Shell structures in civil and mechanical engineering Theory and closed-form | analytical solutions Alphose Zingoni, BSc, MSc, DIC, PhD, MZwelE, MiStructE, CEng Deputy Dean, Faculty of Engineering, University of Zimbabwe, Harare : tihittie” go ag iio ell structures in civil and — “L! ThomasTelfordS het hells CEnaineesing Pblied by Thomas Telford Poblsing, Thomas Telford Series Led, | Heron Quay, London B14 430) Fret peblished 1957 Distbotor or Thomas Telford boks ae {US-A: Ameren Society of Cll Engineer, Publication Sales Deparmenr, 45 Fst 47h Sees, New York, NY 10017-2398 Taper: Narszen Co, Lid, Book Depserment, 3-10 Nihonbashi Zeheome, Chuo, Tokyo 403 “Airlie. Books ad jours, 648 Whitehorse Rond, Mitcham 3132, Vitoria Front cover photogteph by coutery of Gent Sith A catalog eco fr thie hook i ava fom the Beish Library ISDN: 0 727725042 © Alphose Zingon, 1957 All ight, including easton, ceerve, Except for Bl copying, no pare of his publication ‘aay be reproduced, sored in a eteeval sytem o¢ transmitted ina form or i 20Y ans, ‘letorie, mechani, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior writen permianon of che Books Publishes, Thomas Telfod Publishing, Thomas Telford Services Ld} Heron Quay, London EM 43D, “This book i published 6 the understandog fs the author sally cespnsible forthe tsremencs made ad opiaions expressed int anda te plication does nox accesses tha uch atementsandjor opinions ate of feflet the Views or opinions ofthe publisher. ‘Typese in Gret Briain by Alden, Oxford, Diet and Nocthanpton, Primed snd bound in Great Brin by Redood Books, Trowbuidge, Wilshire, 2 sep. mtr 4.To my children Ratidzd; Tafadgwa and Sizbarashe oa oz sep mm 4Preface Shell structures find application in many Fekis of enginecsing, notably civil, ‘mechanical and aeronautical disciplines. In the pase 100 years, considerable effort has been expended on the development of rigorous theories—both ‘genersi and specalist—ta describe the behaviour of shells in the elastic range a realistically as possible. The problem with such rigorous formula tions has been that in almost all cases they have led to scts of differential equations for which mathematical solutions cannot be found, or for which the mathematical solutions that ase available are not very practical from aa. engineering point of view. Not suzprisingly, the development of nutnerical formulations over the past 50 years, notably the finite-element method, has seen the gradual cessation of attempts to find analytical solations to rigorous formolations of shell behaviou! ‘The finite-element method is a genesal numerical procedute that can be used to tackle any shell problem to any desired degree of accuracy; intially, one needs only 10 understand the response of the basic individual elements making up a steucture (rather than the response of the whole tcucture), end then (0 assemble such elements by enforcing compatibility of displacements becween elements at theis common nodes, and equilibrium of forces and montente ar all nodes, as well as constraint conditions at the boundary nodes of the steucture. In this way, the overall response of the complete stzuc ture is predictod. It is cleat that such a solution approach, while effective from the practical viewpoint of obtaining ectual values of stresses and displace- ments in a structure, is mot very efficient for the purposes of studying the ‘effect of varying 2 single parameter (such as the thickness of a shell) dusing the course of design, as each time such 2 change is made, the entire analysis procedure has £0 be carried out, albeit by a computes, Since numerous runs of the finite-clement program may be necessary in order to obtain a complete piceure of the effec of one parameter on the stresses ia the shell, the process Of preliminary design can be very expensive if several structural pasameters need to be traded (On the other hand, by introducing some simplifying ssesmptioos right at the beginning of a theoretical formalation, or certain simplifying approxima- tions in the rigorously obtained set of governing differential equations, it is possible to obtain reasoaably accutate closed-form analytical solutions to a vwide range of practical shell problems, and to develop relatively genecal expressions for stresses and deformations which are suitable fos practical calculations. Such closed-form expressions for quantities that are of interest to 2 designer, obtained in terms of achiteary parameters defining, the shell geometry, boundary conditions aad loading, can easily be programmed on portable scientific calculators or on small computers, petmitting the designer ‘to evaluate rapidly the stresses ina shell structure of a given set of parameters, for to conduct quick parametric studies by studying, the closed-formPreface ‘expressions themselves, or by simply plotting the variation of output quan- Lies with an input parameter of interest ‘This book is designed to be both a textbook for senior undergraduate and postgraduate students of civil and mechanical engineering, and a reference book for practising engiacers in these disciplines. The unique feacures of the book are as follows: (@) emphasis is placed on the presentation of simplified theory for which prac- tical closed-form solutions can be obtained; @ fora wide range of problems involving pressure vessels, iquid-retaining, tanks and shell roof elosed-form expressions of general spplicability, for actual stresses and deformations in the shetl structure, are derived and presented ia a way that allows rapid evaluation of these quantities by a ‘designer, and that permits any desited parametric studies to be conducted quickly. For several problems, the results of such parametric studies are actually presented in the book and design recommendations are sum- smurized, enhancing the reference value of the book to designers of shell steactures, Chapter 1 gives,a brief survey highlightiag the diversity of shell applica: tions in engineering, outlines the historical development of shell theory and agalytical solution procedures, and discusses the validity of the membrane hypothesis in shell analysis. Chapters 2 to 4 present the membrane theory Of shells of revolution, and closed-form membrane solutions for various types of such shells. Chapters 5 to 8 concern the axisymmetcic bending of cylindsial shells, general shells of revolution, spherical-shell structures, aad shell stractares of compound geometry. The membrane theory of genezal eflinders is presented in Chapter 9, and thet of shells of arbitrary shape in Chapter 10, where membrane solutions for paraboloidal shell, roofs are also developed. Chapter 11 deals with affine shells, and presents closed-form results for certain types of non-axisymmettic shell reservoirs.¢ Acknowledgements The author devotes this book to his wife, Lydia, for her patience, understand- ing and encouragement throughout its preparation. The author is indebted to Milija Pavlovié, his supervisor during his PhD studies at Imperial College of Science, ‘Technology and Medicine (University of London), for having inteo- ‘duced him to the study of shells, and for providing valuable guidance in the carly years of the author's involvement with shell research, Since then, the author has pursued further shell research with confidence and enthusiasm, tailoring his effors towards the needs of practising engineers in indsstcy, and thet of both postgraduate and undergeadvate students in universities, which bas culminated ia this book. Some of the results reported i this book were obtained during the course of a Fellowstip of tke Royal Com- mission for the Exhibition of 1851 of the United Kingdom, for which the author is grateful. The University of Zimbabwe has provided the conducive atmosphere necessary fos the completion of the seseacch for this book, and for the undertaking of the demanding task of writing the manuscript. The ingpiting association with academic colleagues at various other institutions around the world is acknowledged, Finally, thanks ate also due 20 the highly professional staf at Thomas Telford, in particilar Linda Schabedly, for the careful editing and production of this book. Alphose ZingoniContents a ce ta a Inweoduction LT Survey of shell applications AA Early shell structures 1.1.2 Modess shell applications 1.2. Shell action im relation to beam, arch and plate actions 1.2.1 General comparisons 1.2.2 Diseeibution of extensional and flexural ees in shells hin-shell theories in relation to more general theories 1.4 Historical developments in linear shell theory and analytical solutions 14.4 Historical note 1.4.2 The Love~Kirchhoff assumptions and Love's approximations 1.4.3 Refinements and the question of consistency 1.4.4 Developments towards the solution of equations 44.5 Specialized theories for certain shell-midsuctace geometries 1.45.1 Sphetical shells, general shells of revolution and shallow shells 1.45.2. Cylindsical shells 1.5. General aspects of the membrane theory of shells 15.1 Introduction 41.5.2. Momentles states of stress in shells versus arches 1.5.3. Applicability of the membrane hypothesis 1.54 ‘The membrane solution as a particular integral of the general bending-theory equations 16 References ‘Membrane theory of shells of revolution 2. General shells of revolution under axisymmetric loading. 2.1 Introduction 21.2 Geometsic preliminaries 21.3 Governing equations of equilibrium 2.14 General solution 2.2 Special cases of axisymmetric shells of revolution of zero Gaussian curvacure 22.1 General remacks 22.2 The circular cylinder 223° The circular cone 10 10 un 2 B 4 4 23 2 2» 3 35 35 37 31 39 4a 41 4 2Contents 23 24 General shells of revolution under non-axisymmeteic loading 23.1 Inteoductory remarks 232 Governing equations of equilibrium 233. Solution approach Deformations in axisymmetrically loaded shells of revolution Closeid-form membrane-solution results for various sarface-of-revolution shell structures under axisymmetric loading 3 32 33 Pressure vessels BAL Circular cylindrical vessel 3.2 Circular conical vessel 3.1.3. Spherical vessel 3.1.4 Vessel in the form of an ellipsoid of revolution 31.5 Veseel in the form of a circular torus 3.1.6 Vessel in the form of aa elliptic torus Elevated liquid filled reservoirs 3.2.1 Circular cylindrical tank 322. Circular conical tank 3.23. Spherical tank 3.24 Intze tank 3.25 Membrane solutions for elevated shell-of-revolution tanks of arbitrary meridian profiles 3.25.1 Introduction 3.25.2 Geometric preliminaries 3253. Loading 32.5.4. Equilibrium considerations and stress resultanes 3.2.5.5 Application to specific profiles of the shell ‘meridian 3.255.1 General locations 3.2552 Poles 325.6 Assestment of the eeliabilty of the ‘membrane solution ia the vicinity of the pole 3.25.7 Numerical examples and conclusions Roofs and domes 33.1 Conieal roof 332. Spherical dome 3.33. Spherical dome of graduelly varied thickness 3.34 Shell-of evolution domes of arbiteary meridian profile 334.1 General considerations 3.34.2 Application to dome in the form of paraboloid of revolution 44 45 rs) 52 a 9 9a 93 7 9 108 108 105lef 33.43 Application to dome in the form of an ellipsoid of revolution 34 Cooling cowers References 35 ‘Mernbsate solutions for non-axisymmetrically loaded shells of revolution 4a ‘Spherical shell 4nd 412 General solution Dome subjected to wind loading 42. Circular cone 424 422 General solution ‘Conical roof subjected to wind loading 43. References Axisymmetic bending of citculat cylinders 5a Incroduction 5.2. Derivation of the governing equation Sat 52.2 523 Equilibrium considerations Strain~displacement relations and Hooke’s law Bending equation in terms of w 5.3. General solution! 