Chapter – 01

Automation
1.1 Automation
1.2 Industrial Automation
1.3 Building Blocks of Automation
1.3.1 Building Block Systems
1.3.1.1 Processing Systems
1.3.1.2 Multi-Microprocessor Systems
1.3.1.3 Local Area Networks
1.3.1.4 Analog and Digital I/O Modules
1.3.1.5 Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition Systems (SCADA)
1.3.1.6 Remote Terminal Unit
1.3.1.7 PID Controllers
1.3.2 Building Block Components
1.3.2.1 Sensors
1.3.2.2 Analyzers
1.3.2.3 Actuators
1.3.2.4 Drives
Chapter – 01

1.1 Automation

“The control of an industrial process (manufacturing, production etc) by automatic

rather than manual means is often called automation”. Automation is prevalent in
the chemical, electric power, paper, automobile and steel industries, among
others. The concept of automation is central to our industrial society.

In its modern usage, automation can be defined as a technology that uses

programmed commands to operate a given process, combined with feedback of
information to determine that the commands have been properly executed.
Automation is often used for processes that were previously operated by
humans. When automated, the process can operate without human assistance or
interference. A semi automated process is one that incorporates both humans
and robots. For instance, many automobile assembly line operations require
cooperation between a human operator and an intelligent robot.

Examples of manufacturing automation include:

1. Automatic machine tools to process parts

2. Industrial robots
3. Automatic material handling
4. Automated storage and retrieval, and inspection systems
5. Feedback control systems
6. Computer systems for designing, automatically transforming designs into
products, planning and decision making to support manufacturing.

1.2 Industrial Automation

From the moment people started doing work, they began trying to find methods
of automating the work. Progress in such methods can be seen in the use of
automated machines, computer-aided designs, computer-aided manufacturing,
computer-aided robotics, and industrial robots. Programmable controllers and
robots are key components for industrial automation. These systems have
enabled our factories to increase productivity, decrease costs and increase the
quality of manufactured goods.

Automation or Industrial Automation is the use of computers to control

industrial machinery and processes, replacing human operators. It is a step
beyond mechanization, where human operators are provided with machinery to
help them in their jobs. The most visible part of automation can be said to be
industrial robotics. Some advantages are repeatability, tighter quality control,
waste reduction, integration with business systems, increased productivity and

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 Automation

reduction of labour. Some disadvantages are high initial costs and increased
dependence on maintenance.

By the middle of the 20th century, automation had existed for many years on a
small scale, using mechanical devices to automate the production of simply
shaped items. However the concept only became truly practical with the addition
of the computer, whose flexibility allowed it to drive almost any sort of task.
Computers with the required combination of power, price, and size first started to
appear in the 1960s, and since then have taken over the vast majority of
assembly line tasks (some food production/inspection being a notable exception).

In most cases specialised hardened computers refered to as PLCs

(Programmable Logic Controllers) are used to synchronize the flow of inputs from
sensors and events with the flow of outputs to actuators and events. This leads
to precisely controlled actions that permit a tight control of the process or
machine.

HMIs (Human-Machine Interfaces) are usually employed to communicate to

PLCs. e.g.: To enter and monitor temperatures or pressures to be maintained.

Social issues of automation

Automation raises several important social issues. Among them is automation's

impact on employment/unemployment.

Some argue automation leads to fuller employment. One author made that case
here: When automation was first introduced, it caused widespread fear. It was
thought that the displacement of human workers by computerized systems would
lead to unemployment (this also happened with mechanization, centuries earlier).
In fact the opposite was true, the freeing up of the labor force allowed more
people to enter information jobs, which are typically higher paying. One odd side
effect of this shift is that "unskilled labor" now is paid very well in most
industrialized nations, because fewer people are available to fill such jobs leading
to supply and demand issues.

Some argue the reverse, at least in the long term. First, automation has only just
begun and short-term conditions might partially obscure its long-term impact. For
instance many manufacturing jobs left the United States during the early 1990s,
but a massive upscaling of IT jobs at the same time offset this as a whole.

It appears that automation does devalue unskilled labor through its replacement
with less-expensive machines, however the overall effect of this on the workforce
as a whole remains unclear. Today automation of the workforce in the "western
world" is quite advanced, yet during the same period the general wellbeing of its

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Chapter – 01

citizens has increased dramatically. What role automation played in these

chanes has not been well studied.

1.3 Building Blocks of Automation

One by one, better methods are being found to sense, move, position, orient,
fabricate, and assemble products using a wide variety of ingenious basic
components – the building blocks of automated systems. Unless and until a
manufacturing workstation has been analyzed thoroughly and fitted out with the
basic components of automation, it usually is not ready for more exotic hardware
such as industrial robots. Indeed, the industrial robots themselves are
constructed of some of these same basic components of automation.

To make sense out of the diversity of automation components, some sort of

crude classification is needed. The classification is rough because some of the
most useful components find their way into several of the categories, depending
upon how they are used. Generally, automation is distributed into two main
categories; namely,

 Building Block Systems

o Processing systems
o Multi-microprocessor systems
o Local area networks
o Analog and Digital I/O modules
o Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems (SCADA)
o Remote Terminal Unit
o PID Controllers
 Building Block components
o Sensors
o Analyzers
o Actuators
o Drives

It should be noted that, the operator of an automated system is again a human

himself; the industrial robot is the part of the automated system. The industrial
robot is actually an integrated system made up of all four of the basic automation
component categories – sensors, analyzers, actuators and drives.

1.3.1 Building Block Systems

The development in the field of automation and in the field of intelligent

machines, (i.e., starting from computers, microprocessors to present day expert

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 Automation

systems and neural networks) which constitutes the basic building block
systems, were almost simultaneous. It is a known fact that growth in computer
and microprocessor technology was one single big cause for the growth in
automation techniques like Direct Digital Control (DDC), Distributed Control, and
Adaptive Control etc.

1.3.1.1 Processing system

Computers and microprocessors: The computers are predecessors to

microprocessors. The basic concepts of computers were evolved before the
dawn of the microprocessor.

By the early 1970’s, small integrated circuits (TTL logic) were well established
while MOS integrated circuits, such as calculator components had started to
appear. The use of a microcomputer or control processor (as against the use of
general purpose computers) was also well known. It was clear to some
semiconductor engineers that if the calculator chip could become more general, it
would have wider application.

Figure 1-1: Von Neumann organization of computer.

Also, the mini-computer users were confident that if it could be made more
compact and cheaper its application areas will become further wide. These were
the two mainstreams that led to the microprocessor development. Undoubtedly,
what made the processor possible was MOS technology and the remarkable
properties of silicon, providing that, the microprocessor was inevitable.

Figure 1-1 shows the block diagram of computer showing different units and is
known as Von Neumann Organization of Computers. The computer organization
proposed by Von Neumann envisages that binary number systems are used for

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Chapter – 01

both data as well as instructions. There is a direct correlation between the

microprocessor organization and the organization proposed by Von Neumann for
computers. Due to advancements in micro-miniaturization, the arithmetic logic
unit and control unit have been put on a single chip known as microprocessors.

Microcomputers and microcontrollers: Microcomputers are microprocessors

with on-chip memory. Some microcomputer chips contain timer/counter, interrupt
handling, also along with processor and memory. Timer/counter and interrupts
are useful for control application and these microcomputers are called
microcontrollers. To be compatible with analog and digital world in some cases
analog to digital converter and digital to analog converter have also been
integrated on the chip. There is a variety of microcomputers/microcontrollers from
different manufacturers like 8048, 8051 and 8086 series of Intel, Z8 from Zilog,
M6801 and 68HC11 from Motorola,1650 series from General Instruments,
IM61000 from Internal Inc. etc. In general, these chips come in three versions
namely “on-chip ROM version”, “on-chip EPROM version” and “ROM-less
version”. The later two versions are used for development purposes. After the
development is complete, the large number of ‘on-chip ROM’ version chips can
be obtained by getting the program fused at source, at low cost.

The Transputer: The principle behind the design of the transputer is to provide
the system designer with a building block component which can be used in large
numbers to construct very high performance systems. The transputers have
been specifically developed for concurrent processing. The on-chip local memory
assists in eliminating processor to memory bottlenecks and each transputer
supports a number of asynchronous high speed serial links to other transputer
units. The efficient utilization of processors time slices is carried out by a micro
coded scheduler.

The transputer to transputer links provide a combined data communications

capacity of 5 Mega bytes per sec, and operate concurrently with internal process.
This is a radical difference from the shared bus concept employed in the majority
of multi-microprocessor architectures. It allows parallel connection without
overhead because of the complex communication between conventional parallel
processors. The advantages over multiprocessor are as follows:

 No contention for communication

 No capacitive load penalties as transputers are added.
 The bandwidth does not become saturated as system increases in size.

The system supports high level concurrent programming language. Occam (high
level concurrent programming language) specifically designed to run efficiently
on transputer systems. The Occam allows access to machine features and
removes the need for a low level assembly language.

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 Automation

1.3.1.2 Multi-microprocessor Systems

The architecture proposed by Von Neumann was a Single Instruction Single Data
(SISD) stream. A number of computers have been designed around this
structure. The single instruction and single data stream computers are easy to
conceptualize and design since the computer is executing only one instruction at
a time. The data flow is from/to only from one input/output unit at an instant.
Multitasking concept was used for increasing the speed of program execution.
This allows a number of programs resident in the computer’s memory at one
time. The computer switches from current task to other task as and when an I/O
instruction is encountered. Since I/O units are comparatively slower than CPU,
the computer on encountering the I/O instruction initiates its execution and then
starts executing another program. On completion of I/O, the computer gets signal
to switch back to the original program. This optimizes the CPU time. However,
the branch and return addresses as well as the status of various programs are to
be maintained by CPU. A number of new concepts have been introduced both in
computers and microprocessors with the aim of increasing the speed, by
incorporating parallelism in memory and processing. These concepts are:

1. Parallelism in memory
a. Interleaving
b. Cache Memory
c. Multiple Memory Access
2. Parallelism in processing
a. Pipelining
b. Pipeline Vector Processing
c. Parallel Processing

Most of the above concepts have found their way to microprocessors. The
pipelining, cache memory, vector processing etc are widely used in today’s high-
performance microprocessors.

It was however clear that parallelism is necessary for increased speed which is
measured by millions instructions per seconds (MIPS) executed by the CPU. It
was thought that instead of SISD architecture, data and instruction stream can be
increased. The classification of computer architecture with respect to data stream
and instruction stream is shown in Figure 1-2. Other equally important reasons
for introducing parallelism were reliability through redundancy in control systems
and geographically or functionally distributed control systems.

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Chapter – 01

Figure 1-2: Classification of computer architecture.

1.3.1.3 Local Area Networks

Local area networks generally called LANs are basically loosely coupled systems
having autonomous microprocessors with local memories interconnected via I/O
circuits. The transfer of information requires Input-Output operations (Figure 1-3).
Both serial and parallel interconnections are possible.

Local area networks are privately-owned networks, and not subjected to Federal
Communication Commission (FCC), within a single building or campus of up to a
few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and
work stations in such a way that every device is potentially able to communicate
with every other device in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g.,
printers) and exchange information. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100
Mbps, have low delay (tens of microseconds), and make very few errors. Newer
LANs may operate at higher speeds, up to hundreds of megabit/sec. LANs are
distinguished from other kind of networks by three characteristics: (1) their size,
(2) their transmission technology, and (3) their topology.

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 Automation

Figure 1-3: Local area network interconnection.

The LAN puzzle

 Workstation: personal computer or a processor that is able to run PC

software. Individual workstations on the LAN are usually micro-
computers or PCs with some degree of intelligence. A LAN workstation
may run application software on its own processor using its own ROM,
but may also store and retrieve programs and data files elsewhere in the
network.
 Server: a station in the network that handles special functions, such as
disc storage or programs, documents or data files, for the purpose of
printing. The server station provides a shared resource device for
programs, documents, and data files available to other users. To be
suitable for use as a server, the PC must have a hard disc for storage of
information and the ability to load the appropriate server control software.
 Networking software: the file server runs a series of programs known
as the network software.
 Topology: the arrangement of the workstations in relation to each other.
 Network interface card (NIC): the circuit board or hardware device
which connects or permits the attachment of each workstation to the
transmission media. The most common type of interface between a PC
and the transmission media is through an interface card. This is a
printed circuit board designed to fit inside the PC cabinet. The cable will
attach directly to the card. Besides serving as the physical connections,
the interface controls the signaling method incorporated by the
workstations as they attempt to transmit messages throughout the
network.

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Chapter – 01

Another type of interface (transceiver) is called a T-connector. This is a

hardware device in the shape of a “T” which permits the connections of
the workstation directly to the coaxial cabling.

 Patch Cord - (Also called a Patch Cable). This is the cable that usually
connects computers to computers (NIC to NIC), computers to Hubs, or
computers to Transceivers.
 Protocol: the access method (protocol) is the technique under whose
control the network determines the order of message transmission
among the participating workstations.
 Repeaters and amplifiers: to overcome distance limitations of the basic
network, vendors may supply repeaters or analog amplifiers to boost the
signal strength on the transmission media, and which can effectively
allow for the connection of two segments of a LAN.

LAN Topologies

There are a number of different LAN topologies, as shown in Figure 1-4, each
suited to particular application environments. Issues such as reliability, speed,
cost, and distance influence the choice of LAN. In many of these topologies,
communicating devices share a common transmission medium instead of being
connected by individual point-to-point links. The major point becomes how you
gain access to the medium that you share with others.

Figure 1-4: LAN Topologies.

Star Topology: A star network has a central or controlling workstation with

branches to various slave devices. The controlling workstation is often a
computerized switch. Each slave device is linked to the central workstation with a
point-to-point serial connection.

