is connected to the outside (output
side) of the bridge, and thus it produces virtually no effect on measurement (because of zero output in the
case of the balanced bridge).
Other undesirable effects

There are other effects involved, like misalignment effect:
Fig. 2.21 Gauge misalignment

or the resistance change of strain gage bonded to curved surface:
Fig. 2.22 Gauge on curved surface
or uncertainty of existing state of strains, especially in the case when the strain state is unknown. In the
case of torsion:
Fig. 2.23 Torsion measurement

or in the case of shearing, we adopt different systems of measurement.
Fig. 2.24 Shear measurement

If the state of strain is “much” unknown, we have the problem how to obtain the magnitude and the
direction of principal strains.
Strain gauges rosettes
Fig. 2.25 Rosettes

There are two main types of strain gauges rosettes: rectangular and “delta”:
Fig. 2.26 Rectangular and delta rosettes

Instead of measurement in principal directions (where we have three unknowns: two principal values and
the angle of principal directions) we measure strain in three fixed directions: a, b and c. Is there possible to
establish the unknowns from the measured strains? The answer is: yes, we can do it!
Strain transformation
We have two set of coordinates: first anyone (x, y) and second principal (1, 2). To calculate strain in some
direction from principal ones we use the formula of transformation:
εij = aik a jl εkl , i, j = xy, k , l = 1,2
where aij are the cosines between axes of the “old” and the “new” coordinates. For an arbitrary direction a,
the formula reads:
ε aa = cos(a, x) cos(a, x)ε xx + cos(a, x) cos(a, y )ε xy + cos(a, y ) cos(a, x)ε yx + cos(a, y ) cos(a, y )ε yy =
= cos 2 (a, x)ε xx + 2 cos(a, x) cos(a, y )ε xy + cos 2 (a, y )ε yy
and similarly for the directions of b and c. In this way we have three equations for three unknowns. The
same formula may be used to write the transformation starting from the principal strains:
ε aa = cos(a,1) cos(a,1)ε11 + cos(a,1) cos(a,2)ε12 + cos(a,2) cos(a,1)ε 21 + cos(a,2) cos(a,2)ε 22 =
= cos 2 (a,1)ε11 + cos 2 (a,2)ε 22
So, to evaluate the principal strain values the measurement in two directions only is sufficient. However,
the principal directions remain unknown.
Rosettes final formulae

For the rectangular rosette we have:
0
y=90
450
x=00
Fig. 2.27 Coordinate set for rectangular rosette

1
cos(0°, x) = 1, cos(45°, x) = , cos(90°, x) = 0,
2
1
cos(0°, y ) = 0, cos(45°, y ) = , cos(90°, y ) = 1
2
and, consecutively:
ε x = ε0 ,
ε y = ε90 ,
1
ε xy = ε45 − (ε0 + ε90 )
2
For the delta rosette, we have:
y
0
120
x=00
0
240
Fig. 2.28 Coordinate set for delta rosette
1 1
cos(0°, x) = 1, cos(120°, x) = − , cos(240°, x) = − ,
2 2
3 3
cos(0°, y ) = 0, cos(120°, y ) = , cos(240°, x) = −
2 2
so:
ε x = ε0 ,
1
εy = [2(ε60 + ε120 ) − ε0 ]
2
1
ε xy = [ε60 − ε120 ]
3
Finally, we calculate the principal values and principal directions from well known formulae:
2
εx + ε y  εx − ε y 
ε1 = +   + ε 2xy ,

2  2 
2
εx + ε y  εx − ε y 
ε2 = −   + ε 2xy
 .
2  2 
ε −ε
tan α = 1 x
ε xy
Young modulus measurement with strain gauges

The measurement is analogical to the Huggenberger’s gauge measurement, Fig. 2.28. The gauges are in the
2-gauge system, both gauges (upper and lower) are active and compensate each other. Their indications
add (one gauge tensioned, other compressed) and bridge’s indication should be divided by 2.
∆P tens.elektroop. ∆P
h
b
a l a
∆M
Fig. 2.29 Beam and gauges
Curved bar
123456
N
e=164
Fig. 2.30 Curved beam