5.4. Long cylinder subjected to sxisymmettie edge actions ‘Treatment of shore shells 5.6 Application to some practical cases 55 Sat 562 363 Long cyliader with a radia! line load Long cylinder with intemal pressure Vertical water tak 5.7 References Theory of the axisymmetcic bending of general shells of revolution 6A 63 Introduction 62 Derivation of the Reissner~Meissner pair of governing difereotial equations 624 622 6.2.3 Reduction of the three equilibrium equations to two Equilibrium considerations Steain-displacement relations and Hooke’s law differential equations in the variables V and Qy Practical solutians for the spherical shell 631 632 633 634 Tatroduction Geckeler’s approximation Hetény’s improved approximation Evaluation of constants C and 8, and of edge deformations duc to arbitrary edge actions 106 106 no un tu ut 14 ng ng 129 122 123 123 124 124 126 130 130 131 135 137 137 138 139 12D ut iat ry 142 144 148 150 150 150 153 154 ContentsContenes 23. General shells of revolution under noa-axisymmettic 24 Closed-form membrane-solution loading 23.1 Inteodctory remarks 23.2 Governing equations.of equilibrium 23.3. Solution approach ‘Deformations in sxisymmetricaly loaded shells of revolution .ults for various surface-of-revolution shell structures under axisymmetric loading 3A 32 33 Pressure vessels 3.41 Circular eylindsical vessel 3.1.2 Cizeular conical vessel 3.13. Spherical vessel 3.1.4 Vessel in che form of an ellipsoid of revolution ALS Veseel in the form of a circulae torus 3.1.6 Vessel in the form of an elliptic torus Elevated liquid-illed reservoirs 3.21 Circular cylindeical tank 322 Circular conical tank 3.2.3 Spherical eanke 3.24 Intze tank 3.25. Membrane solutions for elevated shel tanks of arbitrary meridian profiles 3.25.1 Introduction 3.2.52 Geometric preliminaries 3253 Loading 3.254 Equilibrium considerations and stxess resultants 3.25.5 Application to specific profiles of the shell meridian 3.25.5.1 General locations 325.52 Poles 3.2.5.6 Assessment of the reliability of the ‘membrane solution in the vicinity of the pole 3.2.5.7 Numerical examples and conclusions Roofs and domes 333.1 Conical roof 3.32. Spherical dome 3.33. Sphetical dome of gradually varied thickness 3.3.4 Shell-of-revolution domes of arbitrary meridian profile 3.3.41 General considerations 3.34.2 Application to dome in the form of a paraboloid of revolution serevelution 4 45 ry a7 37 57 58 60 ot % o 67 70 n 8 78 81 8 B 85,ce 33.43 Application to dome in che form of an ellipsoid of evolution 34 Cooling rowers 3.5 References ‘Membrane sol of revolution 4.1. Spherical shell 4.11 General solution 44.2 Dome subjected to wind loading 42. Circular cone 42.1 General solution 422. Conical roof subjected to wind losding 43. References ns for non-axisymmetrically loaded shells Axisymmettic bending of circular cylinders 3A Tateoduction 5.2. Derivation of the governing equation 52.1 Equilibrium considerations 5.2.2 Seeaindisplacement relations and Hooke’s law 5.23 Bending equation in terms of w 53° General solutiosi 5.4 Long cylinder subjected to axisymmersic edge actions 5.5. Treatment of shore shells 5.6 Application to some practical cases 5.6.1 Long eylinder with a radial life oad 5.6.2. Long cylinder with internal pressure 56.3 Vertical water tanke 5.7 References ‘Theory of the axisymmetric bending of general shells of revolution 6.1 Yetwodvetion 6.2 Derivation of the Reisiner~Meissner pait of governing differential equations 62.1 Equilibrium considerations 62.2 Setsin~displacement relations and Hooke’s law 62.3 Reduction of the theee equilibrium equations to two Giffecential equations in the variables V and Qy 6.3 Practical solutions for the spherical shell 63.1 Introdvetion 63.2 Geckcler’s approximation 633. Hetényi’s improved approximation 6.3.4 Evaluation of constants C and 9, and of edge deformations due to arbitrary edge actions 106 106 110 m1 at ut ng n9 no 129 v2 123 1B 14 124 130 130 131 135 137 137 138 139 140 141 14 142 crs 144 148 150 150 153 154 ContenesContents 6.3.5 Evaluation of the edge redundants M, and H., incernal actions in the shell, and total stresses 6.3.6. Closed-form results for M, and H, for various loading and boundary conditions 6.3.6.1 Spherical shell with built-in edge and subjected to various loadings 63.6.14 Uniform internal pressure p 636.12 Hydrostatic pressure due £0 Tiquid of unit weight y 63.613 Uniformly distributed vertical loading pet unit area of shell surface 6.3.62. Spherical shell under uniformly distributed vertical loading q per wait area of shell surface, with ether support conditions 63.621 Pinned edge on tangentially- reacting rollers 6362.2 Pinned edge on vertically acting rollers 3 Pinned edge fully restrained against exastation 63.7 Accuracy of the approximations of Hetényi and. Geckeler 63. 6.3.8 Edge interaction and decoupling errors in spherical shell Frusta 63.8.1 Introduction 63.82 Generalized interior actions and deformations 63.83 Influence coefficients and decoupling errors 63.8.4 Concluding remarks 64 Practical solutions for the Conical shell 6.5 Approximate solutions for general shells of revolution 66 References Flexibility analysis of axisymmetric shells of compound geomenry TA Pressure vessels 72 73 11.1 Cylinderchead junction effets 71.2. Ring-stifened cylindtical shells Intze tanks Domes 73.1 Dome supported on a ring beam 73.2 Edge effets atthe junction of axisymmetrically intersecting spherical shells forming compound domes 73.22 Intsodaetion 73.2.2 Membrane solution 73.23 Bending correction 160 160 160 162 163 163 163 164 164 165 167 167 170 173 7 178 186 137 189 189 189 196 198 208 208 210 210 212 214CaGao 7.3.2.4 Bvalustion of shell-edge eedundants 7325 Net stresses in the compound dome 73.2.6 Concluding remarks TA. References Studies of edge effects in various non-shallow spherical-shell structures 8.1 Blevated liquid-Glled vessels 11 Introduedion 8.1.2 Bile of support conditions: limiting ting beam stiflnesses 8.1.2.1 Introduction 8.122 Boundary conditions governing edge effects 8.1.23 Displacements 8.1.23.1 Displacements of the membrane solution 8.1.2.3.2 Displacements of the edge effect 8.1.24. Findings of a parametric study 8.1.3 Effect of support conditions: inclined columns 8.13.1 Introduction 8.132 Membrane displacements and deformations 8.1.33 Rage deformations due to atbitrary edge 8.1.34 Variation of total stresses with distance from the edge 8.1.35 Displacements 81.3.6 Application of developed approach 813.61 Introdecsion B1.3.6.2 Boundary conditions and shellsedge redundants for the ZAZT case 8.1,36.3 Net stresses and displacements 8.1.3.7 Summary and results of a parametric study 8.1.4 Thickness-discontinuity stresses in stepwise thickened metal vessels 3.4.4.1 Introduction 8.14.2 Membrane-solation preliminasies 81421 Hydrostatic liquid puessure 81.422 Uniform surcharge pressure 8.1.4.3 Bending corrections 8143.1 Assumptions 8143.2 Junction boundary conditions and closed-form solutions for shelF-edge redundants BIA32t Thickness. discontinuity jpactions 217 219 219 219 2a 221 221 22 22 223 225 25 227 230 21 Bt 235 236 Bt 29 239 239 240 2a 24 243 243 2As 25 245 246 246 ContencsContents 82 83 8.1.4,3.2.2 Suppoet junction 8.1.44 Summary, conclusions and recommendations of a parametric study Domes and domedike shells 82.1 Introduction 8.2.2 Domes and dome-like shells of constant thickness 82.2.1 Introduction 8222 Closed-form results for net inner- and ‘outer surface stresses 8222.1 Uniform external-pressuce loading 822.22 Uniform gravity loading 8.2.2.3 Effect of shell geometry on peak shell 8224 Design rules for concrete domes 82.25 Design examples B.23 Domes of gradually-varied focal thickening 8.23.1 Introduetion 8.2.32 Assumed thickness variation in the edge 8233. Caleulation of parameters a and 823.4 Development of general formulae for edge cefleces and net stresses 8.2.3.5 Conclusions of a parametric study References Membrane theory of general cylinders 9a 92, 93 98 98 96 on 98 Introduction Governing equations and general solution Boundary conditions Solutions for horizontal cizcumferentially-closed eylinders filled with liquid 9.4.1 Circular eylinders 94.2. Elliptic eylinders : Solutions for horizontal troughs filed with liquid 95.1 Semicircular trough 9.5.2. Semieliptic erough 9.5.3 Parabolic trough Solutions for barrel roofs 9.6.1 Bactel roof of cireular section 9.6.2 Barrel roof of elliptic section 9.6.3 Barrel roof of parabolic section Bending considerations for barrel roofs References ‘Membrane theory and solutions for shells of arbitrary shape 10.1. Governing equations 247 249 253, 253 254 254 255 255 256 259 260 266 268 269 270 on 216 278 281 281 2st 284 286 286 291 292 293 294 295 297 297 298 299 300 301 301: 10.2 Solution approach based on a stress Funccion 305 f 10.3. Application co shell-toof problems 306 Concenes 103.1 Hyperbolic parabotoid with edges parallel to straight-line generators 306 10.3.2. Hyperbolic paraboloid with edges along parabolic generators 308 10.3.3 Elliptic parsboloid with edges along parabolic generators 310 104 References 316 [ID Theory of membrane affine shells and its application to liquid-flled elevated reservoirs of elliptic horizontal section 317 11.1 General results for affine membrane shells 317 11.2 Application to the liquid-illed triaxial ellipsoid 322 44.2.1 Introduction 322 11.22 Trmsformation of hydrostatic loading on triaxial cllipsoid to equivalent loading on spherical shell 323, 11.23 Solution for the axisymmatsic loading 326 11.24 Solution for the harmonic loading 327 51.25 Total solution 330 11.26 Ilustrative plots and discussion 332 11.27 Conclusions 334 : 11.3 Application to the liquid-illed elliptic cone 335 11.3.1 Geomettic relationships between the elliptic cone and the circular cone 335 11.32 Transformation of hydrostatic loading on elliptic cone to equivalent loading on citculax cone 336 11,33 Solution for the axisymmetric problem 338 11.34 Soluon for the harmonic problem 335 11.35 Net solution 340 11.3.6 Final stress cesuleants in liquid-illed elliptic cone 340 (2) index 33hs I Introduction I. Survey of shell applications I.L1 Early shell structures Man-made shell srvcttes have been in existence for many centuries. One of the ealest applications of che shell aa sructural form i represented bythe several domes tat have been constructed for the purpose of providing roof ing for tempi, cathedral, monuments and other buildings. Nowble histor ical examples include the Pantheon of ancient Rome, built around 2000 years 2g0; the Hagia Sophia of Consatinople (now Istanbul), which is approxi tratly 1500 yeors old St Peter's Cathedral in Rome, 2 Renaisance structure whose dome, dating back to about 1590, was designed by Michelangelo, St Pauls Catedral in London, designed by Sie Christopher Wren and bail around 300 years agos and the Ts) Mahal of Inia, buen the seventeeneh Gentury by the Mogel Emperor, Shah Jahan 1.1.2 Modern shell applications “The generally high teength-to-weight ratio ofthe shell form, combined with its inherent stilfness, has formed the basis of modern spplications of shell ‘structures. As may be seen in more detail in the historical account of Sechler,’ developments over the past 200 years in various sectors of human activity have opened up numerous fields of application for shells. Among these are thin conerete shel roof, such a8 the hyperbolic paraboloid roof of the schoo! ball shown in Fig, 1.1. The world-famous Sydney Opera House in ‘Austeslais a somewhat unusual example of shell enclosuce, being a complex asserably of ‘sal-chaped” concrete shell “Aptrt fom roofing, sll ind application in many other elds. Figure 1.2 shows some thin-walied hyperbolic concrete cooling towers at a thermal power sation, while Fig. 1.3 shows some cjlindrical concrete silos for the sorage of grin. Two types of elevated conical concrete water reservoir appear in Fig. 1.4, Large storage vessels for oil and industrial chemicals? ate usvally constructed in thin stel. In industey, boiles, prestute vestels tad associated piping are further examples of sbell structures in metal constroction (se Figs 1.5-1.7). Hollow members of large industrial steelIntroduction Fig 1.1. Hyperbolic parabola raf oer # “eho! ll (anor'> Bsteraph) Fig. 1.2. Natural dr olng tower a terval ‘power etatons tee large ‘onreterrsetares are hit ‘els the form of ‘byperbli of relation (enor phoragroph) LE] structures, such as offshore oil platforms, are another example of shell appli- cations, as are bodies of transportation structures such as motor vehicles, ships, sirerat, missles and spacecraft, The great diversity of shell applications is seen in the curved panels of the world-famous Thames Barrier in London, tnd the giant egg-shaped sewage digescors that are becoming a familiar sight ‘on the landscape of countries such as Germany. "The essential geometrical property of all che above shell structures that distinguishes them from other stryetural forms is, a5 Calladine" points out, the possession of both ‘surface’ and ‘curvature’. This combination endows shells with their characteristic strength and stiffness. A shell may be