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 Automation

Any protocol or code conversions may be centralized in the controlling

workstation, thus eliminating expensive and complex network interfaces.
However, in a star network, the controlling workstation is a critical node and if it
fails, the associated terminals and other devices are rendered inoperative.

Ring Topology: The Ring or loop topology is a pattern of computing

workstations arranged in a circle. Establishing a primary controlling workstation
can centralize control. Or control can be distributed by assigning an equal or
peer-to-peer status to all of the workstations. In this arrangement, a message
passes from workstation to workstation, being examined by each intermediate
workstation, until it reaches its destination.

In a ring arrangement each station assumes an active role and is therefore

potentially critical node. Failure of one relay point in the ring (depending upon the
physical connections) may halt the flow of data.

Bus Topology: A bus network has a backbone cable with two endpoints. Each
workstation is connected to the cable using a tap box or T-connector
(transceiver). There are no critical nodes on a bus arrangement because each
workstation interfaces with the bus separately. Failure of one device does not
effect the entire network.

As with the ring network, all messages are broadcast to all of the workstations.
The intelligence in each station only recognizes the message destined for it.

Combined Topologies: In large computer networks, such as in a University

Campus, often a number of types of LAN topologies will exist in the same
network.

1.3.1.4 Analog and Digital I/O Modules

After having discussed the computers and microprocessors, we shall now be

dealing with the modules which connect the process to the data processing unit.

Analog input signals are received from sensors and signal conditioner and
represent the value of measured like flow, position, displacement, temperature
etc. The signal conditioner takes as input the output of sensor and suitably
conditions it to be acceptable to real-time systems. The signal may be amplified,
filtered or even digitized for some applications.

Digital input signals refer to the ON – OFF states of various valves, limit
switches, etc. One digital input signal represents status of the limit switch or
valve and is represented by one bit of information for real-time systems. Normally
digital input signals are compatible to real-time systems and can be inputted
directly. In some cases signal amplification or attenuation is required.

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Chapter – 01

Interrupt input signals draw the attention of real-time system towards certain
abnormal situations in the environment or the process controlled by real-time
system. The real-time system on receipt of interrupt signal attends to the
abnormality pointed out and resumes its normal work from the point where it was
suspended. The abnormalities may be excess flow, temperature, power failure,
or some process faults which must be notified immediately. One interrupt signal
will correspond to only one particular abnormality which needs to be attended.
Real-time systems attend to abnormalities by executing special programs called
Interrupts Servicing Routines. Thus there is one to one correspondence between
an abnormality – interrupt signal and interrupt servicing routine.

Figure 1-5: An inside look of real-time systems.

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 Automation

In order to enable the real-time system to suspend its current program, execution
of the interrupt servicing routine and restarting of the suspended program is
needed. The facility to store the status of the program and fetch the same
afterwards is essential.

Timer/counter input signals are important part of any real-time system. Through
these signals the concept and measure of real-time is derived. These signals are
used as clock input to timer/counter in real-time system or gate input to
enable/disable different timers/counters. The timer circuit may be used to initiate
events at defined intervals. The counter circuit on the other hand, may be used to
count the occurrences of any defined event. The output of timer/counter may be
used as interrupt signal to real-time system.

Display output signals are used to derive the display devices like LED, LCD,
Audio Alarms etc. The display of status of process, various control valves etc is
very important to the operator. Apart from this, the limits set for various
parameters at different places in the process are also displayed for the benefit of
operators. The display output signals carry the information which is displayed on
one or more display devices. Some of the real-time systems do not control the
process but display the various parameter values, their variations, limits set etc.
for the benefit of operators, who eventually control the process by manually
operating various control valves. Such real-time systems are called Data
Acquisition Systems.

Control output signals are required to derive the control valves, motors etc. to
perform the control action decided by the real-time systems. The control action
desired may be simple ON – OFF control of valves/motor or fine control of motor
speed, position, displacement, flow and level through control valves. The control
output signals are analog signals which can derive various actuators. However
with the emergence of digital actuators, these analog signals will soon be
replaced by digital signals.

The major hardware subsystems of real-time control systems are shown in

Figure 1-5.

1.3.1.5 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems

After having profound knowledge of the basic modules of a real-time system, let
us now proceed to the understandings of Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) system, since it is the first step towards automation. The
basic functions carried out by an SCADA system are:

 Channel scanning
 Conversion into engineering units
 Data processing

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Chapter – 01

Figure 1-6 shows the block schematic of SCADA.

Channel Scanning: There are many ways in which microprocessor can address
the various channels and read the data.

Polling: The microprocessor scans the channel to read the data, and this
process is called polling. In polling, the action of selecting a channel and
addressing it is the responsibility of processor. The channel selection may be
sequential or in any particular order decided by the designer. The channel
scanning and reading of data requires the following actions to be taken:

 Sending channel address to multiplexer

 Sending start convert pulse to ADC
 Reading the digital data.

Figure 1-6: Supervisory control and data acquisition system.

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 Automation

Interrupt Scanning: Another way of scanning the channels may be to provide

some primitive facility after transducer to check for violation of limits. It sends
interrupt signal request to processor when the analog signal from transducer is
not within High and Low limits boundary set by Analog High and Analog Low
signals. This is also called Scanning by Exception. When any parameter exceeds
the limits then the limit checking circuit would sent interrupt request to
microprocessor which in turn would monitor all parameters till the parameter
values come back within pre-specified limits. This allows a detailed analysis of
the system and the problems by the SCADA system.

Conversion to Engineering Units: The data read from the output of ADC
should be converted to equivalent engineering units before any analysis is done
or the data is sent for display or printing. For an 8-bit ADC working in unipolar
mode the output ranges between 0 and 255. An ADC output value will
corresponds to a particular engineering value based on the following parameters.

 Calibration of transmitters
 ADC mode and digital output lines

Depending on the input range of measurand value for transmitter, a calibration

factor is determined. If a transmitter is capable of measuring parameter within the
input range X1 and X2 and provides 0 – 5 V signal at output then calibration factor
is

X2  X1
1 Volt  units
5

If we are converting this signal to digital through an 8-bit ADC (Input range 0 – 5
V) in unipolar mode then

5 V = 255 and 0 V = 0,

i.e.,

255
1 Volt 
5

Thus the conversion factor is

255 X 2  X 1
ADC output  engineerin g units
5 5

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Chapter – 01

X2  X1
ADC output1  engineerin g units
255

If the ADC output is Y then the corresponding value in engineering units will be

Y(X 2  X 1 )
255
(X 2  X 1 )
Conversion factor is therefore
255

The conversion of ADC output to engineering units, therefore, involves

multiplication by conversion factor. The conversion factor is based on the ADC
type, mode and the transmitter range. This multiplication can be achieved by shift
and add method in case of 8-bit microprocessor. For 16-bit microprocessor, a
single multiplication instruction will do the job.

Data Processing: The data read from the ADC output for various channels is
processed by the microprocessor to carry out limit checking and performance
analysis.

Distributed SCADA System: In any application, if the number of channels is

quite large then in order to interface these to processor, one approach is to use
multiplexers at different levels. The alternative approach for such conditions is to
use more than one SCADA system and distribute the channels among them.

1.3.1.6 Remote Terminal Unit

The remote terminal units (RTUs) are basically distributed SCADA based
systems used in remote locations in applications like oil pipelining, irrigation
canals, oil drilling platforms etc. They are rugged and should be able to work
unattended for a long duration. There are two modes in which Remote Terminal
Unit work.

1. Under command from central computer

2. Stand alone mode

Since these RTUs have to operate for a long duration unattended, the basic
requirements would be that they consume minimum power and have
considerable self-diagnostic facility. Following are the main parts of remote
terminal units.

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 Automation

Figure 1-7: Block diagram of Remote Terminal Unit.

 I/O modules
 Communication module
 Special software facilities

1.3.1.7 PID Controller

A PID Controller is a device that employs each of the three basic feedback
control modes: proportional (P), integral (I), and derivative (D) control.

Proportional Control

For proportional control, the controller output, p(t ) , is proportional to the error
signal, e(t ) , by a factor of K c , the dimensionless controller gain.

p(t )  K c e(t ) (1.1)

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Chapter – 01

The controller gain is adjusted to increase or decrease the sensitivity of the

controller output to the deviations between setpoint and the controlled variable.

Taking the Laplace transforms gives the following transfer function:

Gc  K c (1.2)

The advantage of a proportional-only control is its simplicity. If offsets can be

tolerated, the use of a proportional controller may be optimal. However, it will not
eliminate the steady-state errors that occur after a set-point change or a
sustained load disturbance.

Integral Control

Integral control depends on the integral of the error signal over time. The integral
time constant,  I , is the adjustable controller parameter with units of time.

t
p(t )  (1 /  I )  e(t*)dt * (1.3)
0

The primary advantage of integral control is that it eliminates offset. This

happens because p(t ) will change until the error signal is zero, thus eliminating
a deviation between the controlled variable and setpoint in the steady-state. The
disadvantage of integral-only control is that the controller will not respond until
the error signal has persisted.

To counteract this problem, controllers have been developed that combine the
use of proportional and integral control. The result is a proportional-integral (PI)
controller, which is commonly used because of the immediate acting proportional
control coupled with the corrective acting integral control. The PI controller
transfer function is

Gc  K c  I s  1 /  I s (1.4)

Derivative Control

Derivative control is used to anticipate the future behavior of the error signal by
using corrective action based on the rate of change in error signal.

p(t )   D de / dt  (1.5)

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 Automation

Derivative action is used to stabilize the controlled process. When the error
signal is increasing greatly, the controller output is large. The error signal
decreases, and the process is eventually stabilized. A disadvantage of derivative
control is that controller output is zero when the error signal is constant.

To counteract this problem, proportional-derivative (PD) controllers have been

developed to improve the dynamic response of the controlled variable. The
transfer function of a PD controller is

Gc  K c (1   D s) (1.6)

Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control

A three mode proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller combines the

advantages of each individual mode of control. The ideal PID controller output
equation is

 t

p(t )  K c e(t )  (1 /  I )  e(t*)dt *   D (de / dt ) (1.7)
 0 

and the transfer function is

Gc  K c 1  1 /  I s   D s  (1.8)

The PID controller provides quick acting corrective control of most process
variables. Adding integral control to a proportional controller will eliminate the
steady state error, but will increase overshoot and settling time. But by adding
derivative control, the overshoot and settling time can be reduced.

Note: A PID controller is not used for highly noisy control variables like flow
control, because the derivative response will amplify the random fluctuations in
the system.

1.3.2 Building Block Components

Another approach to classify the automation is based on the components used in

the automation industry. Generally, there are four basic components which
constitute an automatic system. One of them must be present in one form or
another if the system is to be termed as the automatic system.

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Chapter – 01

1.3.2.1 Sensors

Sensors are the first link between the typical automated system and the
conventional process. Sensors convey information from the manufacturing
process equipment and from the human operator, if any.

Manual Switch: the most familiar sensor of all is the manual switch. An
automation system is linked through a manual switch to the operator, who may
desire to turn the system on or off or make adjustments to the automated cycle.
Virtually, all manual switches are electric, but they are actuated mechanically.

Most switches have two stable states: on and off. However, many switches have
only single stable state. That stable state can either be the open position or the
closed position, which leads to the terms normally open (NO) and normally
closed (NC) used to describe switches.

 Single-pole, single-throw (SPST): the ordinary wall switch is an example

of toggle switch. Such switches are designated single-pole, single-
throw (SPST) and are illustrated in Figure 1-8(a). The term single-pole,
single-throw implies that it merely opens or closes a single circuit.
 Single-pole, double-throw (SPDT): toggle switches are usually two-
position switches, but may be three position switches, with the center
position designated as off. This makes it possible for the switch to
complete two different circuits. Toggled to the left makes circuit A;
toggled to the right closes circuit B; and the center position holds both
circuits A and B open. Even when a toggle switch has only two positions,
it may be wired to throw two circuits. Figure 1-8(b) diagrams such a
switch in which one lead to the switch is common but the position of the
switch determines whether circuit A or circuit B is made. Such a switch is
designated single-pole, double-throw (SPDT). The switch is single pole
because of the common lead on one side of the switch, but it is double
throw because it can complete either of two circuits on this same
common pole.
 Double-pole, single-throw (DPST): it is also possible to have two leads
on both sides of the switch, which enables the switch to make two
different circuits that do not have common pole. In effect, such a switch
is closing two different circuits with a single mechanical throw. Such a
switch is called a double-pole, single-throw (DPST) switch and is
illustrated in Figure 1-8(c).
 Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT): in still another configuration, each
contact on one side of the switch can be connected to either of two
contacts each on the other side of the switch. Such a switch is a double-
pole, double-throw (DPDT) switch and is illustrated in Figure 1-8(d).

20
 Automation

Figure 1-8: Examples of electric switch.

It is possible to add as many poles as desired, but to go beyond two throws the
use of a toggle switch becomes impractical. For multiple throws, a rotary switch
becomes appropriate. Figure 1-9 illustrates a rotary switch that could be
classified as a single-pole, five-throw switch, although it is usually designated
simply as a six position rotary switch. A mechanical detent is placed at each end
of the six positions. Note that there are six positions but only five throws,
because one detent is used for the off position to represent “all circuits broken”. A
manual control knob without detent is usually a continuous control used for some
variable in the automated process that can take on any value over a continuous
range.

The safety of robots and other automated systems demands that most operator
control switches have only one stable state: off. Thus, a positive operator action
must be maintained to keep the switch on. The beauty of single-stable-state
switches is that control can be exercised whenever and wherever it is necessary
to change the operational state of the system. To kill the system in an
emergency, the operator would have to find that one switch and turn it off. But
with a momentary switch, the system could be switched on at one location and
then switched off by other momentary switches at any of several convenient
locations around the machine. In the automation industry, these momentary off
switches located at various points about the equipment are called Emergency
Power Offs or simply EPOs.

Figure 1-9: Rotary Switch.