The normal stress (circumferential) repartition is hyperbolic:
N M Mρ η 1 e eρ η 
σx = + + = N  − − * 
F Fρ J * ρ + η  F F ρ J ρ+η
where reduced inertia moment for the rectangular cross-section is given by the formula:
 ρ + h2 h 
J * = bρ 3  ln − .
 ρ− h ρ
 2 
Input data:
F = b × h = 9.6 × 75 mm, force eccentricity e = 164 mm, ρ = 72.5 mm, η = -34.5, -21.5, -7.5, 7.5, 20.5,
34.5 mm., M = -N e.
Data handing:
- Young’s modulus E = 210 GPa (assumed)
- force N can be determined from Gauss approximation of least squares, the objective function should be
minimal:
∂δ
δ = ∑ [Eε i − Nf (η i )] ,
2
=0,
i ∂N
hence:
E ∑ ε i f (η i )
i
N= .
∑ f 2 (η i )
i
Finally we get the value of the force N, as the best approximation of the results, Fig. 2.31.
σ [Mpa]
250
krzywa analityczna
150
50 krzywa doświadczalna
η [m]
-0,0345 -0,0145 0,0055 0,0255
-50
-150
Fig. 2.31 Stres repartition: from test and calculated
Kirsch’s problem
σmax=3σnom
Fig. 2.32 Kirsch’s problem

As a result of the stress concentration, the maximal stress is about 3 times greater then nominal value.
The applied force value can be determined from the gauge far from the hole. :
F = 25 * (gauge indication) * 106 + 375 [N]
Young’s modulus for plexiglass: E = 4.45 GPa, Poisson’s coefficient ν = 0.333.
Dimensions: shield b × h = 19 × 1 cm, hole diameter d = 5 cm,
gauges position (measured from the hole):
6.7, 5.5, 4.2, 2.9, 1.6, 0.4 cm.
Gauges constants: k = 2.81.
Glossary
gauge, gage – czujnik
gauge length – baza pomiarowa

Extensometr Type

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Adam Paweł Zaborski

2. Mechanical and electric gauges

Fig. 2.2 Berry strain gauge

Fig. 2.3 Martens-Kennedy gauge

Fig. 2.4 Tuckerman gauge

Fig. 2.5 Huggenberger’s gauge

Other mechanical gauges

Fig. 2.6 Pneumatic strain gauge

Tests with use of mechanical gauges

Fig. 2.7 Beam and bending moment diagram

Use of Huggenberger gauge to determine Young’s modulus

Fig. 2.8 Beam with Huggenberger’s gauge

Electric-resistance strain gauges

Basic types of electro-resistant strain gauges and their structure

Fig. 2.10 Strain gauge

Fig. 2.11 Wire deformation

Fig. 2.12 Wheatstone bridge

Fig. 2.13 One-gauge system

Fig. 2.14 2-gauge systems

Output voltage of 4-gage system

Fig. 2.15 4-gauge system

•Applications of 2-gage system

Fig. 2.16 Two-gauge system application

Fig. 2.17 2-gauge system

Fig. 2.18 Temperature characteristics

Principle of Self-Temperature-Compensation Gages

Cables temperature compensation

Fig. 2.19 Cables temperature influence

Fig. 2.20 Cables temperature compensation

Other undesirable effects

Fig. 2.21 Gauge misalignment

Fig. 2.22 Gauge on curved surface

Fig. 2.23 Torsion measurement

Fig. 2.24 Shear measurement

Strain gauges rosettes

Fig. 2.25 Rosettes

Fig. 2.26 Rectangular and delta rosettes

Rosettes final formulae

Fig. 2.27 Coordinate set for rectangular rosette

Fig. 2.28 Coordinate set for delta rosette

Young modulus measurement with strain gauges

Fig. 2.29 Beam and gauges

Fig. 2.30 Curved beam

Fig. 2.31 Stres repartition: from test and calculated

Fig. 2.32 Kirsch’s problem

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