defined as a relatively thin structural element, in which the material of the clement is bound between two curved surfaces a relatively small distence apart. The behaviour of a shell is usually modelled on the Dass of its middle surface (alternatively referced to as midsurface), which is the locus of interior points equidistane from the two bounding surfaces of the shellInerodurton Fig 1.3. Colindsiclgrai Storage ils (anthr's pteraph) Fh Cota srearoitt:(o} pore ramp tebe ‘se () oper ie ‘Siegel (eto's Botayepsi) L]Introduction © Fi 5. Citi Frith wea (0) pore ine Scania is ( otd sd pod mite fr firey perme of Cre Eman) [+]Ineeoduetion Fig 1.6. Etrial ered solr inthe fra of « nial ib ipa nds te nr st big pred a ‘plied ono Fire, ond Seem of Coast Exgmrng) Fi 17. Clinical raat oat was ‘Sept athe eb bat ee ‘Binginer ing) EETO ee © Fig, 1.8, Transers oadings (on: (a) hems (b) arch (Ce) plate: () sell 61.2 Shell action in relation to beam, arch and plate actions 1.2.1 General comparisons ‘The beam, a structural element with a seuightline idealization (Fig .8(8), ‘mainly resists any applied transverse loading by bending. On the other hand, the arch, a structural element with a carved-line idtlization (Fig. 1.8()), will resist such a loading primarily by invernal theust action, assuming of course that the ends ace adequately restrained (ue. the supports of the atch muse be capable of providing force reactions (0 the thrust transmitted to them). The plite, a structural element that may be idealized as « Rat surface (Fig. 1.8(0), has (0 bend in order to azey applied transverse loading. In contzast, the shel, ‘a stractural element that may be idealized as a carved sueface (Fig. 18(4), if suitably supported, is quite capable of resisting smoothly varying transverse surface loading through the ation of intesnal forces in the tangential plane of the shell’s middle surface at any given point, such forces will henceforth be referced to as ‘in-plane’ actions. From these simple considerations, itis evi done thatthe property that makes both arches and shells capable of resisting ‘external transverse loadings by ‘emensional’ action (as opposed to ‘fexural” action) is creature, Herc, the term ‘extensional’ refs to any in-plane direct forces, whether tensile ot compressive. Structural materials are generally more efficient when resisting loads in the extensional made eather than the fexaral mode, This i illustrated in Pig 1.9, ‘which shows straight prismatic bar of length {and rectangular cross-section of constant width b and constant depth d (Go that the cross-sectional area (Milne o ” 2 Te, ° : @ \esroducton Fig, 1.2. Compares of smesinm meighe a a be Lipported by privaatic bar indirect veo and in ening: (4) berm direct teri, Wags = OyAs (b) ari bending a imply Lnpparted bet, (8 = (21 NGiihayhs Ce) Bain z lente bom, ening (re T76RSPDoph (4) crue saci of eam, N-N donates rental exis for ending (A= bd (rene sectional ara Oy = yield ten of matteIncroduetion 4 = 6 xd is constant), supporting a weight Win direct tension and in bending. The dimension /is assumed to be much larger than the dimension bor d. In Fig. 1.5(a) the weight is hung from the lower (Free) end of the vertical bar, whose upper end is attached to 2 hotizoneal support. In Fig. 1.9(b) the weight is applied as a vertical point load ae the midspan-point of the simply-supporced horizontal ba, while in Fig. 1.9(c) the weight is applied 484 vertical point load atthe fee end of the horizontal bar, whose other end is rigidly built into 2 vertical wall. With reference to the bending mode (Figs 4.90) and (0), the line N-N in Fig, 1.9(6) denotes the neutral axis for bend- ing, which, of course, is located halfway down the depul ofthe cross-section Denoting the yield stress of the materat of the bar by a, (assumed, for sim plicity, to be the sare in tension and in compression), the maximum weights ‘hat ean be supported ia the arrangements of Figs 1.94), (b) and (e)ate, From clementaty considerations of direct stress in axially loaded members and members subjected to bending, 0,4, (2/3)(d/)0,A end (1/6)(d/I)o,A respertively. Thus, the vertical bat will support in direct tension a weight hung at the lower end of magnitude 1.5//d and 6//d times greater than the ‘weight which iecia support by bending () asa vertical point load at midspan when the ber is horizontal and simply supported at both ends, and (i) a8 a point load atthe free end when the bar isa horizontal cantilever builein a the other end. Since 4/4 1, it follows thet arches and shells, when suitably supported, are stronger and stiffer than beams 2nd plates (of the same «x0ss-ectional ates oF thickness) zespectively Jn beams and plates, transverse external loads do not give ste to any 2ppre- + ciable extensional action withia these elements, provided the displacements after deformstion remain zelatively small in relation to the transverse dimen. sion of the elements (i.e. depth inthe case of a beam, thickness in the case of plate). On che other hand, arches and shells can resise distributed transverse applied loads almost wholly by extensional action provided that, inthe case of arches, the Joading pattern is of a certain specific type and suitable boundary conditions are provided, and, in the case of shells, that suitable support conditions are provided and certain smoothness criteria (for loading und shell-geometry variations) are met. In practice, a mixture of extensional ead flexural actions usually oceuss in arches and shells, since the above ideat conditions ace not usually satisfied for these structural elements, good desiga consists of minimizing the flexural actions. 1.2.2 Distribution of extensional and flexural effects in shells For shells, the relative propertions of extensional and flexural effects at a given point depend on several fictors such 28 the type of shell surface (syn- clastic, anticlastc, or developable), support conditions, loading configuration, and the proximity of edges and certain discontinuities, Syaclastic surfaces ate those with positive Ganszian curvatore. Gaussian ‘curvature is defined as the product of the two priacipal curvatures (the mi imum and minimam) 2¢ 2 given point of cucved surface, such curvatures ‘occurting iz ewo planes called the principal planes, which are pexpendiculartpt panto ® Hype peabolos i ay to each other. As is cleat from Fig. 1-10(a), fora synclastc surface, the centres of maximum and minimam caevature at a given point lie on the same side of the surface, so that the surface, when suitably crieneed in space, can hold liquid around the point. Anticlastic susfaces possess negative Gaussian ccorvature, the ceatres of maximum and minimum curvatures at any given point on the surface lying on opposite sides ofthe susface, so that the surface 4s ‘saddle’shaped and therefore incapable of holding Niquid around an arbi- ‘ary point a0 mattet how the surface is oriented in space (Fig. 1.10(b). Ineroduetion Fig, 1.10. Type of hell fo: (0) Dats (6) cate (2) deepalIntroduction Developable sucfaces, as the name implies are those that can be Ratcened into a plane sucface, either directly or after making a single staighttine cut in the surface (Fig. .10(@); they ace characterized by zero Gaussian curvature and, assuch, cannot hold liquid around an arbierary point on the surface (the liquid would simply ran off along the direction of zero curvature!) For synclastc shells, in particular, if both the shel] geometry (ie. shell thick ness, midsueface slope in any atbitcary direction, and principal radi of corva- care) and surface loads are smoothly varying (ie. exhibiting no discontinuities in the vatiacion of the shell geometrical parameters and loading components lover the surface of the shel, nor in theie firse derivative with respect to are length along a given direction), then extensional eects genesally predominate in the interior regions of the shell, while in the edge zones bordering the sup- ports, extensional and flexural effects usualy become equally significant for ‘most practical constroctions of supports, Such localization of bending effects to the boundary 2ones of the shell is also noted, but to a reduced extent, in developable shells; in anticlastic shells, bending emanating from the edges of the shell may propagate along certain directions deeply into the interior ofthe shell, 2 bebaviour not unlike the bending in beams and plates. - general theories AAs already indicated, a shell may be defined 28a thtce-dimensional structure bounded primarily by ewo axbtrary curved surfaces a relatively small distance apart Criteria for chinness vary, depending on the magaieude of ezrors that can be tolerated in regarding « paricuic shell as thin, and hence suited to study by thin-shall cheores rather than by the more general (but less con- venient) thick-shel theories which, by theienatore, ate closer fo the general theory of elasticity. Assuming a permissible exror of 5% for ordinary engi- neering computations, Novozhilov cites the cut-off point between thin and thick shells as corresponding t0 //rm = 1/20, where £ isthe thickacss of the shell ad, i the minimum radius of curvature of the middle surface of the shell; he notes that a large number of shells encouatered in practical applications can therefore be classified as thi, since they ie in the range T/AOOO < #/rm 1/50. Vlasov’ adopts a more atringent criterion reg <1/20) for thinness. The results of Goldberg et a/,° who compared the thick- and thin-shell theories on the basis of a cicculaecylindrical shel builtin at both ends and subjected to a uniform internal pressure, suggest that es stsingentexiteria may be possible for cexzain shell geomettes, loading configurations and boundary coadivons: ¢/s ratios (where ais the ads of the cylinder) of /f0 and 1/15 were found to be assocated with ertors of only 6% and 4% respectively Being a three-imensional body (no matter how thin it might actually be), ‘ny shell could, in principle, be tackled using the general theory of elasticity However, owing tothe complexities of sch an approach, the shell is almost invecitbiy regarded as 2 two-dimensional entity charactriaed by the co- ordinates of the middle surface. In principle, the simplified theory for such1 two-dimensional approximation could be deduced directly from the more general three-dimensional theory of elasticity as a limiting case of the later ‘when the thickness dimension becomes very small in comparison to the other two dimensions. As pointed out by Mollmann,? however, this method of derivation of a theory of shells leads co contcadictions in seeking to relate the two theories (ie, the t3'e-dimensional shell theory and three-dimensional elasticity theocy). Consequently, shell theories have mostly been derived independencly of the three-dimensional theory of elasticity, by adopting at the outset a see of clearly defined assumptions from which to proceed. 1.4 Historical developments in linear shell theory and analytical solutions 1.4.1 Historical note ‘Am investigation of the general theory of shes, based on the Kirchhoff hypothesis concerning the deformation of plates,""" was first attempted by ‘Aron int 1874,"" This development, however, did not present the theory satisfactorily. On the bass of the same Kiechhof assumptions, Love derived, in 1888, the basic equations that govern the behaviour of thia elastic shells." Although a theory of thin elastic shells had emerged from Love's consideration, the primary concetn ofthat work in the fist instance hhad been the seatch for 2 theory of the vibration of bells.” A fascinating account of the contoversy surrounding the beginnings of she theory: of thin shells as postulated by Love may be seen in papers by Calladine,'" in which important contibotions of Love's contemporates, namely Lord Rayleigh, Basset and Lamb, are alto mentioned. 