21
Chapter – 01

The most popular physical

configuration of a momentary switch is
the familiar pushbutton. Pushbuttons
can be either “making” or “breaking” –
i.e., normally open or normally closed,
respectively. Figure 1-10 illustrates the
standard momentary pushbutton Figure 1-10: Momentary (spring-return)
diagram in both configurations.

There is another type of pushbutton switch that has two stable states; the action
of the pushbutton is to switch the circuit to the opposite state, whatever that state
might have been. Such a switch resembles a toggle switch in function but may
have a disadvantage in failing to display which of the two feasible circuit states
(open or closed) currently exists.

Limit Switches: like manual switches, limit switches are actuated mechanically,
but limit switches are automatic i.e., inputs are applied from the manufacturing
process, the material, or the automated system itself, without intervention by the
operator. There are literally thousands of styles and models of limit switches,
because they are designed to be exactly correct in size for the specific
automation application. Levers, toggles, pushbuttons, plungers, rollers, “cat
whiskers” actuate limit switches and just about anything the inventor can devise
to make an automation application feasible.

Robot switches employ limit switches both in

the construction of the robot itself and in the
peripheral equipment. Limit switches can be
used to limit the travel of a robot arm on any
of its axes of motion. When the limit is
reached, a circuit is opened (or closed) that
removes power from that axis of motion
either directly or via the robot controller. Figure 1-11: limit switches.

Proximity switches: some switches do not require physical contact or light

radiation to “feel” or sense an object. Such switches are called proximity
switches, as shown in Figure 1-12, because they can sense the presence of a
nearby object without touching it. Proximity switches sense the approach of a
metallic machine part either by a magnetic or high-frequency electromagnetic
field. Some types of proximity switches act only upon presentation of ferrous
metal object within its sensing range. The other types of switch are capable of
sensing both ferrous and nonferrous metal objects.

22
 Automation

There are physical basis for proximity

switches that can respond to any object –
metal or nonmetal. One type uses an
electromagnetic (radio frequency) antenna
specifically designed and placed to fit the
application.
Figure 1-12: Proximity Switch.

The antenna receives a signal transmitted by another strategically placed

antenna, but the reception of the signal is distributed by the intrusion of any
object into the field. The antenna that trips a switch when the disturbance
reaches a specified level detects this disturbance.

Another type of proximity switch that works for nonmetallic object is the sonar
type. Sonar systems transmit and receive elections of pressure waves to detect
object presence. These pressure waves are commonly called sound waves when
their frequencies are within the audible range.

Figure 1-13: Three types of reflective surfaces for photoelectric systems.

23
Chapter – 01

A sophisticated proximity switch system employs the Hall Effect, in which a

small voltage is generated across a conductor carrying current in an external
magnetic field. The amount of Hall voltage is proportional to the flux density of
the magnetic field, which is perpendicular to the flow of current. This
proportionality enables Hall Effect proximity to detect not only presence but also
relative distance to a sensed object.

Photoelectric Sensors: In wider use than proximity switches are sensors that
are sensitive to light radiation: photoelectric sensors. Two basic approaches for
employing photoelectrics are in use. The first approach merely uses a photocell
to detect the presence of light radiating naturally from some object in the
process. The second approach to photoelectrics employs a beam of light emitted
by an artificial light source. The principal purpose of this approach is to detect the
presence or absence of objects in the path of the beam. The beam emitter can
be a separate unit or can be incorporated into the sensor. The combination
variety requires some type of natural or artificial reflector to direct the light beam
back to the sensor.

Reflective surfaces for photoelectric systems are of three types: diffuse, specular
reflective, and retroreflective, as shown in Figure 1-13.

 Diffuse reflector: the diffuse reflective surface is the lowest in cost and
describes most reflective surfaces. Even an ordinary white object acts as
a diffuse reflective surface in that it reflects light but not images. Diffuse
reflector scatters so much light that only a small fraction makes its way
back to the photoelectric sensor. Photoelectric systems that use diffuse
reflectors are also more susceptible to stray signals.
 Specular reflector: specular reflective surfaces are most often
associated with the word reflective and include mirrors and very shiny
surfaces. Specular reflective surfaces obey the physical law that the
angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. For systems in which
the emitter and sensor are mounted in the same unit, the plane of the
specular reflective surface must be perpendicular to the direction of the
incident beam or the reflected beam will be lost.
 Retroreflector: retroreflective surfaces are the most complex and
expensive of the three types. They are capable of reflecting back to the
source a large percentage of the light beam regardless of the angle of
incidence. Basically, the retroreflector violates the physical principle that
angle of incidence equals angle of reflection, except when the plane of
the surface is perpendicular to the incident beam. Red reflector on the
rear of the bicycle is the example of retroreflector. Retroreflectors
somewhat combine the advantages of diffuse and specular reflective
surfaces, but at a price – the retroreflective surface is the more
expensive of the three types.

24
 Automation

As useful as photoelectrics are, we should be aware of conditions that can ruin

the photoelectric system like stray ambient light, high temperatures, vibrations
from adjacent machines, and dust or condensation may cause the sensor to be
damaged. To overcome these problems, mirrors, air jets, and infrared or fiber
optics are used.

Infrared sensors: Infrared sensors respond to radiation in range of wavelengths

just beyond the visible spectrum at the red end. Hot objects emit infrared
radiation, and thus infrared sensors are useful for locating heat sources in a
process. Infrared sensors are virtually unaffected by stray ambient light – with
obvious advantages.

Fiber optics: fiber optic light tubes are flexible pipes of glass or plastic that can
be used to bend light beams around corners. When bundles of fibers are used
together, whole images can be transmitted. However, the typical automation
application is to use one fiber to transmit a light beam that is sensed by the
system as being either present or absent.

Lasers: lasers (Light Amplification Stimulant for Emission Radiation) are

concentrated, amplified beams of collimated light. They are capable of delivering
over a distance a large amount of energy into a tiny spot and thus have obvious
industrial applications. In automated systems, the laser is useful in providing very
long, precise light beams. Figure 1-14 shows the precision available from laser
systems. The precision of these beams make them excellent for detecting tiny
objects that are capable of breaking the beam at large and varying distances.

Figure 1-14: Laser light source.

1.3.2.2 Analyzers

Once information is sensed up by an automated system, it must be registered

and analyzed for content, and then a decision must be made by the systems to
what action should be taken. The function can be quite complex, and the system
components that perform it are also generally complicated.

25
Chapter – 01

Computers: digital computers are the primary means of analyzing automation

system inputs. Computers are extremely versatile in that the ways they can be
programmed to manipulate data are limitless. The continuing miniaturization of
computer circuits along with decreasing costs made possible by technological
breakthroughs have created a continuing increase in the number of feasible
applications of manufacturing automation.

Counters: it is frequently useful for an automated system to determine how

many various items are present or pass through an automated system. This
function can be handled either internally by a computer or programmable
controller or externally by a separate device called counter. The counter can be
mechanical, but most automatic systems employ solid-state electronic counters.
Counters can count-up or down. The quantity counted is usually a series of
voltage pulses. Another useful feature of many counters is bi-directionality, which
enables them to count up or count down. This can be useful in automatic
industrial quality control applications and in material handling.

Timers: if precise clock pulses are available, a counter that counts these pulses
becomes timer, basically a clock. When elapsed time becomes equal to preset
value, an output signal is generated. Like counters, industrial timers can be bi-
directional – i.e., time up and time down.

Timers often have the additional feature of being interruptible – that is, they can
be cumulative in summing the various periods of voltage up time interrupted by
various periods of voltage down time. The applications of industrial timers to
robots and automation are even greater than that of counters. Besides being
available as separate units, industrial timers can be internal to programmable
controllers and online process control computers.

Bar Code Readers: although it can be considered a sensor, a bar code reader
is an analyzing system that incorporates conventional photoelectric or laser
scanner along with timers and counters. Successive bars of varying width are
scanned and counted. The scan is orthogonal to the bars, and thus voltage
pulses from the photoelectric sensor can be compared to determine individual
bar widths.

Optical encoders: the capability of rapidly scanning a series of bars makes

possible additional automation opportunities when light and dark bars are placed
in concentric rings on a disk. The assembly consisting of optical sensors for each
ring is called an optical encoder and is useful for automatically detecting shaft
rotation.

Optical encoders can be either incremental or absolute. The incremental types

transmit series of voltage pulses proportional to the angle of rotation of the shaft.
The control computer must know the previous position of the shaft in order to

26
 Automation

calculate the new position. Absolute encoders transmit pattern of voltages that
describes the position of the shaft at any given time. The innermost ring switches
from dark to light every 180, the next ring every 90, the next 45, and so on,
depending upon the number of rings on the disks. The resulting bit pattern output
by the encoder reveals the exact angular position of the shaft.

Case study

An absolute optical encoder disk has eight rings and eight LED sensors, and in
turn provides 8-bit outputs. Suppose the output pattern is 10010110. What is the
angular position of the shaft?

Solution:

Encoder Observed Computed

Angular Value
Ring Pattern Value (Degrees)
(Innermost) 1 180 1 180
2 90 0
3 45 0
4 22.5 1 22.5
5 11.25 0
6 5.625 1 5.625
7 2.8125 1 2.8125
(outermost) 8 1.40625 0
Total 210.94

Stated as an equation the computation becomes

n
A   mi Ai (1.9)
i 1

Where i = ring number

mi = 0 if the ring is white, and 1 if the ring is black
Ai = angular value of ring i
n = total number of rings
1.3.2.3 Actuators

Once a real world condition is sensed and analyzed, something may need to be
done about it. Actuation may be a direct physical action upon the process, such

27
Chapter – 01

as a physical making of an electrical circuit, which in turn has effect upon the
process.

Actuation may be a direct physical action upon the process, such as sweep bar
that sweeps items off a conveyer belt at the command of a computer or other
analyzer. In other cases, an actuator is simply a physical making of an electrical
circuit, which in turn has a direct effect upon the process. An example would be
an actuator (relay) that turns on power to an electric furnace heating circuit.
Actuators take on many diverse forms to suit the particular requirements of
process-control loops.

Cylinders: when linear movement is required in an automation application, a

cylinder usually is chosen to accomplish it. The most popular are the pneumatic
types because of the convenience of the piping compresses air throughout a
manufacturing plant. Valves that may be electrical impulses or air logic devices
accomplish the control of air cylinder.

When the manufacturing process requires forces to be applied automatically in

excess of 200 pounds, the more powerful hydraulic cylinder is usually selected
over the pneumatic cylinders. Hydraulic pressures in excess of 2000 psi are
readily available; compare these pressures with the 80 to 100 psi commonly
used in pneumatic systems. Given the mechanical advantage of a large enough
cylinder, pneumatics can deliver as large force as the hydraulics, but
convenience tend to favor hydraulics for the large forces. Hydraulic actuators
drive the most powerful industrial robots.

A caution to observe in the design of either pneumatic or hydraulic actuators is

that both pressure and volume requirements must be met. A system may have
sufficient pressure to actuate cylinders or other actuators, but may not be able to
maintain that pressure during high-speed operation.

Solenoids: A solenoid is an elementary device that converts an electrical signal

into mechanical motion, usually rectilinear (in a straight line). When a small, light
quick linear motion is desired in an automated system, an electrical solenoid is a
logical selection. In basic physics, we learned that the principle of the solenoid
operation is the creation of a magnetic field set up by passing an electrical
current through a coil. Thus, the core of the solenoid can be selectively drawn
into the coil in response to an electrical current. In the absence of the coil current,
the core can be automatically returned by spring action. The stroke motion of a
solenoid is not very controlled in comparison, for example, with a hydraulic
cylinder – but many automation applications require only a short, quick, discrete
action, not a smooth controlled stroke.

Relays: the most popular solenoid of all is one that is used to switch an electrical
circuit – i.e., the common relay. Switching-type circuits usually operate at lower

28
 Automation

voltages and especially at lower amperage than power circuits. The output of the
switching logic network can be used to trip one or more relays to close or open a
power circuit.

A relay can be described as either latching or non-latching. A latching relay

needs only an electrical impulse to pull and hold the power circuit closed.
Another impulse is needed on a different switching circuit to release the latch.
Non -latching relay hold only while the switching relay is energized and thus
requires a continuous electrical signal.

So far, we have described relays that make circuits when energized, but relays
can also break circuits when they receive an electrical signal. When the
energization of the relay coil makes a circuit, the relay is designated “normally
open.” Conversely, the relay that breaks circuit when energized is designated
“normally closed.” It follows, then that the normal state of an electric relay is the
de-energized state.

The typical relay and solenoids in general operate on low-voltage direct current.
But the convenience and availability of 110-Volt alternating current (ac), have
given rise to the ac relays and ac solenoids. As the amperage level of the power
circuits increases, the nomenclature for relays changes to the power relays. At
higher amperage the relay may be called a contractor. Still the basic principle of
the simple relay is being employed, and the automation engineer should not be
confused by these terms.

A special need for a relay is in the tripping of power circuits for electric motors.
The automation engineer will hear reference to “motor starters”; these devices
are either contractors or relays that in addition provide overload protection to
open the motor circuit if heavy mechanical load begins to cause the motor to
carry too much current.

1.3.2.4 Drives

Like actuators, drives take some action upon the process at the command of a
computer or other analyzer. For purpose of classification, the distinction being
made here between actuators and drives is that actuators are used to effect
short, complete, discrete motion – usually linear – and drives execute more
continuous movements typified by, but not limited to, rotation. Actuators may turn
drive on and off, and drives may provide the energy for the movement of
actuators. Some automation devices, such as Geneva’s and walking beams,
seem to belong to both categories.

Motors: An automation engineer must have a broad perspective of the term

motor to include not only electric motors but hydraulic and pneumatic motors as

29
Chapter – 01

well. Hydraulic and pneumatic motors are the converse of their corresponding
pumps. Hydraulic motors are capable of delivering a large amount of power in a
confined space. Compared to hydraulic motors, pneumatic motors are noisier
and less powerful, but they may be more practical in many automation
applications. Both pneumatic and hydraulic motors have some advantages over
electric motors in systems in which electric motors may be hazardous either from
an electrocution standpoint or from the ignition of the flammable vapors or gases.

Figure 1-15: PWM control of servo motors.

Stepper Motors: for several reasons, the stepper motor is a very useful drive in
the automation applications. It is driven by discrete dc voltage pulses. The
stepper motor is also ideal for executing a precise angular advance as may be
required in indexing or other automation applications. Stepper motors are ideal
for open-loop operations, but it is possible to feedback loops to monitor the
position of the driven components. An analyzer in the loop compares the actual
position with desired position, and the difference is considered error. The driver
can then issue voltage pulses to the stepper motor until the error is reduced to
zero.

Servo Motors: Servo motors have more torque and capabilities than stepping
motors but also cost about twice as much as stepping motors. Years ago, servo
motors were difficult to work with because you had to tune the motors and

30
 Automation

controllers. Most servo controllers now automatically tune the motors and their
controller. It is important to tune motors after the load is attached so that the
controller can see the effects of the load on the system. Servo motors are known
as very accurate, fast, high torque, precise control.

Inside the servo is a control board, a set of gears, a potentiometer (a variable

resistor) and a motor. The potentiometer is connected to the motor via the gear
set. A control signal gives the motor a position to rotate to and the motor starts to
turn. The potentiometer rotates with the motor, and as it does so its resistance
changes. The control circuit monitors its resistance, as soon as it reaches the
appropriate value the motor stops and the servo is in the correct position.

Servos are positioned using a technique called pulse width modulation. This is a
continuous stream of pulses sent to the servo. The pulse normally lasts for
between 1ms and 2ms, depending on the positioning of the servo. The pulse has
to be continually repeated for the servo to hold its position, usually around 50 to
60 times a second. It is the actual pulse that controls the position of the servo,
not the number of times it is repeated every second.

A 1ms pulse will position the servo at 0 degrees, where as a 2ms pulse will
position the servo at the maximum position that it can rotate to. A pulse of 1.5ms
will position the servo half way round its rotation. The diagram in Figure 1-15
shows three typical pulses.

The diagram is not to scale but hopefully demonstrates that each pulse must be
the same length. That is the combined time that the pulse is on and off.

DC Servo Motors are useful in numerically controlled machine tools and

industrial robots for the control of motion. By using a feedback loop, the controller
can deliver dc voltage that is proportional to the observed error. When the error is
reduced to zero, the voltage goes to zero and the motor stops. One important
characteristic of the dc servomotor that is also true for the stepper motor is that
both hold their torque when they come to rest under power. Therefore, the power
is useful not only, for rotating the shaft but also for holding it motionless when no
movement is desired.

Kinematic Linkages: when applying automation to the workstation of a

manufacturing machine, it is easy to forget that an ample and ready source of
mechanical power usually exists from the machine itself. When machine speed is
increased, the kinematic linkages attached to it speeds up right along with the
machine. Gears, cams, levers, and ratchets are the components of the kinematic
off-machine linkages.

31
Chapter – 01

Two mechanical linkages however are of particular importance to manufacturing

automation in that they impart intermittent motion to automated flow lines. They
are:

 Genevas
 Walking Beams

A geneva mechanism is used to drive an indexing table intermittently and walking

beams are a mean of intermittently indexing a linear type of automated line and
are thus analogous to the genevas used to drive rotary indexing tables. A walking
beam is driven by an actuating cylinder but has an advantage over the geneva in
permitting arbitrary setting of the index and dwell times by varying the cylinder
stroke and return times.

32
 Automation

Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. ____________ are the first link 2. Switches that do not require any
between the typical automated system physical contact to sense an object
and the conventional process. are called ______________.

a. Analyzers a. Limit Switches

b. Sensors b. Manual Switches
c. Actuators c. Proximity Switches

3. Hot objects emit ____________ 4. When linear movement is required

radiation in automation system, __________
is chosen to accomplish it.
a. Infrared
b. Ultraviolet a. Solenoid
c. X-ray b. Cylinder
c. Relays

5. The amount of Hall voltage is 6. When a small, light quick linear

proportional to the flux density of the motion is desired in an automated
magnetic field, which is system, an electrical ___________
_______________ to the flow of is a logical selection.
current.
a. Solenoid
a. Parallel b. Cylinder
b. Perpendicular c. Relays
c. Opposite

8. In Hall Effect, ___________ is

7. Actuation is a(n) _____________
generated across a conductor
action upon the process.
carrying current.

a. Effect
a. Voltage
b. Physical
b. Current
c. Inputs
c. Power

33
Chapter – 01

9. The typical relay and solenoids 10. In incremental optical encoders the
operate on ______________ direct control computer must know the
current. ____________ position of shaft in
order to calculate the new position.
a. High voltage
b. Medium voltage a. Present
c. Low voltage b. Previous
c. Next

Fill in the blanks

11. The building blocks of any automation system are ___________,

___________, __________ and ____________.
12. The type of switch making two different circuits with a single mechanical
throw, and do not have common pole is known as _____________.
13. Switches that are more sensitive to light are known as -
___________________.
14. ______________ sensors are useful to detect electromagnetic radiation
outside the visible range.
15. A relay can be described as either __________ or ___________.
16. LASER is an abbreviation of __________________________________.
17. A dc motor uses a _____________ to produce a static magnetic field
across two pole pieces.
18. Optical encoders can be either _____________ or ___________.
19. The diffuse reflective surface is the ________ in cost.
20. The action of the pushbutton is to switch the circuit to the ____________
state.

True False

21. Unlike the manual switches, limit switches are actuated electrically.
22. Proximity switches always require physical contact to sense an object.
23. The diffuse reflective surface is the lowest in cost and describes most
reflective surfaces.
24. A convenient supplement to photoelectric or infrared sensor systems is
fiber optic light tubes.
25. Compared to hydraulic motors, pneumatic motors are noisier and less
powerful.
26. Limit switches are type of manual switches.
27. Sonar type of proximity switches works for nonmetallic objects.
28. Relays can also break circuits when they receive an electrical signal.
29. The stepper motors are ideal fro open loop operations.
30. A solenoid is an elementary device that converts a mechanical force into
an electrical signal.

34
 Chapter – 02
Sensors
2.1 Sensors
2.2 Motion Sensors
2.2.1 Types of Motion
2.2.2 Accelerometer Principles
2.2.3 Types of Accelerometer
2.2.4 Applications
2.3 Force Sensors
2.3.1 Strain Wire Gage
2.3.2 Semiconductor Strain Gage
2.4 Temperature sensors
2.4.1 Thermocouples
2.4.2 Thermistors
2.4.3 Resistance Temperature Detector
2.5 Light sensors
2.5.1 Photo Detectors
2.5.2 Photo Conductive Detectors
2.5.3 Photo Voltaic Detectors
2.5.4 Photo Diode Detectors
2.5.5 Photo Emissive Detectors
2.6 Humidity sensors
Chapter – 02
2.1 Sensors

As described earlier, sensors are the first link between the typical automated
system and the conventional process. Sensors convey information from the
manufacturing process equipment and from the human operator, if any. For an
automated system to perform tasks, the system must have a sensing capability.
The basic sensor used in control systems are transducers i.e., “the transducers
convert energy from one form to another”.
Any sensor requires calibration in order to be useful as a measuring device.
Calibration is the procedure by which the relationship between the measured
variable and the converted output signal is established.

Sensors are classified in many types, according to the applications and the type
of the signals they are required to sense. Some of the important sensors used in
the modern age industries are described below.

2.2 Motion Sensors

Motion sensors are special class of transducers (i.e., a device used to convert
one form of energy into other) that are used to measure the velocity or
acceleration of objects in industrial processing and testing. Often, these variables
are not under specific control but are used to evaluate the performance, durability
and failure modes of manufactured products and the processes that produce
them.

Motion sensors are designed to measure the rate of change of position, location
or displacement of an object that is occurring. If the position of an object is a
function of time x(t), then the first derivative gives the speed of the object, v(t),
which is called the velocity if a direction is also specified. If the speed of the
object is also changing, then the first derivative of the speed gives the
acceleration. This is also the second derivative of the position. The equations for
the velocity and the accelerations are given as:

v(t )  dx(t ) / dt ... ... (2.1)

a(t )  dv(t ) / dt  d 2 x(t ) / dt 2 ... ... (2.2)

The primary form of motion sensor is the accelerometer. This device measures
the acceleration of an object. In accelerator we have the sensors that can provide

36
 Sensors

the acceleration, speed, and velocity and position information. The accelerometer
can also be used to measure the speed and position of the object as well.

Thus, in the accelerometer we have a sensor that can provide acceleration,

speed (or velocity), and position information. The design of a motion sensor to
measure motion is often tailored to the type of motion that is to be measured. A
few types of motion are discussed below.

2.2.1 Types of Motion

We have four basic types of the Motion. Those are:

 Rectilinear Motion
 Angular Motion
 Vibration Motion
 Shock

Rectilinear Motion: This type of motion is characterized by velocity and

acceleration, which is composed of straight-line segment. Thus, objects may
accelerate forward to a certain velocity, deaccelerate to a stop, reverse, and so
on. There are many types of sensors designed to measure this type of motion. If
a vehicle motion is to be measured two transducers may be used, one to
measure the motion in the forward direction of the vehicle motion and other
perpendicular to the forward axis of vehicle.

Figure 2-1: An object in periodic motion about an equilibrium at x =0. The peak
displacement is x0.

Angular Motion: The sensors designed to measure only rotation about some
axis such as the angular motion of the shaft of the motor. Such devices cannot
be used to measure the physical displacement of whole shaft, but only its
rotation.

Vibration Motion: Often, vibrations are somewhat random in both the frequency
of periodic motion and the magnitude of displacements from equilibrium. For

37
Chapter – 02
analytical treatments, vibration is defined in terms of a regular periodic motion
where the position of an object in time is given by

xt   x0 sin t …… (2.3)

Where xt  = object position in meters, m

x0 =peak displacement from equilibrium in meters, m
 = angular frequency in radian/seconds.

The definition of  as angular frequency is consistent with reference to  as

angular speed. An angular rate of one revolution per second corresponds to an
angular velocity of 2π rad/s, because one revolution sweeps out 2π radians.
From this argument, we see that f and  are related by

  2f

Because f and  are related by a constant, we refer to  as both angular

frequency and angular velocity.

Now we can find the vibration velocity as a derivative of Equation 2.3:

vt   x0 cos t …… (2.4)

and we can get the vibration acceleration from a derivative of Equation 2.4:

at    2 x0 sin t …… (2.5)

Vibration position, velocity, and acceleration are all periodic functions having the
same frequency. Of particular interest is the peak acceleration:

a peak   2 x0

We see that the peak acceleration is dependent on  . This may result in very
2
large acceleration values, even with modest peak displacements.

38
 Sensors

Shock:

A special type of acceleration occurs when an object that may be in uniform

motion or modestly accelerating is suddenly brought to rest, as in a collision.
Such phenomena are the result of very large accelerations, or actually
decelerations, as when an object is dropped from some height onto a hard
surface. The name shock is given to the declarations that are characterized by
very short time, typically in few milliseconds with peak acceleration over 500g (1g
= 9.8 m/s2).

In Figure 2-2, we have typical acceleration graph as a function of time for a shock
experiment. This graph is characterized by a maximum or peak
deceleration a peak , shock duration Td , and bouncing. We can find an average
shock by knowing the velocity of the object and the shock duration.

Figure 2-2: Shock.

2.2.2 Accelerometer Principles

As described earlier, accelerometer or accelerator is a device that is used to

measure the velocity and acceleration of an object. In accelerator we have the
sensors that can provide the acceleration, speed, velocity, and position
information. Accelerometer works on two principles:

 Spring mass system

 Natural frequency and damping system

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Chapter – 02

Figure 2-3: Spring-Mass system.

Spring-mass system: in Figure 2-3(a) we have a mass that is free to slide on a

base. The mass is connected to the base by a spring that is in its unextended
state and exerts no force on the mass. In Figure 2-3(b), the whole assembly is
accelerated to the left, as shown. Now the spring extends in order to provide the
force necessary to accelerate the mass. Springs (within their linear region) are
governed by a physical principle known as Hooke's law. Hooke's law states that
a spring will exhibit a restoring force which is proportional to the amount it has
been stretched or compressed. Specifically, F=kx, where k is the constant of
proportionality between displacement (x) and force (F). The other important
physical principle is that of Newton's second law of motion which states that a
force operating on a mass which is accelerated will exhibit a force with a
magnitude F=ma.

ma  kx …… (2.6)

where k = spring constant in N/m

x = spring extension in m
m = mass in kg
a = acceleration in m/s2

Equation 2.6, allows the measurement of acceleration to be reduced to a

measurement of spring extension (linear displacement) because

a  kx / m

If the acceleration is reversed, the spring is compressed instead of extending.

The spring-mass principle applies to many common accelerometer designs. The
mass that converts the acceleration to spring displacement is referred to as the
test mass or seismic mass.

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 Sensors

Natural frequency and damping: experiments tell us that if we pull a mass and
then release it (in the absence of acceleration), it will be pulled back by spring,
overshoot the equilibrium, and oscillate back and forth. Any displacement
measuring system will respond to this oscillation as if an actual acceleration
occurs. This natural frequency is given by

1 k
fN  …… (2.7)
2 m

where fN = natural frequency

k = spring constant in N/m
m = seismic mass in kg

The friction that eventually brings the mass to rest is defined by a damping
coefficient α, which has the units of s-1.