1.4.2 The Love-Kirchhoff assumptions and Love's approximations ‘The simplifying assumptions fst adopted by Kirchhoff for plates and later extended to shells by Love are sometimes teferred to as the Loye~Kicchholf sstummptions, These simplifications may be stated as follows. () Te tbl thickest meligiby mal jn comparoo with the least rar of caret of th hl! wide rerfoc. Tis implies thatthe sells thin, anc fence it is the most fundamental ofthe assumptions. Criteria for thinness have been discusted in Section 13, (W) Strained dplcemets that rc within te sl! re smell. This plies tha products of deformation quantities occuring in the derivation of the theory may be neglected, ensuring thatthe system is described by a set ‘of geometialy linear equations. This also makes i possible to formate the equilibrium conditions ofthe deformed middle surface with teference to the original portion ofthe middle sutface prior to deformation, (© Straigh Uns thas are rr tthe midalecnfce prior t deformation romain Lireigh cd normal tthe mide stfae daring deformation, and rerione no charge in lint. This asxsraption is analogour to Navier's hypotheris for beams which sats that place sections before bending remaia plane troductionIeroduction atier bending, leading to the Bemoulli-Euler elemenuaty theory for ‘beams."™"" ¥y implies that the direct strain in che direction normal to the mide surface, and the sheaing stains ip planes perpendiculst to the middle surice and ue to wansverse shear forces, ate all zero. From this sumption alone, whichis statement abou deformations ard not stresses, it cannot be contaded thatthe dvd! stress in the Gizection normdl to the middle surface, and the transverse sheatng, stresies acting on planes perpendicular co the middle sutfce, are also ec. It must follow, therefore, thatthe shear modullcocesponding © transtere seating inthe pines perpendinlr tote migde sericea infinite; however, Young's module athe direction aocmal to the mile surface need aot be regarded as infinite in view of the next and las assontp on. (4) The ie ts ating in tb diction rr ft sll mide fei ni {ib This assumption i jastiied because the shell has steady been Assumed to be cin, Howeeet, the astmption is aot valid i the viciity of covcentated transverse loads, even ithe shell Is thin ‘The theory of thin shells derived on the basis of ll the above assumptions is referred to in the literature as ‘Love's first approximation’. Love later tried to eliminate sonee of these eesteiaions from the theory (by no longer regarding the length of a normal to the middle surface before deformation es invariant during defoemation, while preserving the assumption that it remains straight and normal to the middle'surface throughout deformation). In so doing, be obtained anothes version of shellesuations, aaw teferted to as “Love's second approximation’. 1.4.3 Refinements and the question of consistency lugge in 1934" and Byrne in 1944"” independently developed a more genera 426 0f shell equations by setaning all the frst approximation assumptions of Love except (¢) above, on thinness. These investigators retained, in the surese-resultant and che tizxin-displacement tclations, terms of the ordet 2/7 compared to usity, where (St/2) is the perpendicular distance of a Point from the middle surface and, #8 before, isthe radius of curvature ofthe middle susface. E, Relssner pointed out in 1952" that such a correction to Love's frst approximation amounted fo the same ordes of mageitde a5 that which would be obtained by taking into account transverse normal stresses and transverse shear deformations, and therefore argued thac assumptions (4), {@) and @) above must be abandoned simultaneously for consistency. Further cefinements in the theory in the period 1948-1958 incladed whe incorporation of the effects of transveree normal stress and transverse shed? deformations.'*-*! ‘These additional refinements are justifiable only in the case of thick shels. Love's second approximation, che Flogge—Byrne theory, and the refinements abandoning all the Love-Kirchhoff assumptions except the cone on smallness of displacements are often collectively referred to a8 highes- ‘order approximations’ because they suspend (or, athet, attempt t0 remove) fone oF more of the assumptions fandamental co the &tst approximation of Love. In 1963, the refined theories of E. Reissner!® and Naghdi”! were SaisieoO | i { made invariant under different coordinate systems by Naghdl,® this being tmore of a mathematical refinement of the formulation than an extension of the physical validity of the theory. An account ofthe various theories of thin clastic shells tha tad een pt forward by 1958 may be sean in the survey by Naghdi2 Returning to the fstapproximation theories that retain all the assump tions (e}-(4) given above i is noted that in 1941 B. Reisner hed given 4 new derivation of the equations for the deformation of clastic shells, by taking the lines of carvatere on the middle surface 2s the coordinate curves. In 1956, Knowles and B. Reissnee generalized this derivation of a frst-approximation theory by adopting an arbitrary orthogonal system of coordinates on the middle surface ofthe shel. A yet more general derivation fof Love's frst approximation theory, which is valid for nonorthogonal co- ordinate curves on the middle surface, is contained inthe 1954 work of Green and Zerna.”* This derivation uses the powerfal tool of tensor notation. [Nor surprisingly, the increasing numberof apparently diferent versions of the lineaetocory of lai thin sels that wete being pot forward a impoove- ments of Love's rst-approximation theory soon became a cause for concen, fiving rise to the question as to which of the various sets of equations were ‘most accurate and most consistent. The studies of Koiter, published in 1959,” clarified the question ofaccuray and confirmed the suspected view that there was very litle diference in the accuricy ofthe many sets of derivations exis. ing at that time. (In a review paper published in 1967, Koiter™ re-examines this fundamental issue from’ broader perspective.) In 1959, Sanders” improved Love's frst-approximation theory, while retaining the four basic assumptions, by removing certain inconsistencies that were embedded in Love's theory. This work was based on lincs-of curvature coordinates Four years later, Budiansky and Sandece™ derived what they termed & “best frsvorder linear sell theory, sing general tensor notation in t-m= of an arbitrary coordinate system for the middle surface ofthe shell. ‘This theory, the asthors hoped, would be accepted as standard, since it embodied all he desirable characteristics ofa good theory as predefined bythe authors ‘Todey's version of Love's fstapproximation theory is referred to, quite appropriately, as the Sanders~Kolterset of equations, since it was they that finally scted the fandamental questions of consistency and sccoracy. 1.4.4 Developments towards the solution of equations ‘Owing to the complexity of the eighth-order system of the diferential equations of the fiest- approximation theory of shells, it became necessary to simplify the equations by neglecting or adding certain minor terms in such ‘way as to make the resulting equations more readily reducible to solvable forms. (One of the methods proposed for this purpose is that of complex teans- formation. This technique, frst suggested for the simplifcation of shell equa- tons by Novozhilov (see the 1962 paper of Novozhilov" for a history of the development of complex transformation), involves formulating the general equutions of the theory in complex form. In the first instance, Novorhilov InecoduetionIntroduetion| reiuced the equations of shell theory to complex form for the particular ease of zero Poisson's ratio, without dscatding any teers in the equilibrium and compatibility equations. Novozhilov was able to extend the complex trans- formation to cases of arbitrary values of Poisson's eatio only after discarding certain toms of che order #/r inthe equilibrium and compatibility relations, a simplification he justified on che grounds that it leads to erzors of the same magnitude as those iaberent in the fundamental assumptions of the fist approximation. In 1967, Sanders” achieved complex teansformation by a method avoided the necessity of approximating the equilibrium and compatibility ‘equations, oF any of the other relations except the constitutive equations. ‘This was afected atthe expense of introducing # secondary set of equations for cermin ‘ercr terms’ in the constitutive relations. ‘Ao advantage of the method of complex transformation is that the ordex of the equatigns is reduced by a factor of two, and they become ‘less cumbersome’ However, the accuracy of the resulting equations, may become questionable for cercain classes of problems. In 1961, Koiter® had pointed out that Novozbilow’s equations did not adequately describe the ssisymmetie deformation ofa helicoidal shell. Even Sanders’ more accurate ‘complex reduction” was also subject to this particular shortcoming. The set of twelve equilibrium, compatibility and constitutive relations making wp the Saaders—Koiter fist-approximation theory was simplified, ‘without any appreciable loss of accurscy, by Simmonds in 1970." ‘These tsvclve equations, when specialized to shells of constant average midsurface curvature, were reduced to cight equations by adding certain small terms (on the justification that such alterations inteoduce inaccuracies of the same order of magnitude as are inherent in che unaltered relations) to the stress strain relations. For shells of non-zero Gaussian carvatute, these simplified ‘equations were farther reduced to four coupled equations Tn 1995, Simmonds redoced, through extensive use of order-of-magai: tade arguments in neglecting certain terms, again without any signifant loss of accuracy, the Sanders~Koiter equations for shells of constant thickness with a smooth (but otherwise arbitcary) midsurface, to a pair of coupled fourth-order partal differential equations. Diswing of the characterization of Koiter Bouma, in 2 1962. review of approximate methods of shell analyss,™ had highlighted a systematic scheme for the simplifeion ofthe sets of diferential equations ofthe general theory fof shells. Koite’s scheme was bated on a classifcation of possible states of steess in the shell. Combining thece cases of deformation modes (namely predominantly extensional, predominantly fexoeal and mixed) with theee anges of the wavelength of the deformation pattern of the shell relative to 2 characteristic dimension of the shell (samely long, medium aad short) resulted in seven possible simplification approaches of the gencral shell equations (corresponding to the equations of (3) plane stces, (i) plate bending, (ii) membrane theory, (iv) inextensional bending, (v) superposition of plane stess and plate bending, (vi) supegporition of membrane theory and inextensional bending, and (vii) shallow-shell theory), leaving two excep- tional cases. which1.4.5 Specialized theories for certain shell-midsurface geometries 1.4.5.1 Spherical shells, general shells of revolution and shallow shells “The diferential equations of the theoty of elastic thin shells as given by Love!” were aot in a form suitable for the practical analysis of shells, since chey needed to be solved fist. (With the development of automated procedures for numerical integration in later years, the need to obtain analy ‘ical solutions of such equations, for the primary purpose of the practical analysis of shells, was eventually to diminish.) Specialization of the first- appreaimation diferential equations +o shells possessing axial symmetry (Le. shells of revolution) and, furthermote, loaded symmetrically with respect to thei sxis of symmetry, was expected to tender these equations moze amen able to teduction to forms for which solutions could be found. Thus, around 1910, efforts were made to develop usable solutions forthe spherical shel, the circular-cylindrical shell and shells of revolution in genesal. (The reduction of the equations of the frst-approximation theory for more general shells, 25 noted in the previous section, would eake longes to achieve, and then only after further minor simplifications.) In 1912, H, Reissner” had managed co reduce the diferential equations for the axisymmetric deformation of 2 spherical shell to two simultaneous ‘cdinary second-order differential equations in the variables Q, and V/. In the present and subsequent considerations, Qy is the transverse shear per unit length of a shell clement cut out by two adjacent meridians and two adjacent circles of latitude of the shell, acting on the parallel edges of the circles of latitude, as showa in Fig. 1.11; Vis the rotation of a meridian as seen in the plane containing the meridian and the axis of revolution of the Shell. H. Reissner also discovered that « good approximation could be oy Ineroduetion| See keene