2.2.3 Types of Accelerometer

The variety of accelerometers used results from different applications with

different requirements of range, natural frequency, and damping. There are four
major types of accelerometers that are:

 Potentiometric accelerometers
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Variable Reluctance accelerometers
 Piezoelectric accelerometers

Potentiometric: this simplest type of accelerometer measures mass motion by

attaching the spring mass to the wiper arm of a potentiometer. In this manner,
the mass position is conveyed as a changing resistance. The natural frequency
of these devices is generally less than 30 Hz, limiting their application to steady
state acceleration or low frequency vibration measurement.

LVDT: A second type of accelerometer takes advantage of the natural linear

displacement measurement of the LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transformer) to measure mass displacement. In these instruments, the LVDT
core itself is the seismic mass. Displacements of the core are converted directly
into a linealy proportional ac voltage. These accelerometers have generally a
natural frequency less than 80 Hz and are commonly used for steady state and
low frequency vibration.

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Chapter – 02

Figure 2-4: LVDT.

Variable Reluctance: This accelerometer falls in the same general category as

the LVDT in that an inductive principle is employed. Here, the test mass is
usually a permanent magnet. The measurement is made from the voltage
induced in the surrounding coil as the magnetic mass moves under the influence
of acceleration. This accelerometer is used in vibration and shock study only,
because it has an output only when the mass is in motion. Its natural frequency is
less than 100Hz. This type of accelerometer is used in oil exploration to pick up
vibration deflected from underground rock strata, it is also known as geophone.

Piezoelectric: The Piezoelectric (piezo means pressure in Greek) effect is an

effect in which energy is converted between mechanical and electrical forms. It
was discovered in the 1880's by the Curie brothers. The piezoelectric
accelerometer is based on a property of the crystals that when a crystal is
stressed a voltage is generated across it. This property is also basis for such
familiar sensors as crystal phonograph cartridges and crystal microphones.

For accelerometers, the principle is shown in Figure 2-5. Here a piezoelectric

crystal is spring-loaded with the test mass in contact with the crystal. When
exposed to an acceleration, a test mass stresses the crystal by the force (F =
ma), resulting in the voltage generator across the crystal. A measure of this
voltage is then a measure of the acceleration. The natural frequency of these
devices may exceed 5-KHz, so that they can be used for vibration and shock
measurement.

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 Sensors

Figure 2-5: Piezoelectric accelerometer.

2.2.4 Applications

Few notes about the applications of accelerometers will help in understanding

how the selection of a sensor is made in a particular case.

Steady State Acceleration: In steady state accelerations, we are interested in a

measure of acceleration that may vary in time but that is not periodic. Thus, the
stop-go motion of an automobile is an example of steady-state acceleration. We
have to select the sensor having adequate range to cover expected acceleration
magnitudes and a natural frequency sufficiently high that its period is shorter than
the characteristic time span over which the measured acceleration changes.

Vibration: The application of the accelerometer for vibration first requires that
the applied frequency is less than the natural frequency of the accelerometer.
Second, one must be sure that stated range of acceleration measured will never
exceed the specification for the device.

Shock: The primary elements of importance in shock measurements are that the
devices have a natural frequency that is greater than 1 KHz and a range typically
greater than 500g. The primary accelerometer that can satisfy these
requirements is the piezoelectric type.

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Chapter – 02
2.3 Force Sensors

The effect of applied force is referred to as stress and the resulting deformation
as strain. Force sensors can be used to measure the amount of downward force
the robot arm is applying to a part or the amount of the force that the robot is
using to screw in the bolt. Force sensors for the robotic system are generally of
two types: Strain Wire Gage or Semiconductor Strain Gage.

Figure 2-6: Strain Wire Gage.

2.3.1 Strain Wire Gage

The strain wire gage measures the strain that is placed on an object. The gage
converts the mechanical strain to an electric signal. Figure 2-6 illustrates a typical
strain wire gage for a robotic system. The force applied to the gage causes the
gage to bend. This bending action also distorts the physical size of the gage.
This distortion causes the change in the resistance of the metals of the gage.
This resistance changes is fed to the resistance bridge circuit that detects small
changes in gage resistance.

The output from the bridge is then inputted to an amplifier circuit much like a
circuit for the RTD sensors. In applications, the strain wire gage can be
connected to the end of the robot’s hand. As the robot applies pressure to a
metal, the strain gage monitors the amount of force developed by the robot’s
hand. If the force applied exceeds the limit, the controller will branch to another
routine to stop the robot’s motion.

Gage Factor: The sensitivity of strain gage is described in terms of a

characteristic called the gage factor, K, defined as the unit change in resistance
per unit change in length, or

R / R
Gage Factor, K = …… (2.8)
l / l

Where K = gage factor

44
 Sensors

R = nominal gage resistance

∆R = change in gage resistance
l = normal specimen length
∆l = change in length

The term l / l in denominator is known as the strain.

Metallic Sensing Elements: Metallic strain gages are formed from thin
resistance wire or etched from thin sheets of metal foil. Wire gages are, generally
small in size, subject to minimal leakage, and can be used in high temperature
applications. Foil elements are somewhat larger in sizes and are more stable
than wire gages. They can be used under extreme temperature conditions and
under prolonged loading, and they dissipate self induced heat easily.

Various resistance materials have been developed for use in wire and foil gages.
For example, Constantan is a copper-nickel alloy with low temperature coefficient
and is used in dynamic strain measurements, where alternating strain levels do
not exceed +1,500°μcm/cm. Nichrome is a Nickel-Chrome alloy used for static
strain measurements to 3750C. Other examples are, Dynaloy (nickel-iron alloy),
Stabiloy (modified nickel-chrome alloy), Platinum-tungsten alloys etc.

2.3.2 Semiconductor Strain Gage

The semiconductor strain gage operates on the same principle as that of the
strain wire gage, i.e., the change in the physical shape of the material causes the
resistance of the material to vary.

Figure 2-7: Semiconductor Strain gage.

Figure 2-7 illustrates a semiconductor strain gage. This gage is made from a
semiconductor material, a piezoelectric crystal, and the shape of the crystal

45
Chapter – 02
changes. This change of shape develops a voltage at the output, which is then
fed to the robot controller. The semiconductor strain gage is used when rapid
changes are taking place on the measuring device and when high sensitivity is
needed.

2.4 Temperature Sensors

As the name implies the sensors which are used to measure the thermal energy
are called Temperature Sensors. Temperature is a very critical quantity to be
considered in many electronic applications, such as manufacturing of
semiconductor devices etc. Moreover, in many applications robots are used
where high temperatures are involved. Such robots have the temperature
sensors, to measure the desired temperature ratings. Some of the basic thermo
sensitive devices are discussed below:

 Thermocouples
 Thermistors
 Resistance temperature detectors

Both of these devices are affected when the temperature changes occur in the
environment and so causing any system parameter to change that result in the
change of the system response.

2.4.1 Thermocouples

In voltage-generating sensors, an electromotive force (emf) is produced that is

linearly proportional to the temperature changes. Devices that measure
temperature on the basis of this electric principle are called thermocouples (TCs).

Figure 2-8: Thermocouple.

Thermocouples are made from the two types of metals joined together as shown
in Figure 2-8. When the heat is applied to the tip of the two metals joined

46
 Sensors

together, both metals response in different way because of their conductive

properties. Due to this, the difference in potential exists across the materials.
This potential difference is related to the fact that electrons in the hotter end of
the material have more thermal energy than those in the cooler end, and thus
tend to drift towards the cooler end. If a circuit is closed by connecting the ends
through another conductor, a current is found to flow in the closed loop, and
hence emf is produced. The emf produced is proportional to the difference in
temperature between the two junctions.

 The Seebeck effect: “If two junctions are kept at different temperatures,
there is a drift of electrons around the circuit, that is, current flows.
 The Peltier effect: An emf is generated at each of the two junctions,
which is dependent upon the ‘absolute temperatures’ of the junctions”.
Peltier showed that when an electric current flows across the junction of
two different substances, heat is either absorbed or liberated at the
junction. The direction of heat flow is the same as the flow of majority
charge carriers.

E = P ( θA – θB )

 The Thomson effect: Each wire of the loop generates a small emf, as a
result of difference in temperature between its ends”.

The range of the output voltage depends upon the types of thermocouple used.
The voltage generated at the output normally is very low so that amplifiers are
employed to detect the voltage and increase its strength.

2.4.2 Thermistor

The thermistor represents another class of temperature sensor that measures

temperature through changes in material resistance. In contrast to metals,
electrons in semiconductor materials are bound to each molecule with sufficient
strength so that no conduction electrons are contributed from the valence band to
the conduction band. Such a material behaves as an insulator under normal
conditions because there are no conduction electrons to carry current through
the material.

As the temperature of the material is increased, more and more electrons gain
sufficient energy to enter the conduction band. It is then clear that the
semiconductor becomes a better conductor of current as its temperature is
increased, i.e. its resistance decreases. This is just opposite of metals. An

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Chapter – 02
important distinction however, is that the change in semiconductor resistance is
highly nonlinear and follows an exponential law.

Thermistor is simply a THERMally sensitive resISTOR whose resistance alters

with temperature. That is, a negative temperature coefficient thermistor is one
whose resistance reduces with increase in temperature. This property of
thermistor can be used in number of applications like temperature measurement,
temperature control systems etc.

Thermistors consist of small pieces of semiconductor materials made by sintering

mixtures of metallic oxides of manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt, iron etc, and
they are available in variety of shapes and sizes. Normally, their resistances
range from 0.5 Mega ohms to 75 Mega ohms. While using a thermistor for
temperature measurements it should be ensured that we do not appreciably heat
up the thermistor, thus giving an artificial high temperature not representative of
its surroundings. This effect of heating caused by the flow of current is called
‘Self heating’. One of the major drawbacks of thermistors is that the resistance
does not increase linearly with temperature.

R  Ae b / T …… (2.9)

Where, R = Resistance in ohms

T = Absolute temperature.
A, b are constants.

Because the thermistor is a bulk semiconductor, it can be fabricated in many

forms. Thus, common forms include discs, beads, and rods varying in size from a
bead 1mm in diameter to a disc several centimeters in diameter and several
centimeters thick.

2.4.3 Resistance Temperature Detector

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a transducer that can be used to

sense heat changes. The RTD’s are manufactured from the pure metals such as
platinum, nickel, tungsten, and copper. Each of these metals develops a positive
coefficient of temperature (i.e., metal resistance increases with temperature).
And so if the temperature limit reaches its peak the resistance also approaches
to maximum limits and the flow of current stops to the sensing device producing
an alarm signal for the controller or operator.

In the Figure 2-9, two operational amplifiers are used to amplify the small signal
change that develops in the circuitry. The RTD output leads are connected as

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part of feedback circuitry for Q2 op-amp. Any change that develops in the RTD
changes the amplification of Q2.

Figure 2-9: Resistance Temperature Detector.

Op-amp Q1 is used to establish a reference voltage in the circuitry. The reference

voltage is established through the 2.5-volt reference adjust & resistor R1.
Resistors R2 & R1 establish the gain for Q1, which maintain a constant voltage to
the base of 2N2905 transistor. This constant voltage then establishes a constant
voltage for the voltage divider network of R3, R4 & R5. This reference voltage is
then fed to the positive terminal of Q2.

Any change that is detected by RTD is fed back to the negative terminal of Q 2 &
compared against the reference voltage established on the positive terminal. A
difference between these two voltages are amplified and sent to the output
transistor Q3.

An RTD of course, is simply length of wire whose resistance is to be monitored

as a function of temperature. The construction is typically such that the wire is
wound on a form (in a coil) to achieve small size and improve thermal
conductivity to decrease response time. The wire is protected from the
environment by a sheath or protective tube.

2.5 Light Sensors

An important part of any application of light to an instrumentation problem is how

to measure or detect radiation. In most process control related applications, the

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Chapter – 02
radiation lies in the range from IR through visible and sometimes UV bands. The
measurement sensors generally used are called photo detectors.

In process control, electromagnetics (EM) in either the visible or infrared light

band is frequently used in measurement applications. The technique of such
application is called optical because such radiations are close to the visible light.
A common example of optical transduction is measurement of an object’s
temperature by its emitted EM radiation. Another example involves radiation
reflected off the surface to yield a level or displacement measurement.
Electromagnetic radiations used as the basic light sensor’s component can be
acting in three forms of radiations:

 Visible radiations VR
 Infrared radiations IR
 Ultraviolet radiations UV

Several characteristics of photo detectors are particularly important in typical

applications of these devices in instrumentation:

2.5.1 Photo Detectors

In most process control related applications, the radiation lies in the range from
IR through visible and sometimes UV bands. The measurement sensors
generally used are called photodetectors. Some of the basic photo detector
devices are:

 Photo conductive detectors

 Photo voltaic detectors
 Photo diode detectors
 Photo emissive detectors

The particular characteristic related to EM radiation detection is spectral

sensitivity. This is given as a graph of sensor response relative to the maximum
as a function of radiation wavelength. Obviously it is important to match the
spectral response of the sensor to the environment in which it is to be used.

2.5.2 Photo Conductive Detectors

One of the most common photo detectors is based on the change in the
conductivity of a semiconductor material with radiation intensity. The change in
conductivity appears to be the change in the resistance, so these devices are
also called photoconductive cells.

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 Principle: we know that a semiconductor is a material in which an

energy gap exists between conduction band and valance band. The
maximum energy required to excite an electron from its valence band is
given by

hc
W g  E p 
 max
…… (2.10)
hc
 max 
W g

where h = Planck’s constant, 6.63 X 10-34 J-s

Wg = semiconductor energy gap (J)
max = maximum radiation wavelength (m)

Any radiation with a wavelength greater than that predicted by Equation

2.10 cannot cause any resistance change in the semiconductor.