eee Se Sia gen or eine Seen Liesl ln ee ieee Pieain cies eth ali Seite, Ea ner seaweed See bi eae, seriotnti miei repels 15Ineroduction Fig. 1.12. Geometrieal Paracersof te spree! ‘hell xi therein, «te icky, hs meridional angle and 6, 1 vale of & tthe edge (| achieved by expressing the complete solution of these equation as he sum of the membrane solution forthe distbuted surface Toes, and the bende toloion duet uniformly dserbuted searing Fores and bending moments Spl! xsjmmercaly slong the cece edge ofthe shell which Lis ina plane perpendicular tothe as of tvoltion of the shell) This vas deduced Gn the bass of the obseryton that the eect of the cr ystern of 490) fonds vas conned toa narrow edge sone. As described in more dela tea intr section, the membrane soltion i abtined purely rom equilibrium cox. siderations ofthe shel asuning tat the applied sutfce loading is whl reltad by inploe acon bending and Twisting tons negleel tlogatbec H. Reusoee gave a proot of the validity of ths spproumation for the cas of the sphere shell subjected to sclbveight loading, The possbliy of obtaining the homogeneous solution (te. the selaon Eorespnding to the application of sxsymmetic edge loads, inthe uence of surtace lu) a an typo ees wana lndicned by. Reiner ‘Ako in 1912, BlumentaP™ obtained such an asymptotic series for the ‘simmetialy laced sper shel of consane thickness. In he following yest Meisner etended I. Reiter's reduction to general tel of cewes Tense, and ong tar the eases wate of the hypergeamerc type, 1915, Meissner” gave the exact solution for che spherical shell in terms of the hypergeomeute sere, "The reduced pat of ordinary second-order difer cova egutions inthe variables Dy and fr ansymmetcally loaded shells of evolution, i apprepenely feted t a5 the Reinet Melsnerequitions ‘The advantage of epreseting the homogencous soltion forthe apes shell evan asynpotcscric expunion rhe than as a hypegeometi seis ieehut while the ter (materially ented solution rage the ttenon of relively large number of terms ofthe sete for sufcentcomputaion! tecutty in prtetealy all eaves of ot opherial sell's radios to thickness tatiow-aee Fig, 112), the former, though always generally remaiing an {pprovimaetluton veges how many ter ofthe astocated infate {tres te taken sully epic, in pace the tention of only the Bt few terms oF seis for reaterable teeaacy, Moreover, te aciracy of tat ‘ned potion increases maplaly with lnieaing off In sharp cont fo this while the hypergeometiosees tuts would become way ext foreC ce all a/t if all the tcems of the infinite series could be taken, their accuracy generally dereaer with increasing a/? for a fixed finite number of terms of the safes, owing to the slower convergence of the series for higher values of aft Ic is worth while at this stage to digress temporarily from the historical accountin oer to take not of thes investigators’ views on, and experiences swith, the hypexgeometrie-seres solution and its variants. Novozhilov! argues that, inthe derivation ofthe Reissner~Meissne: pir of reduced equations for the spherical shell, erzors of ordeté/a in compacizon with unity ae involved, so that there xno point in retaining in ehe solution to the equations terms of order smaller than //a, 26 appears to be done when the hypergeometse series i adopted. He concludes that zh simplifying asymptotie-teries method most, therefore, be employed isexpective of the difference berween the solutions cobsained by this method and the hypergeometce series, expecially a8 the con- vergence problems associated with the mathematcally-exact hypergeomettic Solution hamper the use ofthat solution for practical engineering calculations. As pointed out exer, these convergence problems ines, wit inceasing 42/t ratio of toe shell. Timoshenko tad Woinowsky-Kriegex" point out that, even for an a/# ratio as low as 30, a8 many as ten terms are ested in order to ‘obtain sufficient accuracy for the hypergeometri-series solution; for 4a/t= 625—sill a eelatively low ratio of shell slendeeness—they indicace that not fewer than 18 term ofthe series have been shown to be necessary In considesing a relatively thick shell of 2/1 = 15, Fligge™ also reports problems with the convergence of the hypergeometric sri. In 1950; Hilgebrand® extended the asymptotic series soletion originated by Blumenchal™ (forthe analysis of the spherical shell) to general shells of sypition He obinc bogus eon nthe foo pri of © and a series of inverse powers of 9, whece A= [3(1 ~ 2 )A/ (ae)! ie a shell-slendeeness parometer, and ¢ is a meridionsl-angle coordinate. (la the expression for A, v i Poisson's ratio, ¢ is the shell thickness, 7, isthe rmetidionsl principal radius of curvature, and ry is the second. principal radius of corvatare of the shell of revolution—cefer to Fig. 1.11 for ry and ‘) Considering only the leading term of the series, Hildebrand further ‘obtained an approximate asymptotic solution, for which he gave closed: form expressions for interior actions and deformations, g-well as for edge deformations, Inthe same paper, Hildebrand advocated the use of the memt- brane solution as en approximate particular solution ofthe general equations fora shell subjected to distributed sorfice loading, and outlined the coadi- tions necessacy for this approximation tobe vali. Should it be decided to use the approximate asymptotic homogeneous solution stemming from the reten tion of only the leading term ofthe asymptotic series, Hildebrand argued that, for consistency, the membrane-slusion meridional otation (denoted here by 1), a well as the bending moments calculated ftom the membrane solution (ented here by forthe meridional bending moment per unit length and 2G for the hoop beading moment per unit length, the elemental edges over ‘which these moments act being as shown in Fig. 111) must all be neglected if the surface-loading intensity does not vary appreciably over a distance of V(t). The calculation of V™, 205 and Aff is deal with in Section 1.5.3 InductionIntroduction Another version ofthe asymptotic solution, applicable to constant-thickness spherica shells that are not to0 shallow (je. where the angle gy in Fig. 1.128 ‘ot 00 smal), had already been given by Hetényiin 1938." This solution does fot involve any series, so that all the quantities of interest ean be obtained in ‘losed form. Using the same transformation of the Reissner™ pair of simul. tancous second-order ordinary diferenta) equacions in Qy and Vas originally employed by Blumenthal,” Herényi found that the terms containing the frst derivatives of Q and V” vanished, eeving only terms inthe second derivatives ‘of Qp and V7, an terms in the undifecetisted variables Qe and, themselves. [Neglecting the terms in the undifferentiated variables Qp and Vin compazison ‘with the tetms in the second derivatives of shese variables, and combining the ensuing pair of simplified equations, Hetéayi obtxined a simple fourth-order ordinary differential equation in one dependent vatiable Q,, having constant coefficients. ‘The genera solution of any diferencia equation ofthis form was wall known, enabling Hetéayi co give explicit closed-form expressions for interior actions and deforzaacons of interes. ‘The classics] method of asymptotic integration ss applicd by Hildebrand,” snd its variants, are not valid around the apex of the shell of revolution, for $ —+ 0. (bis the angular coordinate ofa point in the meridional plane of a shell of revolution; iti the angle between the axis of revolution of the shell and the normal to the shell midsurface atthe point in question, as depicted in Fig. 1.11.) The method of Hetényi." being in essence a simpler version of Hildebrand’ asymptotic procedure, is subject to the same limitation. One way of bypassing this limitation has been to replace coc@ inthe basic second-order ordinary differential equation in Qy (or V) by 4” (see, for ‘example, Ref 42). In 1935, Langer” had developed «diferent type of ssymp totic solution which, ualike the classical method of asymptotic integration, is valid forall values of g. In 1960, in discussing asymptotic solutions for the spherical shell subjected to axisymmetric loading, Leckie concluded, on the ‘oasis of a comparison between the classical method of asymptotic integration and the Langer method, that the method of Hetényi* is valid provided 2 > 3y2 "a 1946, Hetényi"” had artived at another set of slightly differen anc som ‘what less ‘accurate expressions for the qusatties of interest in an axisytn- metrically loaded nox-shallow spherical shell of constant thickness, on the basis of the theory of a beem on an clastic foundation in place of shell theory. Hetényi showed ehat the agseement beeween the results of either of his methods and those of the exact hypergeometic-scries solution is excellent forthe combination /? = 30 and g, = 35°, tom which we can conclude that the shell-theory version of the Hetényi approximation is practically exact for all spherical shells for which 2/# > 30 and 4, > 30° In 1926, Geckeler had made an even more drastic but more genera ss plification than that later achieved by Herényi,* dy dropping, from the Reissner-Meisiner pair of equations for arbitrary shells of revolution sub- joced to axisymmetric loading, he terms in the two dependent variables Qs and V, and the terms in the first derivatives of these variables. He oted that the rapidly decaying character of the edge disturbance means thar the fist derivatives of these variables are large compared with the‘aiables themselves, and the second derivatives are, in tun, lage compared svth the fet, provided thatthe shell is saciently thin and not 00 shallow Retaining only the second-derivative ttms ofthe Reisner~ Messner qua. tions, and then eliminating one of the so variables (Qy or V), Geckeler ‘obvained a fourehorder ordinary diferential equation ia Qe of V. Ifthe shell has # conrtant slendenness parameter Q (a in the case of constant thick ness spherical shel), then Geckele's equation has constant coeficients, and the solution is readily obtained in simple closed form. It is worth pointing out a tis stage that Geckele's equation, which, as sleeady implied, isa good approximation for thin shells of revoltion wich sulciently seep sides a the opening, and which happens f0 be exact for Ciccolaccylindriea! shells under rxnymmetric edge loads, i identical in form to the wellknown diferental equation of bending of 4 streets beam Iying on a Winkictype elastic medium: comparing the Geckeler equation with the actual beam-on-elastic-faundation equation,” the tcansverse-shear vasable Q, in the forme® equation is een to correspond to the transverse decton (v.49) ofa beam uniformly supported on 2 Winlter foundation, while the shell slendemess parameter corresponds tothe bearnfounéaion iteration parameter {4/(451)}", where fis the modus of the foundation and El the exura igiity ofthe beam. Irs also worth noting tat For spa Shells, Geckelers approximation is less accurate than Hetény's set of shell equations dexived on the basis ofthe bear-on-clastic-foundation analogy, a the later approach adopes the more precise model of ard bear, Geckelers approximation isthe most practical of the methods discus in this secon so far From the point of view of simplicity, and che rapidly with ‘which a stress anlyis can be performed, the Geckclet approximation is tndoubiedly the most convenient aslytcal tool avaiable for obtining fige-zone streses in axisymmetrcally loaded epeccat shells, It is most suited to such shells if, in addition, che ate sucintly non-shallw, sli dently thin, and of constant thickness. As implied ealier, the Geckelee approximation i also applicable, but less convenieatly, to other non-shalow thin shell of revolion of abitary meridional shape, provided of contac that the loading and boundary conditions sre aisymmetce. For such shell, ifthe paramerer A varies along the meridian in accordence with a certain specific law, a closed-form solution is also possible. Sphericl eas, and caps in the form of other surfaces of revolution, for ‘which the angl of opening is too smal for either the Geckeler or the Hetény: tpprosimation to be applicable, may be analysed sing shllow-sell theory, Mhich isan epproximate theory paricalaysclevant in the context of shell roofs, and applicable when theese ofthe shells small in comparison with the smaller plan dgpenson. A general theory of shallow