 Cell structure: Two common photoconductive semiconductor materials

are candiam sulfide CdS with a band gap of 2.42eV and candiam
selenide CdSe with a 1.74eV gap. Because of these large gap energies
both materials have a very high resistivity at room temperature. This
gives bulk samples a resistance much too large for practical applications.
To overcome this, special structure is used, as shown in Figure-10(a)
that minimizes the resistance geometrically and provides maximum
surface area for the detector. This result is based on equation given
below:

l …… (2.11)
R 
A

where R = resistance (Ω)

ρ = resistivity (Ω-m)
l = length (m)
A = cross-sectionl area (m 2)

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Chapter – 02

(a) a long, narrow, thin sample (b) by folding the above pattern back and
gives optimum response and forth we concentrate the sensitive
resistance material in space

Figure 2-10: The photoconductive cell.

 Cell characteristics: the characteristics of photoconductive detectors

vary considerably when different semiconductor materials are used as
the active element. These characteristics are summarized for typical
values in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1 Photoconductive detectors

Photoconductor Time constant Spectral band
CdS ~ 100 ms 0.47 to 0.71 μm
CdSe ~ 10 ms 0.6 to 0.77 μm
PbS ~ 400 μs 1 to 3 μm
PbSe ~ 10 μs 1.5 to 4 μm

2.5.3 Photo Voltaic Detectors

Another important class of photo detectors that generates the voltage with the
change in the intensity of light is called photovoltaic detectors because of their
voltage-generating characteristic. They actually convert the EM energy into the
electrical energy.

 Principle: operating principles of the photovoltaic cell are best described

by Figure 2-11. The cell is actually a pn-junction. Photons striking the cell
pass through the thin p-doped upper layer and are absorbed by the
electrons in n-layer, which causes the formation of the conduction
electrons and holes. The depletion-zone potential of the pn junction then
separates these conduction electrons and holes, which causes a
difference of potential to develop across the junction. The upper terminal
is positive, and the lower terminal is negative.
 Cell Characteristics: electrical characteristics of the photovoltaic cell
are very much similar to that of pn-junction diode VI characteristics. The

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 Sensors

internal resistance of the cell also varies with light intensity. At low
intensity the resistance may be thousands of ohms, whereas at higher
intensities it may drop to less than 50 ohms. Photovoltaic cells also have
a range of spectral response within which a voltage will be produced.
Clearly, if the frequency is too small, the individual photons will have
insufficient energy to create an electron-hole pair and no voltage will be
produced. There is also an upper limit to the frequency because of
optical effects such as radiation penetration through the cell.

Figure 2-11: A photovoltaic “solar” cell is a giant pn-junction diode.

Table 2-2 Typical Photovoltaic Cell Characteristics

Cell Material Time Constant Spectral Band
Silicon (Si) ~ 20 ms 0.44 to 1 μm
Selenium (Se) ~ 2 ms 0.3 to 0.62 μm
Germanium (Ge) ~ 50 μs 0.79 to 1.8 μm
Indium arsenide (InAs) ~ 1 μs 1.5 to 3.6 μm (cooled)
Indium antimonide (InSb) ~ 10 μs 2.3 to 7 μm (cooled)

The properties of the photovoltaic cells depend on the materials employed for the
cell and the nature of the doping used to provide the cell n and p layers. Some
cells are used only at low temperatures to prevent thermal effects from obscuring
radiation detection. Table 2-2 lists several types of cells and their typical
specifications.

2.5.4 Photo Diode Detectors

The photodiode effect refers to the fact that photons impinging on the pn-
junction also alter the reverse VI characteristics of the diode. In particular, the
reverse current will be increased almost linearly with light intensity. Figure 2-
12(a) shows a basic reverse-bias connection of such a diode. The dark-current
response is the basic diode reverse current, with no illumination of the pn-
junction.

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Chapter – 02
One of the primary advantages of the photodiode is its fast time response, which
can be in the nanoseconds range. Generally photodiodes are very small, like
regular diodes, so that a lens must be used to focus light on the pn-junction.
Often the lens is built into the photodiode casing, as shown in Figure 2-12(b).
Spectral response of the photodiodes is typically peaked in the infrared band, but
with usable response in the visible band.

In some cases a photodiode is operated in the photovoltaic mode, since the

output will then be zero when the voltage is zero. In this mode, the speed is
slower and the short-circuit currents are very small.

Photo Transistor: An extension of the photodiode concept is the

phototransistor. In this sensor the intensity of EM radiation impinging on the
collector base junction of the transistor acts much like a base current in
producing an amplified cooler emitter current. Often the transistors have the built-
in lens as shown below.

(a) reverse-bias connection for (b) photodiodes are very small & are used
photodiode as an internal lens to focus light
Figure 2-12: A photodiode.

The response time of the phototransistor is in microseconds. As usual, there is a

limit to the spectral response, with maximum response in the infrared but usable
range in the visible band. In phototransistor no base current is required. A load
line using the collector resistor and supply voltage will show response as a
function of light intensity.

2.5.5 Photo Emissive Detectors

Photo Emissive Detectors is one of the most sensitive types of the detectors,
which have a wide variety of ranges, and sensitivities that can be selected from
the many types of the photosensitive detectors.

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 Principle: To understand the basic operational mechanism of the

photoemmisive devices, let us consider the two- element vacuum photo
tubes as shown in Figure 2-13. In the Figure 2-13 we note that the
cathode is maintained at some negative voltage with respect to the wire
anode that is grounded through a resistor R. The inner surface of the
cathode has been coated with the photoemmisive agent. This material is
a metal for which the electrons are easily detected from the metal
surface. In particular, then, a photon can strike a surface and impart
sufficient energy to an electron to eject it form this coating. The electron
will then be driven from the cathode to the anode by the potential, and
hence through a resistor R. Thus, we have a current that depends upon
the intensity of light striking the cathode.

Figure 2-13: Structure of a basic photoemissive diode.

 Photomultiplier tube: the simple diode described previously is the basis

for one of the most sensitive photodetectors available. In this case, we
have many electrodes called dynodes, which are maintained at positive
voltages. The final electrode is the anode, which is grounded through a
resistor R. A photoelectron from the cathode strikes the first dynode with
sufficient energy to eject several electrons. All of these electrons are
accelerated to the second dynode, where each strikes the surface with
sufficient energy to eject several more electrons. This process is
repeated for each dynode until the electrons that reach the anode are
greatly multiplied in number, where they constitute a current through R.
One single photon striking the cathode may result in a million electrons
at the anode. It is this effect that gives the photomultiplier tube its
excellent sensitivity.

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Chapter – 02
2.6 Humidity Sensors

The sensors that are employed at various industrial control systems to control the
amount of water components or humidity in air are called humidity controllers.
These are employed where the humidity is to be maintained or controlled. The
production of many chemical processes are sensitive to humidity. Processes
such as, photographic film composing, semiconductor fabrication or PC board
assembly are sensitive to water percentage in air.

Humidity refers to the relative mount of water vapor in atmosphere. At a specific

atmospheric temperature, there is limit to the amount of water vapor in air. This
represents the saturated condition. Any increase in water vapor beyond that will
result in the excess vapor condensing into water. Further, as the atmospheric
temperature rises, the amount of water vapor that can remain in the air rises.
This gives rise to the concept of relative humidity (Rh).

Relative humidity is the ratio of amount of water vapors content per unit volume
of air to maximum amount of water vapors per unit volume of air that can be
contained in it that is under saturated condition.
Amount of waetr vapor content
per unit volume of air
Relative humidity at a specified temperature 
Maximum amount of water
vapor per unit volume of air that
can be contained in it.

Dew point is a related concept. It is the maximum point of temperature after

which any reduction in the atmospheric temperature results in the condensing of
water vapors.

 Lithium Chloride Sensor: resistivity of lithium chloride changes with

changes in atmospheric humidity in a consistent and reproducible
manner. As such lithium chloride is suited to be used as a sensor. It is
formed by wounding two noble wires on a strip of plastic with definite
spacing between them. Measured changes in resistance between the
two leads can be converted into an equivalent output using a
Wheatstone bridge. The resistance variation with humidity is non-linear.
Hence typically one sensor is used over a range of about 10% of Rh
only.
 Pope Cell: Pope Cell is a patented polystyrene based ion-exchange
device whose resistance changes with humidity. The resistance varies
from few mega-ohms at 0% relative humidity to kilo-ohms at 100% Rh.

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 Electrolytic Sensors: These function on the Faraday’s Electrolytic

principle. A matrix similar to the Lithium Chloride is provided and coated
with a chemical (PO3), which absorbs moisture. Atmospheric air is made
to flow over the sensor at constant rate. A DC voltage applied between
the wires (electrodes) continuously. Due to film, the absorbed water is
continuously electrolyzed between H2 and O2. The current required from
electrolysis is a function of moisture content in the air. Thin-film
capacitors, whose capacitance or loss angle changes with humidity
content in the vicinity, are also possible to be used as humidity sensors.

Table 2-3: Typical performance data of different types of humidity sensors at

ambient temperature
Type of sensor RH Range RH Sensing Accuracy Response Cost
(%) Resolution (%) (%) Time (sec) (Relative)
Wet & dry bulb 10 – 100 0.5 2 60 10
Lithium chloride 0 – 100 0.2 2 5 6
Electrolytic 0 – 100 0.2 3 30 6
Pope Cell 2 – 95 1 2 30 5
Thin film
2 – 95 0.2 2 10 8
Capacitor

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Chapter – 02
Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. ____________ are designed to 2. _____________ is characterized

measure rate of change of position, by velocity and acceleration,
location or displacement of an object. which is composed of straight-line
segment.
a. Temperature sensors
b. Motion sensors a. Rectilinear motion
c. Force sensors b. Angular motion
c. Vibration motion

3. The application of the accelerometer 4. The piezoelectric accelerometer is

for vibration requires that the applied based on a property of the
frequency is __________ the natural crystals that when a crystal is
frequency of the accelerometer. stressed a __________ is
generated across it.
a. Greater than
b. Equals to a. Current
c. Less than b. Voltage
c. Power

5. ____________is a device that is used 6. The natural frequency of

to measure the velocity and potentiometric accelerometer is
acceleration of an object. generally less than ________.

a. Multimeter a. 15 Hz
b. Accelerometer b. 30 Hz
c. Barometer c. 40 Hz

7. The mass that converts the 8. The semiconductor strain gage is

acceleration to spring displacement is used when _________ are taking
referred to as the ____________. place and when _____ is needed.

a. Seismic mass a. Slow changes, high sensitivity

b. Spring mass b. Slow changes, less sensitivity
c. Displacement mass c. Rapid changes, high sensitivity

58
 Sensors

9. Thermocouples are made from the 10. RTD is a ______________ that

_________ types of metals joined can be used to sense heat
together. changes.

a. Two same a. Transducer

b. Two different b. Amplifier
c. Three same c. Converter

11. A photo detector that generates the 12. The particular characteristic
voltage with the change in the related to EM radiation detection
intensity of light is called __________. is ____________.

a. Phototransistor a. Spectral sensitivity

b. Photodiode b. Spectral resistivity
c. Photovoltaic detector c. Spectral density

13. The potentiometeric is a type of 14. In piezoelectric accelerometer

_______ Sensor. when a crystal is stressed a
___________ is generated across
a. Motion it.
b. Force
c. Temperature a. Torque
b. Voltage
c. Energy

15. Electrolytic humidity sensor has RH 16. In photomultiplier tube dynodes

range of _______________. are maintained at _____________
potential.
a. 0 – 10 %
b. 10 – 100 % a. Positive
c. 0 – 100 % b. Negative
c. Equal

17. In Thermistor resistance increases 18. In phototransistor no ______

____________. current is required.

a. Linearly a. Emitter
b. Non-linearly b. Base
c. None of above c. Collector

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Chapter – 02
19. Which of the following process is not 20. If two junctions are kept at
sensitive to the amount of water different temperatures
presence in air? __________ around the circuit.

a. Photographic film composing a. Current flows

b. Semiconductor fabrication b. Current does not flow
c. Electrolysis c. Nothing happens

Fill in the blanks

21. Rectilinear motion is characterized by ___________ and

_____________.
22. _______________ measures mass motion by attaching the spring mass
to the wiper arm of a potentiometer.
23. LVDT stands for ______________________________________.
24. Piezo means _________ in Greek.
25. The sensitivity of strain gage is described in terms of _____________.
26. The basic two types of sensors are _____________ and
_____________.
27. The relative humidity ____________ with reduction in air temperature.
28. The temperature at which humidity reaches to saturation point is known
as ___________.
29. In photomultiplier tube dynodes are maintained at __________ voltages.
30. Spectral response of photodiode is typically peaked in _____________.

True False

31. The effect of applied force is referred to as a strain and the resulting
deformation as a stress.
32. The name shock is given to the declarations that are characterized by
very large time.
33. Variable reluctance accelerometer falls in the same general category as
the LVDT in that an inductive principle is employed.
34. The Strain wire gage converts the mechanical strain to an electric signal.
35. Relative humidity is directly proportional to the resistance.
36. In photoconductive cells the change in conductivity appears to be the
change in the resistance.
37. Electrolytic sensors work on the basis of Ampere’s circuital law.
38. Relative humidity is the ratio of amount of water vapors content per unit
volume of air to maximum amount of water vapors content per unit
volume of air that can be contained in it i.e., under saturated condition.
39. Electrolytic sensors functions on the Faraday’s Electrolytic principle.
40. The current required for electrolysis is function of moisture content in air.

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 Chapter – 03
Digital Controllers

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Process Control
3.2.1 Computers in Process Control
3.3 Digital Control
3.3.1 Supervisory Control
3.3.2 Direct Digital Control
3.4 Computer-Based Controller
3.4.1 Single-Board Computers
3.4.2 Programmable Logic Controller
3.4.3 Personal Computers
3.5 Characteristics of Digital data
3.5.1 Digitized Value
3.5.2 Sampled Data Systems
3.6 Digital Input-Output Interface
3.6.1 Digital-To-Analog Converters
3.6.2 Analog-To-Digital Converters (ADCs)
Chapter – 03
3.1 Introduction

Digital electronics received its initial impetus to produce smaller, faster, and
cheaper digital ICs from the computer industry. In process control there are
numerous areas where digital circuits are used directly, such as alarms and
multivariable control. The evolution of digital computers, which have higher
speed, higher reliability, smaller size, and reduced cost, brought about increased
use of digital computers in process control.