shells was given in 1936 by Marguerse." In 1944, Vlasov” independently developed a bending theory applicable to shallow shells. According to Vlasov,” a shell may be regarded ss Shallow ifthe ratio of the rise to the shorter side (for shell of rectangular plan) or to the diameter (fr one of crcsar plan) is less than 1/5. Such a Criterion fr shallowness corresponds oa Vale tthe shell edge of epprox rately 44° ia the cise of spherical shels-whose plan shape is cicala (so Fig. 113). Now, the Geckeler approximation requires, for ceasomble IneroductionIneroduetion Jor shalloones, ligated by “he prc tel of eanstant ‘plan diameter shell B (ith entre Oy) sin the aw sbalon rang bl! C (uit cere Oc) es in te hallow tang sill A (with fanire Oy and 6, = 44°) howe tbe cata rie of Dis ES accuracy, the angle 4, (<90” for caps and domes) to be at least 25°, within the 4/1 range of thin shells, henceforth asbitraily taken as «/# > 30. Thus, according to Vlaso%'s criterion, the domain of validity of shallow-shell theory for spherical caps overlaps considerably with that of the Geckeler spproximation, For a shell of revolution vith a circular plan, E, Reissner gave, in 1946," a mote restrictive criterion for shallowness requiring that the ratio of rise «0 plan diameter be less than or equal to 1/8. For a spherical shell this criterion corresponds to a $ value at the stell edge of approximately 28° which, for- tunately, still overlaps (albeit slightly) with the range of applicability of che Geckelet approximation, ensuring that all possible cases of thin spherical shells subjected to axisymmetric surface loads and boundary conditions can be analysed using the Geckeler approximation (or the method of Hetényi, if more accuracy is required) if they are non-shallow, or by shallowshell theory if they ate otherwise, without the necessity of erorting to the cumbersome exact hypergeomettic-series solution. Moreover, the resalts obtained feom shallow-sheil theory will often be applicable to shel's that are not shallow, provided the Joads are such that the stresses are effectively resticted to shallow zones.*! 1.4.5.2 Cylindrical shells ‘The general theories of cylindrical shells have their origins in the period 1930-1940, the stimulus for their development having stemmed mainly from the need to construct reinforced conerete shell s00fs, The easiest of the several rigorous and approximate bending cheoties put forward during this period was that of Finsterwalder.°? "The characteristic feature of Finsterwalde:’s theory was the neglecting of the longitudinal bending ‘moment M, per unit lengeh, the longitudinal transverse shear force Q.. per unit length, and the twisting moment My per unit length (see Fig. 1.14 for these and other variables associated with a cylindrical-shell element), Like most of the bending theories for eylindrical shells, Finsterwalder’s derivation calminates in a single cighth-order partial differential equation, which can betransformed inco an eighth-degree polynomial equation (the characteristic equation) having eight roots. The Finsterwalder theory is applicable only to long shells In his publication of 1934, Fligge'® was the frat to present the theory of, the cylindrical shell ina rigorous and concise Form. His theory led to heee simultaneous pattial diferential equations in the displacement variables 1, » and w (being displacements in the x (axial) direction, the ¢ (citcuenfereatiall tangential) direction, and che direction normal to the sell midsueface: see Fig, 1.34). These equations led to a characteristic equation which may be treated 25, ‘exact and used 8 a standard to asuess the accuracy of other theories. Various efforts have been made to obtain approximate but accurate xoats of FlUgge’s characteristic equation" In 1935, Dischinger” also derived 2 fairly rigorous and concise theory which is nearly as accurate as Fligge’s theory, and had the added advantage that i wes more suitable for design. Although Dischinger arrived at the same three simultaneous diferential equations in, » and w as Fligge obtained, the characteristic equations of the two theories differ, alheit only in certain minor Tn the same year, Schorer® achieved a drastic simplification by assuming, like Finsterwalder, that M, = Q, = Mg = 0, but went farther in assuming that che circumferential strain £9 and the sheat strain jug are both small and may be neglected in relation to the longitudinal stain €,. The Scharer theory leads to an eighth-order partis) differcenial equation of relatively simple Form, In considering barrel-roof type cylindrical shells, Schores's approach for deal- ing witly the bending distaebances originating st the straight edges is rather analogous to the assessment of the edge effect in open spherical shells by the Geckeler approximation. However, as Bouma™ points out, the approximate character of Schorer’s solution is more pronounced than that of Geckeler’s approximation, as the limits of applicability of the former depend on more factors (in particular, Schozet’s theory gives rable cesults only in the case ‘of long shells). The range of validity of Schorer’s method is practically the same as that of the Finsterwalder theory: //a > ™, where / isthe length of the Ineroduction Fig 1, Ati nan (hea i SAS ts placa fee Fonte rei (tnt tolpiyaagigee ah bring fret por a ge (aie abe of he ata eae Ry ad Ni repatony: 2g and By orale eee lag a ne Seo tt ie Aoind Ree al Sebel twa alegre ale Gi gal mao ee Mx ei Sebi i ma at Teo eer te cri! its Mae rin fo a heal ad Sct fpr Scene) actin eitt 1 mj a Sie de Sie Sma fa opie erat of Fea oiate a i ‘th bdr te ee ese eet dra ct 2 loth cheg ‘en gto pss (0 tnt eave g ri we catia le avoid clutter in the diogram) 2Ineredaction n shell (a the axial direction) and athe radius ofthe circular eylinder of which the shells par. ‘Around the same dime, in work primarily concerned wih the elastic seability of shells, Donnel?*# developed a theory that was moze simplified than the theories oF Fligge and Dischinger, but more general than those of Finstenvekir and Sehore, In the Doncell theory, the displacements 4,» and » appear in uncoupled form. In asving a these equations, non-essential terms ‘were disearded on the basis of order ofsmagitude considerations. The Donsell ‘equations are much easier to solve than Fligge’s equations. Force special case ofa ciculr ylindcical shell, che completely general theory of shells of arbitrary shape that Visov later gave ia 1944” degenerates into che Donnell theory. The procedare employed by Kiranin and Tsien in 1981," i their investigations op the buckling of cylindrical shells, and the theory given by Jenkins in 1947 presented in a form suitable for the analysis of epindreal shell roa, ae exen- tally the same asthe Donnell theory. The accuracy of the Donnell equations ‘as studied by Hoff, ina paper published in 1955,° using Flagge’s theory as 2 standard. In 1959, Morley“ achieved an improvement in the Donnell approximation while essentially retaining its simplicity, and demonstrated the fectveness of his modification by applying it co the solution ofan infinitely long thin-walled ticular eyindr sub ected to equal and opposite concentrated radial loads. In 1974, Wang ef al proposed a theory claimed to be more accurate than Donnell’s theory and yet simpler chan Morley’s, on the assump- tion thatthe cinder is circumferential inexensible. In general, Donocs eheory is best suited for shore shells (@/4 <6). Various other theories have been put forward. For example, Parme intro- duced «new formulation asa bass for an American Society of Civil Enginecrs manual in 1952,” while another was proposed by Holand in 1957. Finally, is usefl to note that an extremely simplified theory called the bear method had boon devised by Lundgren in 1949,° in response to the need for an clementary method suited to practical design, Io general, the beam method ‘of eylindsical-shell analysis, which combines a beam analysis (considering the shell as « beam of curved cross-section) and an atch analysis, should be used oaly for very long shells (//a > 5) or moderately lang sheils whose crost- sections ate prevented from distorting during deformation. 1.5 General aspects of the membrane theory of shells I Introduction The membrane theory of shells had its origins in the work of Lamé and Clapeyzon, who, in 1828, had considered shels of revolution loaded sym metrically with respect co their axes," Beltrami and Lecornu are generally credited with having fist established the general form of the equations of the membrane theory in che second half of the nineteenth century.® “The theory i applicable to either completely flexible membranes (for cxample, an infsted tye tube or toy balloon), which have negligible bending tft, or shells with finite bending rigidity ut in which the moments thatare developed are so small as to be negligible (Le. the state of stress is essen tially ‘momentless"), owing to the geometty of the shell, che nature of the ‘boundary conditions at the shell edges, and the manner in which the applied loading is distributed. For shells with finite bending sigidity, which are the sole concern of this book, the membrane solution may serve as a convenient and satisfactory approximation to the actoal stite of stcess in the shell. In general, the exact state of steess in the shell, within the confines of shell theory rather than the ‘more general theory of elasticity, can be determined only on the basis of the “bending theory” of shells, which ’s more general than the membrane theory. ‘The bending theory of shells, with which most of the developments outlined in Section 1.4 were concerned, takeszccount of both extensional (ie. in-plane) effects and flexural. bending, ewistng and shesring) efeets within the shell material. Unfortunately, a8 seen in Section 1.4, the equations of the general bending theory are gencrally very difcal to solve. That is why its important for the analyst to know the conditions under which the membrane solution constitutes a satisfactory approximation, in order to take advantage of this much simpler approach. As will be elaborated in due course, the membrane solution may also serve as an approximate particular integral to the general bending-theory equations, to be added to the homogeneous solution of the equations. Such a tole of the membrane solution saves the analyst the gener ally very difficult task of searching for the exact particular solution conte sponding to a given surface loading. 1.5.2 Momentless states of stress in shells versus arches Section 1.2.1 gives some comparisons of shells, plats, arches and beams While that section compares mechanisms of resisting loads ina general manner, ths section concems only the “moments rates of sess in aches and shells of Brite bending rigidities, erwctural forms that were roted in Section 1.21 t0 be capable of substantial extensional action under transverse applied fads. ‘As scen in the examples of Heyman” and Novoztilov,$ a flexible chain or cable suspended from two points ling in «horizontal pine wil sag between these supports along a catenaty profile, the ecl-veight of the chain easing prely tensile forces to be transmitted slong its profile. Inversion of such & Profile gives a catenay arch, in which the self weights resisted by purely com- Dresive internal fores acing slong the profile. Tha, inorder fr sel-weight loading tobe resisted purely by compressive incproie forces, n arch oft form thickness most be given aexenaty profile. Simily, orn imposed load- ing uniformly distributed over the horizontal projection ef an atch t0 be resisted by extentilly compressive intnal forces without the necessity of mobilising the fexoral rigidly ofthe arch, the profile most be parabolic ‘As pointed ont in Section 1.2.1, is this ably of arches to support certain teansvere loadings without any appreciable bending (by virtue ofthis carva- ture) that underlie their grater structural ficiency in comparison with seraight beams. Since a diferent profile of the atch is required to resist each panicular dstibution of transverse loading without bending, if more than Incroduetion 2Increduetion ‘one loading type is anticipated (Fo instance inthe ease of an arch bridge where the self weight of the arch and the superimposed loads may be equally signifi cant), then considerable arch thickness may be required in order to allow all the individual ‘momentless profiles (alternatively visualized as ‘compressive-stress ‘paths? associated with the various load configurations to Gi within the bounds (of the arch,” thereby minimizing bending actions in the real structure. ‘The essential difference between arch action and membrane shell behavioat is that, although the arch and the shell both possess the property of ‘curvature? which’ is essential for the in-plane inteenal resistance of transverse external loadings, the shell possesses the additional property of ‘surface’ or, as Calladine’ teems it, ‘continuity’. Thus, while # slender arch of a given shape will support only one type of loading without appreciable bending, a thin shell of given shape has, as a rule, che same property for a wide range ‘of loads that satisfy only verp general cequirements, provided its edges are suitably supported * ‘The shell structure, therefore, does not have to be given a substantial thickness simply to accommodate different loads without significant bending, although, as Heyman points out,” a ceztain minimum thickness may be necessary to safeguard against local instability. 