A computer is used to provide control system that can be described in terms of

discrete states. Control action consists of driving a process through a pattern of
such states in time, where the progression of states is dependent on
measurements of the present state of the system. In such a system, everything
associated with the system under control is expressed digitally; i.e., everything is
inherently two-state variable.

3.2 Process Control

Process control is a term used to describe any condition, natural or artificial, by

which a physical quantity is regulated.

3.2.1 Computers in Process Control

There are a number of ways that computers are employed in the process
industries. Of course, the continued reduction in size and price of computers
coupled with the improvement in reliability and computing speed has caused
increasing use of the computers.

 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): PLC is used to control

process operations that are two – state in nature. The computer used for
such control is dedicated to this highly specialized application and is not
recognized as a computer. This is true to the extent of using a peculiar
“programming” language or technique, called the ladder diagram.
 Data Logging: the efficient operation of a manufacturing process may
involve the interplay of many factors, such as production rates, material
costs, and efficiencies of control. When the process requires
implementation of many processes – control loops, then the interaction
of one stage of the system with another often can be analyzed in terms
of the controlled variables of the loops.
 Fixed loggers: the general features of a computer data logging system
are shown in Figure 3-1. Let us assume the process is under control of

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 Digital Controllers

many analog process-control loops and there is provision for analog

process variable measurement to be available as a commonly scaled
voltage. Thus, some signal conditioning converts all measurements into
a given range, often a specified voltage range, as required by a data-
acquisition system.

Figure 3-1: General features of data-logging system using a computer.

 Data Acquisition System (DAS): data acquisition is the term used to

define the process of collecting information, usually in an automated
fashion, on a broad variety of variables. Data acquisition is heavily used
in manufacturing processes that have a multitude of variables to be
measured. Data acquisition uses a combination of hardware, software
and specialized instruments with a variety of specialized terms like PCI,
USB, RS-232, ADC, etc. The data-acquisition system is the switchyard
by which the computer inputs samples of process-variable values. Data
is acquired through DAS to implement direct digital control in the process
industry. The rate at which the samples of a process variable can be
taken depends on:

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Chapter – 03
 How long it takes for the DAS to acquire a value
 How long it takes the computer to process the value, and
 How many other variables are to be sampled

Example

A data – logging system such as that in Figure 3-1 must monitor 12 analog loops.
A small computer requires 4µs per instruction and 100 instructions to address a
multiplexer line and to read in and process that data in that line. The ADC
performs a conversion in 30µs. The multiplexer requires 20µs to select and
capture the value of an input line. Calculate the maximum sampling rate of a
particular line.

Solution

Since computer requires 4µs to process single instruction in one loop, therefore
in 12 loops 100 instructions will be processed in

12 X 100 X 4 = 4800µs

The ADC converter needs

12 X 30 = 360µs

And the total time spent in the multiplexer switching is

20 X 12 = 240µs

Adding 4800 + 360 + 240 = 5400µs as the minimum time before a particular line
can be readdressed. The maximum sampling rate is the reciprocal, or 1/5400 =
185 samples per second.

3.3 Digital Control

Digital control involves the use of computer in modern application. There are two
approaches for process control using computers:

64
 Digital Controllers

3.3.1 Supervisory Control

In supervisory control, the computer is not itself the part of process control. The
only job of the computer, in this case, is to monitor the process involved and
provide data of how things have occurred in the process, i.e., whether desired or
undesired to the human operator. Then a human intervenes and acts
accordingly.

Supervisory control emerged as an intermediate step where the computers are

used to monitor the operation of analog controller and to determine the set
points. A single computer can monitor many control loops and use appropriate
software to optimize the set points for the best overall plant operation. If the
computer failed then analog system keeps the process running using last set
points until the computer come back online. The Figure 3-2, for analog heater
control system, shows how computer is used as supervisory control.

3.3.2 Direct Digital Control

In direct digital control, as the name implies, the computer itself is the part of
process control. It can, not only monitor the process but can also regulate or
direct the actions, without human intervention. This requires a comprehensive
program and logic to be entered in the computer memory.

Figure 3-2: Supervisory Control system.

65
Chapter – 03
Direct digital control (DDC) systems consist of networked microprocessor-based
controllers connected to analog and digital devices, which either sense
information or control components of a building's Heating, Ventilating, and Air-
Conditioning (HVAC) system. Control logic initiates and sequences operations
programmed with software stored in the hardware. Analog-to-digital (A/D)
converters transform analog electrical values into digital information for the
microprocessor. The analog sensors may be thought of as transducers that
convert a thermodynamic property to an electrical property.

Most systems include stand-alone or remote controllers with software to

eliminate the need for continuous communication. A personal computer
workstation primarily monitors status and stores back-up copies of the programs,
records alarms and trending functions, and achieve historical information to
operate the energy management system (EMS). Relatively complex strategies
and energy management functions are normally available at low levels in the
system architecture. Pneumatic actuation can be provided by electric-to-
pneumatic transducers.

Figure 3-3: DDC control loop.

Since computers become more reliable and miniaturized, they have taken over
the function of controllers. Thus, the analog is discarded. Figure3-4, shows how,
in a full, computer control system operation of a controller have been replaced by
software. The ADC and DAC provide interface with the process measurement
control action. The computer is inputted a digital representation of the
temperature NT as digitally converted voltage from the ADC. Error detection and
control action are determined by the program (software), the computer then
provide output NQ to the DAC that is directly supplied to the heater.

66
 Digital Controllers

Figure 3-4: Direct Digital Control system.

3.4 Computer-Based Controller

The ultimate application of digital methods in process control is the use of digital
computer to perform the controller’s function. The use of computer for process
control is not in itself new because an analog controller is actually an analog
computer.

 Hardware: the hardware associated with computer-based control is

essentially the same as that for supervisory control. In fact, the principle
difference is that the analog controller is made eliminated. In computer-
based control applications it is often advantageous to interface the
controller computer with other computers and facilities in the plant, that
is, a local area network (LAN). With this interface, it may be possible for
process engineer to monitor the values of dynamic variables of some
part of the process from his or her office.
 Software: for computers to perform controller functions the error must be
determined and the controller-mode equations solved to determine the
necessary output to the final control element. These operations are
performed by software. The computer must have programs to solve the
equations of the proportional, integral, and derivative modes of the
process.

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Chapter – 03
3.4.1 Single-Board Computers (SBCs)

Shortly after the miraculous shrinking of early mastodons, when mini's became
micro's, the first "private" machines were the single board computers, or
Monoboards. Intended originally for instruction, they evolved into fully functional
machines. A modern computer-based controller is often designed and built on a
single printed circuit board, which is referred to as Single-board computer (SBC).
Figure 3-5, shows a block diagram of the elements of an SBC controller. The
principle element is the microprocessor, which performs all actual data
computations and manipulations required by the software. The controller
program is contained in permanent memory; usually solid-state ROM. Temporary
storage during calculations and other functions uses the volatile RAM. This type
of controller often is used for control of a single loop such as the analog
controller. It often can be used as a direct plug-in replacement for an analog
computer.

3.4.2 Programmable Logic Controller

Control engineering has evolved over time. In the past, humans were the main
methods for controlling a system. More recently electricity has been used for
control and early electrical control was based on relays. These relays allow
power to be switched on and off without a mechanical switch. It is common to
use relays to make simple logical control decisions. The development of low cost
computer has brought the most recent revolution, the Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC). The advent of the PLC began in the 1970s, and has become
the most common choice for manufacturing controls.

Figure 3-5: Process Controller based on an SBC system.

68
 Digital Controllers

PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain
predominant for some time to come. Most of this is because of the advantages
they offer.

 Cost effective for controlling complex systems.

 Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
 Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
 Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
 Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before
failure.

PLC’s provides control of discrete-state system. All data inputs and control
outputs are two-state, either ON or OFF. The inputs and outputs are often 115
Vac signals. They are used for cyclical and repetitive operations, found in
sequential industrial process. They are used to perform logic decisions, timing,
up/down counting, record keeping, sequencing, arithmetic operations, report
generation, information handling, debugging, and troubleshooting.

Setpoint and gains are set as part of the ladder diagram program. When a rung is
executed that contains the continuous-mode controller function, the appropriate
controller-mode equations are solved and a control signal to the final control
element is output.

3.4.3 Personal Computers

Personal computer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an

individual user. Personal computers are based on the microprocessor technology
that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for
running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most
popular use for personal computers is for playing games.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most
popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple
Computers. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing
operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray
with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly
became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer
manufacturers fell by the wayside. One of the few companies to survive IBM's
onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal
computer marketplace.

69
Chapter – 03

Figure 3-6: Personal Computer.

Many of the popular personal computers can be used as process controllers. In

general, a personal computer will need special hardware in the form of I/O
boards and software consisting of programs for data input/output and the
controller modes. This approach to computer-based control is particularly
suitable for small-scale or isolated control system needs.

Figure 3-7: A personal computer process Controller.

Figure 3-7 shows the typical configuration for a personal computer application. Of
course, the computer application must be dedicated to the control system, and
thus cannot be used for other computing needs. It is also possible to provide
communications with other computers and remote terminals via the
communication port. Such a computer can also be led into a network.

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 Digital Controllers

3.5 Characteristics of Digital data

There are many advantages to using computers for the controller function. For
example, one computer can handle many loops, interaction between loops can
be accounted for in the software, data are less susceptible to noise-induced
errors, and the software can easily provide linearization. Other advantages
include self-tuning, error correlation, and automatic failure recovery.

It seems there should be a price for these advantages, and, indeed, there are
some disadvantages to the use of computers in controller operations. A serious
disadvantage is that conversion of analog data into digital data results in a loss of
knowledge about the value of the variable. The nature and consequence of this
should be considered.

3.5.1 Digitized Value

The format of analog-to-digital converted output is n-bit binary representation of

the data. With n-bits it is possible to represent 2n values, including zero. There is
a finite resolution of the physical data being represented of one part in 2n, and
that means we now are ignorant about the value of the variable after it has been
converted into the binary representation.

In equation form we can write the relation between a physical variable and its n-
bit digital representation as

V  Vmin 
N 2n ......(3.1)
Vmax  Vmin 
where N = base 10 equivalent of binary representation
V = input value
Vmax = maximum input value
Vmin = minimum input value

Only the integer part of the right side of Equation – 3.1 is used to determine N.
Equation – 3.1 assumes that the measurement system and ADC have been
designed so that the binary output switches from the equivalent of 2 n – 1 to 2n
just at Vmax. The resolution of the measurement can be found by noting what
changes in V will produce single integer (bit) change of N. This is easily seen to
be

71
Chapter – 03
V  Vmax  Vmin  / 2 n ......(3.2)

3.5.2 Sampled Data Systems

Consider that we have only discrete knowledge of the value in time. That is, the
computer control system takes only periodic samples of the variable value. Thus,
we are ignorant of the value or variation of the variable between samples. For the
control systems to function correctly, certain conditions must be assumed about
variations between samples. This is what sampled data system are all about.

 Sampling rate: the key issue with respect to the sampling in a computer-
based controller is the rate at which samples must be taken. The sample
rate is expressed either through ts, the time between samples, or fs =
1/ts, the sampling frequency. Samples must be taken at a high enough
rates so that the signal can be reconstructed from the samples. The rule
is that for adequate reconstruction of the signal from samples, the
samples must be taken at a frequency that is about 10 times the
maximum frequency of the signal.

fs = 10 fmax
Where fs = sampling frequency
fmax = maximum signal frequency

3.6 Digital Input-Output Interface

Most measurements of process variables are performed by devices that translate

information about the variable to an analog electrical signal. To interface this
signal with a computer or digital logic circuit, it is necessary first to perform an
analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion. Often, the reverse situation occurs, where a
digital signal is required to drive an analog device. In this case a digital-to-analog
(D/A) converter is required.

3.6.1 Digital-To-Analog Converters

A DAC accepts digital information and transforms it into an analog voltage. The
digital information is in the form of a binary number with some fixed number of
digits. Especially when used in connection with a computer, this binary number is
called a binary word or computer word. The digits are called bits of word. A
unipolar DAC converts a digital word into an analog voltage by scaling the analog
output to the zero when all bits are zero and some maximum value when all bits

72
 Digital Controllers

are one. In this context, the output of the DAC can be defined using following
equation as a scaling of some reference voltage,


Vout  VR b1 2 1  b2 2 2  b3 2 3  ...  b 2 n 
where Vout = analog voltage output
VR = reference voltage
b1 , b2 and bn are n-bit binary words

The minimum Vout is zero, and the maximum is determined by the size of the
binary word because, with all bits set to one, the decimal equivalent approaches
VR as the number of bits increases. Thus a 4-bit word has a maximum of

 
Vmax  VR b1 2 1  b2 2 2  b3 2 3  b4 2 4  0.9375VR

 Conversion resolution: the conversion resolution is a function of the

reference voltage and the number of bits in the word. The more bits, the
smaller change in analog output for 1-bit change in binary word and
hence the better the resolution. The smallest possible change is simply
given by,

Vout  V R 2 n

where Vout = smallest output voltage

VR = reference voltage
n = number of bits in the word

3.6.2 Analog-To-Digital Converters (ADCs)

Although many sensors that provide a direct digital signal output exist and are
being developed, most still convert the measured variable into an analog
electrical signal. With the growing use of digital logic and computers in process
control, it is necessary to employ an ADC to provide a digitally encoded signal for
the computer. The transfer function of the ADC can be expressed to be same as
that of DAC.