1.5.3 Applicability of the membrane hypothesis As pointed out above, ll the shells dealt with in this book possess finite bend- ing rigidity, so that, in the most genesal circumstances, both fiexarsl and ‘extensional fects occur. Furthermore, the existence of the momentless state of stress in such shells is subject to the provision of suitable boundary condicions, as well 2s the flflment of certain smoothness conditions repard: ing shell geometry and loading distribution. ‘Guidelines regarding the various locations at which the membrane hypo- thesis for shells (Le. the postulation that moments in the shell are negligible) fails outright to fol the iterine conditions of equilibrium and continuity of the middle surface, or the external conditions of equilibrium and kinematic fixities of the shell edge, will be discussed in due course. For the moment, it will suffice to note that these locations iaelude external supports, discontiau- ities in loading or shell geometry, and concentrated line loadings. All these sites, interior and external alike, at which the breakdown in the membrane solution is manifested by its failure to Fulfl actual boundary conditions, are roferred to here by the genezal term ‘edges’. At such edges (whether wi the physical exemities of the shell or a the actual physical edges ofthe shell), transverse shearing forces, bending moments and twisting moments are, in zenezal, required in order (232) Fs Re riNogy ob = rNepcos oda secallng thar y= (cos) 40 igure 2.6(. shows the hoop actions Ny in a horizontal section ofthe de- sent. Thee resultant Fis simply ( +e «) (rid) (-£) — Nari 8) («¥) (233) ‘The same view i the element as shown in Fig, 2.6(2) appeats in Fig. 2.6(4), Dut with only the in-plane horizontal shear Nyp actions shown. Their resultant F; in the positive tangential hoop direction is given by any, an oo + Ne a) (a+ +E 4) 40— NyR a8 agit ne asa 4) ere) aoa calMembrane theory: shells of revolution 8 “The resultant ofthe external londing in the positive tangential hoop direction is simply Po RAO 7, ap (2.35) ‘Summation of the terms in expressions (2.32)-(2.35) yields oe an, gpl Nad ab a0 +11 Ft ddd +r Nag cos dp 8 + riRpododt % Since the nplane shear o no ve a result in the lection nonml othe Shell midsrface, equiv ofthe clemedt inthis Greton vil the sme expression es wes obained for axispmmetsc loading when stall second- vue terns re neglected Thos, the thed equation of equiv remains N, MeN (237) a ONe Byes) +n Fo + Napcoed = ripe (238) Regarding the special exes of shells of revolution of zero Gaussian curvature mentioned in Section 22, the non-anisymmetsically loaded ciccalar cylinder will be covered in Chapter 9 as mentioned above. Owing to the rdatvely sienple geometry of general cylinders (of which the citculse cylindce is the only shell of evolution), the differential equations of equilibsium for arbi- teatly loaded general cylinders are, ss will be seen in Chapter 9, of much simpler form than the above equations for arbiteaily loaded general shells of revolution (ue. equations (2.31), 2.36) and (2.3). (A general cylinder is 2 shell of translation (as opposed to shell of revolution) for which the mic sudlace is generated by translating a streight line around a chosed o¢ open smooth curve of generally non-zero curvature throughout, while keeping the straight line always parallel to its initial orientation, and perpendicular to the plane ofthe curve.) For this reasoa, the atbtraily loaded eicular eyin der is considered as a special case of asitearily loaded general cylinders in CChapteed, rather chan as special ease of abitearly loaded shell of evolution that are now being considered “The governing equations of the arbitrarily loaded circus: cane may be deduced from those of the geceral shell of revolution in the following way. Equations (231) and (236) ace fest divided by 71 throughout, then the «ensuing r, 09 in the denominator ofthe fst ce on the left-hand side of cach equation is replaced by 3s, tthe same time replacing, wherever they occa in either equation, Ny by Nin Nag by Non Ngo by Na,cos by cosa, Rby cos (ace Fig. 24(¢, and py by py Finally, viding throughout by coe @ yields (2.38) (239)Equation 2.37) is adapted forthe ciseuas cone by puting ry = 00 (2a that the first erm of the left-hand side vanishes) and m = scot (se Fig. 2.4(8)). The resultis Ng = (cota), (2.40) which, as expected, is the same result as for axisymmettic loading (see equation (2.27). 1.3.3 Solution approach From equation (237) Men le 2.4) First consider equation (2.31). Replacing R by rysing and Ng by the right ‘mand side of equation (2.41) yields a. aNe Z tirasin gg] +1) ON - nrgp, cost aNgcosd Hlresin ON] FE ra Ne | alsin d) pp [Now the fst sermon the ef-hand se of equation (242) maybe evaluated as follows Pileosinding) = Ne trainer sne Ge (a3) = refrac + ina 32} 4 rz sin - ae Consider Fig. 2.7, which shows a shell element in meridional section. The meridional arc length ds is equal to r; 9. The dimension dR is equal co r+cos¢@. Thesefore ome may write dR= r, cos} +d, from which Ren cose a Mombrane theory: shells of revolution Fig 27, Meriionalsetion af tlh zeoation eat, shoving me as E] jerametreRecalling that R = rasing, one may write a period) = nears ona 16006 + sind 55 = rs cosd fom whieh rn sing gy = r1c0sd —racosd (244) Using this result in the right-hand side of equation (2.43), one may now write a Bpllasin Ng] = Nefracosd + r,cosd — ra cos} rsd Rt (245) an, =n Ngcos b+ nsind ay __ Replacing the frst term of the lef-hand side of equation (2.42) by the right- hand side of equation (2.45), rearranging terms, and using the relationship Nes = Ngo t0 eliminate Nog foally yields Ng ya, ONG nGpsoben Ge = neal pcos = pesind) + (nt radNgcosd (2.46) Considering next equation (2.36), R is replaced by rgsing and Ng by the right-hand side of equation (2.41), to obtain o a eS n cos: Fpllesoovel egos ~2,) tNgeose . ~ntsin po By analogy with expression (2.45), the fist term of the left-hand side of equa- tion (2.47) may be written as ane a s0 that equation (247), when the elation Nys = Nyo is used, becomes riNgacos b+ ra sing ON; a 1 Bnd tas Mb = -nn( spend) 8SUAVE Expressions (2.46) and (2.48) are rwo partici diffeccavial equations in Ny and Neo, With variable coefficients in @ but aot 6. The loading is expanded xs Fourier series in 6: be Saco + Pind (24) m= Saint + 51, cost (249) Shp cased + SP sinad (2.48) Note thatthe frst terms on the right-hand side ofeach expression represent Joadings that are symmetric about the meridian & = O, while the second tems repeesent antisymmetric loadings: Pay Py Poy Phy Pre tnd Py, aze functions of $ only. “The general solution may then be sumed to be of the form Sensors Nisin (22504) y= Se nnceesd +3 Msinnd (2.508) Ngo = Noses nO + 37 Neg 0508 (2.50e) where the fst term or the cight-hand side of each exprestion represent a response oft shell that symmetric about 0 = 0 (caused by he syrnmetric Joncing), while the second term represents an antisytametit response (caused by the antisyrmetce loading); Ngo, Now New Nie, Nya, and Nya ate Funee tions of ¢ only. Symmetric and antisymmetic loadings ae solved for separately, and Sally the results are added vogetber. Substitution of the th terms of expressions (2.49) and (2.50) into the governing equations (2.40) and (2.48) yields Meo(222)rwmer (2) (Ie ay HrilFgcond— Py) cee (ees Membrane theory: hls of eavaltionMembrane theary: halle of revolution Fig. 28. Defermation of « line deme of an sxizymmeclly loaded sell of raelsion (2 fos the symmetsc part, snd ee (Se oe (2) (za) say = (aco g ~ Pa) Weea(2)nane ( a, Ng will be positive (Ge. tensile) throughout the shell. When 6 = 2, the above expressions sedloce to Ny = Np = pa/2, the results fora spherical vessel For b smaller than <, No can be rewsiten as pe FH (F ~B)sint 6 Ny =e FE ind 33) D (Pin? 6 +P cos? @)? (eee Tina shell of given ratio B/a, where b-< a, Nps tensile from the apex (6 = 0) downwards, until one reaches the horizontal czce of latitude corcesponding tod = g, where it becomes zero, Solving equation (3.33) with the lef-hend fide set equal to zero yields 6 sind TH Ne (334) Below this level, Np becomes negative (ie, compressive). ‘Membrane solutions: axisymmetric loading 3‘Membrane solutions: axisymmetric loading Fig, 3.5. Prescre ses ia a form of a circalar tors [+] Since the equatorial plane (¢ = 1/2) of pressure vessel in the form of comm- plete elipsoids of revolution (such asthe one illustrated in Fig. 3.4) ipa plane of symmetry for both hoop and meridional effect, present considerations are con: fined to the top half ofthe vessel (i.e. tothe region 0 < @ < m/2). Thus, forthe domain 0-< $< 7/2, hoop compression occuts in the zone gy << x/2, "To ensure that ao hoop compression occu in the shel, the relative proportions of & and « must be such that the a/ /2), the hoop stress esskant Ng will altrays be tensile throughout. AS the meridional stress resultant Ny is always tensile throughout the vessel regardless ofthe relative proportions of sand the «entice vessel would then be completly Fe of ny compressive actions, and one ced not check for loesl buckling for vessels satisfying this condition 3.1.5 Vessel in the form of a circular torus For a circular torus, let & be measured from the vertical axis of the circular cross-section, cowards the outer surface ofthe torus, as shown in Fig. 3.5. Fae the outer surface of the torus (over which the Gaussian curvature is postive), @ is positive (0 < ¢ $7), whereas for the inner surface (which is of negative Gaussian curvature), 6 will be considered to be negative (0 > $ 2 —n). The principal radii of curvature are as follows (sce Fig. 3.) (3.36) R _Atasing axemne 3.37 ting sind oe) where A is the mean radius of the torus ag Nscron nsf eens From equation (2.15) Ne antes J-( EES pcoroen oan 4 arnmama (ame a) +] Atg@ =O and 6 = 186°, Ny must remain fini fore At Ssing 2 C Fadia ) (38) From equation (2.12) implying thet & = 0, ‘There Ne Mas (3.39) For the innérsusfice, over which @ is negative, ¢ =~} so that A feinl6l won (340) Np would stil be given by expression (3.39), a result that may be confirmed by substitution of (3.40) in equation (2.11) which, for the inner surface of negetive Gaussian curvature, must retd (eee Fig- 3.6) Ga) [At the uppermost and lowest circles of latitude (Le. the locations @ = 0 and ¢ = 180°, where the outer suxface meets the inner surface), some localized bending is expected to occur, owing to the vanishing of the curvature I/ry there, a rg jumps from +00 (just within the outer surface) to ~00 (just within the inner surface). Such ‘lines of distortion’ are discussed in Section 1.5.3. ‘The predicted beealslown of the membrane solution at these two circles may be confirmed by calculating membsine deformations, which will be seen to exhibit certain singularities at these locations. ~ nee Membrane solutions: axisymmetri loading Fig 3.6, Equilibria in the lets moral tthe sal, mideroce of aMeabrane solutions axieymmetre leading Fig. 3.7. Precare vee in ‘he form of on elipi torte 3.1.6 Vessel in the form of an elliptic torus For the elliptical cross-section in Fig. 3.7, itis seen that ris the same as for the clipsoid of revolution, ic ee ee 2.40) (sin? 0+ P cos? 4)” ee) while 7» may readily be seen from the same figure to be aan 2 Beng 8 and * ait Peat gy * Ga) wher rs the second principal dius of an ellipsoid of revolotioa othe samme meridional cross-section a8 the cross-section of the elliptic torus and, as before, A isthe mean radius of the elipic torus From equation 2.15) Nee Fate xanb] @ aaa pee AF cospsing 40 [ eee aot 4 lees + Ford} | ca oa | pAb sing ASN § (Pain? + Pov d)™ pat eo ra Now resin? = Asing+ ae (345) (iin? 6+ P cor 4) Ato = 02nd g = 180°, rp sin” vanishes, so for Ny to remain finite, the term, in square brackets on the eight-hind side of expression (3.44) must alsavanish. This gives ees ae -F) Substitution of (3.45) and (3.46) into (3.44), and simplification of the ensuing ‘expression, Gnlly yields A (346) Ale sic? } + Pos? 9)!" +S sing =o ee 8 (Bsin® +H cost 6)? | Ale? sin? 6 + Poot 6) + sind (347) When & = a, this result reduces co that fox a circulat torus, as expected For A= 0 but b #4, expression (3.47) reduces to (3.31) for an elipsoid of revolution, also a expected [Nj then follows from equation (2.12). After some simplifestions, one eventually obtains When b= 4, the above expression coincides with sre 90°, is an inward force keoed 76) sin Ce casing compression ia the ring bean. “The vera columns and the horizonca ig beam mist be designed for cei especive compressive actions. 203 Nileos | = 394 3.2.4 Intze tank Ao Intze sank is a liquid-containing shell of compound geometry, usually comprising 2 spherical top, 2 cylinetical body, 2 conical teansition in the Tower part, and a spherical bottom (see Fig. 3.11). At gue jssction of the conical portion and the spherical bottom, the compressive meridional tctions ‘on either side oppose each other da the horizontal projection, which mini- sizes the net lateral thrust on the sing beam at this level, resulting in an ‘economical desiga (shuttering considerations aside). Lee ehe skellehicknesses Of the spherical top, the cylindrical body, the conical transition and the spherical bottam be denoted by 4, fay fs tnd 4 fespectively, these being con- stant over thei respective domains, The test of the geomettical parameters of the Intze tank are as shown in Fig. 3.11. From Fig. 3.11, the slope a of the conical portion is given by sind, _ stints cosa = Ste em “Therefore, the parameters / ands, of the conical portion may be expeested ss = {0b s=-(S%) (3.784) (S%) (3.78)0-208 94-4 Assuming the tank to be filled righ up to the top with liquid af weight 7 per ‘unit volime, the hydrostatic pressure p, in the four portions of the tank may be expressed in terms of the generalized geometric pacameters of Fig. 3.11, a5 follows (@) Spherical top (0< 4 < #4) B= Yat — cos) ©) Cylindrical sides (0 < x < H) — (Ky +x) where Ky =al1 ~c084,) (9 Conieal portion (% <¢ 3 vn 9-20 (25)--J" (24) soit {(U=ZIY aay “{(#5)-2-2)" +(¢2 Denoting the right-bund side ofthe above expression by 5, one obtains, From expressions (3.222) and (3.224), the closed-form results (3.229) NaS St + (P= a )ey? (3.2304) ti [gaye Se na-£[e—) BP EL ] eam 3.4 Cooling towers “Thermal power sation cooling towers are usually designed as hyperboloids of revolution of one sheet, With reference to Fig. 3.26, the equation of the meridian is 2a. “20 oe 2 (3.231) noting hat the ai coincides with the verte ats of rvation of he Sorat and she ans hoor, otha the radian Roce of aoe Segui othe coon From equation 8.231) patty? -#) (3.232)(9233) 234) ‘Which on searrnging yields Jas! “Funb—F (6235) ie forthe meridian inthe postive domain of Fig. 3:26 Fran d a sing ae 0: Panto PYP Pam g— eos 8)? C “This solution is real if sin? § > Beas. if Ae wtg>S (3.237) which, by reference to equation (3234), is always so for a hyperbolic meridian, ‘The second principal radius of curvature is then given by (258) ‘Membrane solutions: axisymmetric loading ig 326 Cong ei 1he forme of« Iyperbaleid of eaton of me shes 107‘Membrane solutions: axisymmetric loading 108 Substitution of result (3.236) into expression (3,232) yields Peosd (Fan? 6 Feast)” ee yo From equation (3.233), the second derivative of y with respect to x is obtained as gs aa (2.240) Substitution of expressions (8.233) and (3.240) into equation (3.17) yields pn espe (ata) from which + can really be eliminated, using result (3.256, co obtain Int 7 241») © aio Peat? Now 7, being on the side of the shell midsurface opposite to that on which the axis of revolution lies, must be taken as negative, i. cua (3.242) = Paint —Peost gy? fq is the downward vertical loading per unit area of the shell midsurface (principally seléweight g, = 74, where 7 is the weight per unit volume of the shell material and 1 is the shell thickness), assumed here to be constant for simplicity, then the loading components py (tangential to the meridian, and always pointing towards the base of the cooling tower) and p, (normal to the shell midsurface, and always pointing away fom the axis of revolution) are given, 25 in the case of domes, by the relations pmaing (3.2484) paged (6.2430) where, as shown in Fig. 3.26, 6 is the angle between the positive ditection of the yaxis and the nocmal tothe shell midsurface atthe point in question (Le. sderaits a5 onc goes down the meridian feom the top of the ccoling tower towards the boxtom) ‘Substitution of the expressions for r, (equation (3.242)) and r, (equation (3.238), and chose for pg and p, as given by equations (3.243), into the general solution for Ny (equation (2:15)) yields (2 sin 6 ~ # cos? ve sind Fain ("ato — Poor ae cor] (3.244) N,sae loafer 1 We +BY eosd : wera al 2-6 oes) C2) Therefore 7 ayn n= seg eat ove) at = Paine a Ay “{(Fetns) ae . 2) cog +(e) Aavthe op edge, where @ = dy, Ng mast vanish since this edges ee. This gives or 2d +BY cond ‘ aon (tres) 1 fake +B) cos dy +0 (4 aman} that Ng may fall be writen as ao (asin? § — # cos* g)'!? Nem eye si -((eGent) = Cees) (3.248) By reference to Fig, 3.27, equilibrium of a shell element in the dicection ‘normal to the shel tidsurface yields (27) Ne Ne le Tal Gad from which Nomalo+et) 62%) Membrane solutions: axisymmetric loadingMembrane solutions: axisymmetric loading Fig. 3.27. Equilibrium i ‘he dyecion normal tothe ‘hell midrface of ¢ point om 1 byprbli ufo of reoltion: Nelle +e = Ne/leel 110 since |r] = ry. Like the final expression for the stvess resultant Ny this expression for Ny is 2 closed-form result, since pp ro [rs] and Ng are known from expressions (3.243b), (3.238), (3.241) and (3.248), respectively 3.5 References : 1. Ziycos8 A. On membrane slutons for slemted shulf-eoluion tks of ernin ilo pots, Thr Wald Sra, 198, 200), Y2.-142 * a, Kents and MEADELSON B-Cal, MeCtaw Hil, London, 192Membrane solutions for non-axisymmetrically loaded shells of revolution ‘The membrene theory for non-axisymmetrically loaded general shells of revolution was developed in Section 2.3.2, and a solution approach indicated jn Section 2.3.3. In this chapter closed-form general solutions are obtained for two common types of shells of revolution, and these are applied to the non-axisymmettic leading conditions of wind pressure. I Spherical shell 1 General solution Let = ra = a in equations (251) and (252), which become 4. he gang cotd+ ( (sig) Nema ac0r4— Py) (4a) Pe anand + (alg) n= e[(stg)— Pa] (08 for the symmetric part of the Jonding, and an et Naens (ag) Nim Prpccrg— Phy) (428) aN; y " yo 2s aNincord~ (25 Nee {(seg)o— (4.28) for the antsymmetic pac of the loading (ce Yack tn expesions (249) and 250), For the symmetic response, and taking ay ath tem of the loading let Fe Net New (430) C= Nam New (430)Membrane solutions non-axisymmetric loading so that Ngo =H +6) (4.40) HP-«) (44) Neo ‘Similarly, for the mth component of the ansisymmetric response, the para: mevers FEN + Nbin (458) C= Ny Nose (4.5b) sce introduced, s0 that Nu =H(F'4+6') (4.60) (F’-’) (4.66) Substitution of expressions (4.4) and (4.6) into equations (4.1) and (4.2) respectively yields the pair of equations Nite FBPTOr e+ omo+i (4 )ir-@ | eres) 1a 1/9 14 -a+(F-cjns+i (ire) 1% (a3) (am) “Cea for the symmeti esponse, and pap tO+F + Goat 3 (eG) oo = Phycots ~ Ph) Dye SA c) 4 (F -cyeos (e)e +6) i ~-Hlase for the antisymmetric response. ‘Addition and subtraction of equations (6.7) yields aol bgt) 6, (Hada) -{(8$ *)Pn=PatFab (698)while addition and subtraction of equations (4.8) give ae Ey (temas) _f (228), ru} cam) momen in sing aC", cf Zeosdtn) _f(cobbe\y oy op Svc (Bette) of (SEV y, oi, e pa} (4108) Now the gene alton to any diferetaleqaton of he frm Best) =2(0) a) tay ely be shown, hough he introduction of an niga ft, to be seektoal [yal ase d] any where Cis connant of itgton ror 2eos gb + he ( sing one obits ao {0046 = to(si? e0r$) JOH = 2 buart tna9 cht fone obtains Jet126= t(se*eor#) Stowe. sat Got (4.126) an eles 2 sntpcorh oe‘Membrane solutions nonaxisymmetric loading 4 Applying these results to equations (4,9) and (4.10), one obrains the general solutions for F, G, F and Gas follows: Silo") xsi ota (4.139) (6.138) a peor? X sn? peo $ aa] wd eae (Saat) rer} ay wit gor$a4 4 om ee Perel (Siete nett) ay pa 2 aston 4.1.2 Dome subjected to wind loading Consider the hemispherical dome shown in Fig. 41. Wind is assumed to blow con the dome in a constant horizontal direction, with the pressure over 4 vertical plane perpendicolas to the ditecion of she wind being constant and ‘equal top. The dizection from which the wind i blowing will be taken as che origin plane for 9. the plane 0 = 0). Por simplicity, and consistent withthe approach adopted in the analysis of conventional structures, the resultant ‘fect ofthe wind action on the shel is assomed to bea pressure normal to the shel surface. Wich reference to Fig, 4.1 this pressure is greatest at point A (where {g = 90°, 9 = 0}), and zero at points B {g = 90", = 290°) and C {#=0}. A reasonable approximation for the loading component p, may therefore be taken as fr ‘hich implies a suction on the leeward half of the shell (90° < 0 < 270°), a distribution consistent with experimentally observed trends. "The other loading components on the shelly and fy, aze boch «aken as 12040, 25 the effects of tangential friction are negligible in compatison with the effects of normal pressare =ptin bcos (15)‘The right-hand side of equation (4.15) corresponds to the second term (r=) of the first series on the right-hand side of expression (2.49c). Thus fe=—psin bcos = PjcosO (4.16) so that Pa =—psind (417) ‘As the loading is symmetsic about the vertical plane 0 = 0, itis necessary to evaluate expressions (413), with a set equal to 1; Pyy and Py, are zero, while Pa is given by equation (4.17). Thus FF |e, et cos) nt ona] (489) 6 =o Pe [(t~ cong) int por $.a} (188) (4.19) \ Membrane solutions: nonaxisymmetrie loading ig. 4.1. Hempel ‘hime subjucted 10 ind Ieoding usso chat ‘Membrane solutions: romedimmesrctoning ——(1-4cn4)(tan$) = (1 ~co80) (coh) ming Both integrals in equations (4.18) and (4.186) therefore reduce to Jor oao=—| co? 614006) =-(c os 2) (4390) Expressions (4.18) thus become Blorr(oo- 59) “eateaalor 54) c= Eelam 2) = area PoH(ore-39)| From relations (4.4) Na=HF+6) 7 iogf{ierptte- Di) cos spats 28)} Noo = HF ~6) shan {e- Di) + (C+ Dieoss am) From relations (2.503) and (2.50¢), one further obtains Ng=Nacosd ~ 5(S8){ta+po+@- Di)eosd void) (4.196) (4.208) (4.208) (4218) (4.210) (422)Le ae fe Nyo = Nya sin (BE)fla—mv+t6 +0006 jam + 2pcos0( oee)} To determine the constants Cy and Dy, the conditions are imposed that both Nig and Nys mus vemain finite a the apen ofthe dome (9 = 0). Thats, for cach right-hand side of the above expressions the mumerftor teem in braces rmyst vanish when g = 0, since the denominator term (sin®@) vanishes when = 0. These ¢wo conditions yield the same resolt: (4.234) ‘with D, remaining unknown. Note that the finiteness condition for Ng and Ngo at 6 =O alzo implies chat the firse and second derivatives of the tezms in braces of the right-hand sides of expressions (4.22) must vanish at 6 = 0, since the first and second derivatives of the denominator etm (sin’ g) vanish at $= 0. The vanishing condition for the fst derivative of the term in braces, leads to the identity 0 = 0 for both expressions (4.228) and (4.22), while the vanishing condition for the second derivative leads 19 the solution Dy =3pe (4.236) for both, expressions Substitution of the results for C and D; into expressions (4.22) finaly yields cos Ny 2(3$ $)to~ 0s? 4) cos — 2} con (4.242) Ne= # (5g )(O-

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