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Chapter – 03
Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. Process control is a term used to 2. PLC is used to control process

describe any condition by which a operations that are _________ in
______________ is regulated. nature.

a. physical quantity a. One- state

b. numerical quantity b. Two- state
c. Actuators c. Three- state

3. In ________________ the computer 4. Key issue with sampling in

itself is not the part of process control. computer-based controller is the
____ at which samples must be
a. Supervisory control taken.
b. Manual control
c. Direct digital control a. Rate
b. Bandwidth
c. Speed

Fill in the blanks

5. For adequate reconstruction of the signal from samples, the samples must be
taken at a frequency that is about _______ times the maximum frequency of the
signal.
6. The conversion resolution is a function of the _____________ and
___________________ in the word.
7. In direct digital control the computer itself is the ________ of process control.
8. A DAC accepts digital signal and transforms it into a(n) ___________ voltage.
9. PLC’s provides control of ____________ system.

True False

10. Electronic controller can only be digital in nature.

11. The detection of error signal is accomplished in electronic controllers by taking
the sum of different voltages.
12. One computer can handle many loops.
13. In Direct-Digital control human intervention may not be required.
14. Single-board computer is a computer on chip.

74
 Chapter – 04
Analog Controllers
4.1 Analog Controllers
4.2 Electronic Controllers
4.2.1 Error Detector
4.2.2 Single Mode
4.3 Proportional Mode
4.4 Integral Mode
4.5 Derivative Mode
4.6 Composite Controller Modes
4.6.1 Proportional – Integral
4.6.2 Proportional – Derivative
4.6.3 Three Mode
Chapter – 04

4.1 Analog Controllers

An analog controller is a device that implements different controller modes using

analog signals to represent the loop parameters. The analog signal may be in the
form of an electric current or a pneumatic air pressure. The controller accepts a
measurement expressed in terms of one of these signals, calculates an output
for the mode being used, and outputs an analog signal of the same type.

4.2 Electronic Controllers

Electronic controller can be analog as well as digital. The basic building block for
these controllers is an op-amp. Following are the applications of the electronics
in different modes of control.

Figure 4-1: Error detection for floating measurement systems.

4.2.1 Error Detector

The detection of an error signal is accomplished in electronic controllers by

taking the difference between voltages. One voltage is generated by the process
signal current passed through the resistor. The second voltage represents the
setpoint. This is usually generated by a voltage driver using a constant voltage as
a source. An example is shown in Figure 4-1.

The signal current is used to generate a voltage IR across the resistor R. This is
placed in series to a voltage Vsp tapped from a variable resistor Rsp connected to

76
 Analog Controllers

a constant negative voltage source Vo. The result is an error voltage VE = Vsp –
IR. This is then used in the process controller to calculate the controller output.

An error detector can also be made from a differential amplifier. Such a system
can be used only if the current from the transducer is referenced to ground.
Figure 4-2 shows the one typical configuration. The sensor signal current passes
to ground through RL, providing a signal voltage, Vm = IRL. The differential
amplifier then subtracts this from the Vsp.

Figure 4-2: Error detection for ground-based measurement using a differential

amplifier.

4.2.2 Single Mode

The following op-amp circuits illustrate the methods of implementing the pure
modes of controller action.

 Two-Position: a two position controller can be implemented by a great

variety of electronic and electromechanical designs. Many household air-
conditioning and heating systems employ a two-position controller
constructed from a bimetal strip and mercury switch, as shown in Figure
4-3.

As the bimetal strip bends due to decrease in temperature, it reaches a point

where the mercury slides down to close an electrical contact. The inertia of the
mercury tends to keep the system in that position until the temperature increases
to a value above the setpoint temperature. This provides the required neutral
zone to prevent excessive cycling of the system.

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Chapter – 04

Figure 4-3: A mercury switch on a bimetal strip is often used as a two-position

temperature controller.

A method using op-amp implementation of on/off control with adjustable neutral

zone is given in Figure 4-3. Here the controller input signal is assumed to be a
voltage level with an ON voltage of VH and an OFF voltage of VL, and the output
is the comparator output zero Vo. The comparator switches states when the
voltage on its input V1 is equal to the setpoint value Vsp. Analysis of the circuit
shows that VH = Vsp, and the low switching voltage is,

R1
Vl  Vsp  Vo ... ... (4.1)
R2

Example 4-1 Level measurement in a sump tank provided by a transducer

scaled as 0.2 V/m. A pump is to be turned on by application of +5V when the
sump level exceeds 2.0 m. The sump is to be turned back off when the sump
level drops to 1.5m. Develop a two-position controller.

Solution VH = (0.2V/m) (2.0m) = 0.4 V

And,

VL = (0.2V/m) (1.5m) = 0.3 V

This gives the following relations for the resistances and Vsp.

0.4 V = Vsp

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 Analog Controllers

R
0.3 V = Vsp  1 Vo
R2

Therefore, Vsp = 0.4 V and, from the second equation

0.3 = 0.4 – (R1/R2) (5), or

(R1/R2) = 0.02

Picking R1 = 5 KΩ, for example, means that R2 = 250 KΩ.

4.3 Proportional Mode

Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by

p  K p e p  po ... ... (4.2)

where p = controller output 0 – 100%
Kp = proportional gain

ep = error in percent of variable range

po = controller output with no error

Figure 4-4: An electronic proportional controller.

If we consider both the controller output and error to be expressed in terms of

voltage, we see that Equation – 4.2 is simply summing amplifier. The op-amp
circuit in Figure 4-4 shows such an electronic proportional controller. In this case,
the analog electronic equation for the output voltage is

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Chapter – 04

Vout  G pVe  Vo ... ... (4.3)

where Vout = output voltage

Gp = R2/R1 = gain

Ve = error voltage
Vo = output with zero error

4.4 Integral Mode

Integral mode is characterized by an equation of the form

t
p(t )  K i  e p (t )  pi (0) ... ... (4.4)
0

where p(t ) = controller output in percent of full scale

Ki = integrations gains (s-1)
e p (t ) = deviations in percent of full-scale variable value
pi (0) = controller output at t = 0

Figure 4-5: An electronic integral-mode controller.

This function is easy to implement when opamps are used as the building blocks.
A diagram of the integral controller is shown in Figure 4-5. The corresponding
equation relating input to output is

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 Analog Controllers

t
Vout  Gi  Ve dt  Vout (0) ... ... (4.5)
0

where Vout = output voltage

Gi = 1/RC = integration gain
Ve = error voltage
Vout (0) = initial output voltage

The values of R and C can be adjusted to obtain the desired integration time.
The initial controller output is the integrator output at t = 0.

4.5 Derivative Mode

The derivative mode is never used alone because it cannot provide a controller
output when the error is zero. Nevertheless, we show here how it is implemented
with op amps for combination with other modes. The control mode equation is
given either as:

de p
p  KD ... ... (4.6)
dt
where p = controller output in percent of full output
KD = derivative time constant (s)
ep = error in percent of full -scale range

This function is implemented by op amps in the configuration shown in Figure 4-

6. Resistance R1 is added for stability of the circuit against rapidly changing
signals. The response of this circuit for slowly varying input is

dVe
Vout  GD ... ... (4.7)
dt
where Vout = output voltage
GD = R2C = derivative time in seconds
Ve = error voltage

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Chapter – 04

Figure 4-6: An electronic derivative-mode controller.

4.6 Composite Controller Modes

The combination of several controller modes can be used to combine the

advantages of each mode and, in some cases, eliminate disadvantages.
Composite modes are implemented easily using op amp techniques.

4.6.1 Proportional – Integral

A simple combination of the proportional and integral circuits provide the

proportional – integral mode of controller action. The resulting circuit is shown in
Figure 4-7. For this case, the relation between input and output is given as:

R  1 t
Vout   1 Ve   Ve dt ... ... (4.8)
 R2  R1C 0

The definition of the proportional – integral controller includes the proportional

gain in the integral term, so we write

R  R  1 t
Vout   2 Ve   2   Ve dt  Vout (0) ... ... (4.9)
 R3   R1  R1C 0

The adjustments of this controller are the proportional band through Gp = R2/R1,
and the integration gain through G1 = 1/R2C.

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 Analog Controllers

Figure 4-7: An electronic proportional – integral (PI) controller.

4.6.2 Proportional – Derivative

A powerful combination of the controller mode is the proportional and derivative

modes. This combination is implemented using a circuit similar to that shown in
Figure 4-8. Analysis shows that this circuit responds according to the equation

 R1  dV  R2   R2  dV
Vout    R3C out   Ve    R3C out  Vo ... (4.10)
 R1  R3  dt  R1  R3   R1  R3  dt

We make the derivative coefficient on the left small to eliminate instability. One
choice is
R1 0.1
R3C  T ... ... (4.11)
R1  R3 2
Where T is the fastest variable time change to be expected in the process. Then,
the equation for the proportional derivative response becomes
 R2   R2  dV
Vout   Ve    R3C out  Vo ... ... (4.12)
 R1  R3   R1  R3  dt

Where the proportional gain Gp = R2 / (R1 + R3) and the derivative gain is GD =
R3C.

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Chapter – 04

Figure 4-8: An electronic proportional – derivative (PD) controller.

4.6.3 Three Mode

The ultimate process controller is the one that exhibits proportional, integral, and
derivative response to the process-error input. This mode is characterized by the
equation

Figure 4-9: An electronic three– mode (PID) controller.

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 Analog Controllers

t
de p
p  K p e p  K p K i  e p dt  K p K D  pi (0) ... ... (4.13)
0
dt
where p = controller output in percent of full scale
ep =process error in percent of the maximum

Kp = proportional gain

Ki = integral gain
K D = derivative gain
pi (0) = initial controller integral output

The zero error term of the proportional mode is not necessary because the
integral automatically accommodates for offset and nominal setting. This mode
can be provided by the straight application of op amp circuits resulting in the
circuit of Figure 4-9. Analysis of the circuit shows that the output is

R  R  1 R  dV
 Vout   2 Ve   2 
 R1   R1  R1C1
 Ve dt   2  RD C D e  Vout (0) ... ... (4.14)
 R1  dt

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Chapter – 04

Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. The detection of error signal 2. Implementation of the

is done in electronic proportional mode is given by
controllers by taking ___________.
_________ between voltages.
a. p  K pep
a. Sum
b. Difference b. p  K p  po
c. Average
c. p  K p e p  po

3. In Proportional-Derivative 4. In P-I controller adjustment is

mode, derivative coefficients done for proportional band
are made small to ________. through ____________.
a. Gp = R2/R1
a. Increase proportional gain b. Gp = R2/R1C
b. Eliminate instability c. Gp = R1/R22
c. To decrease offset error

Fill in the blanks

5. Electronic controller can be __________ as well as __________.

6. The ______________ mode can never be used alone because it cannot provide
a controller output when the error is zero.
7. As bimetal strip in two-position controller bends due to decrease in temperature,
it reaches a point where mercury slides down to __________ electrical contact.
8. An analog controller is a device that implements different controller modes using
___________ signals to represent the loop parameters.
9. Basic building block of electronic controller is ___________.

True False

10. Electronic controllers are digital in nature.

11. An error detector can also be made from a differential amplifier.
12. In Derivative mode, resistance R1 is added for stability.

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 Chapter – 05
Pneumatic Controllers
5.1 Pneumatic Controllers
5.2 Components of Pneumatic Design
5.3 Pneumatic Devices
5.4 Mode Implementation
5.5 Pneumatic Valves
5.6 Pneumatic Actuators
5.6.1 Line Actuators
5.6.2 Rotary Actuators
Chapter – 05
5.1 Pneumatic Controllers

The word pneumatic comes from the Greek word pneuma meaning breath.
Pneumatic systems use pressurized gases; here compressed air is the fluid
medium to transmit and control power. For almost a half-century (1920-1965),
pneumatic operation was the preferred means of automatic control. Several
factors, however, made great impact on the popularity of pneumatic control.
These include the entry of developments in solid-state electronics,
miniaturization, and computerization with their improved smaller packaging and
comparative ease with which digital technology could answer the needs of simple
and complex systems.

Contemporary pneumatic controllers, which are products of a highly mature

technology, are available and preferred by some users for some applications,
mainly in connection with single or limited number of control loops.

5.2 Components of Pneumatic Design

 Compressor: An air compressor is a machine to compress air from

atmospheric pressure to a higher level of pressure at the expense of
reduction of volume. Compressors are of two types: positive
displacement and rotary vane or screw compressor.
 Air Filter: An air filter is required to remove dirt and other components
from the air. Airborne dirt and other contaminants damage cylinder walls,
valves and other pneumatic elements in the circuit. The air filters use
cellulose felt like reusable elements with gaskets.
 Pressure Regulators: Pressure regulators are used to deliver air at a
constant pressure to the pneumatic actuators.
 Lubricators: Lubrications is necessary for the internal moving parts of
pneumatic components. When the air passes through the variable
control orifice, oil delivered by the drip tube is mixed with air to form an
oil mist that contains coarse and fine particles. The oil mist is carried out
and it lubricates the moving components of the pneumatic circuit.
 Dryers: The compressed air after passing through the aftercooler is
retained in the receiver. Though after cooler removes most of the
moisture from the air, the air is still not suitable for use. Air dryers are
used for removing virtually all moisture. A drying (chemical substance)
may be used.

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 Pneumatic Controllers

5.3 Pneumatic Devices

The design of pneumatic transmitters, controllers and all other pneumatic

instruments is based on a number of relatively simple pneumatic devices,
discussed in section 5.2, which are combined in different mechanical
arrangements to give a specific input-output relationship. These pneumatic
devices can be considered the equivalent of certain passive or active electrical
elements, and a useful analogy between a pneumatic system and electrical
system is apparent. In pneumatic controllers, the gain is normally described in
terms of proportional band percentage.

Figure 5-1: Pneumatic proportional controller.

5.4 Mode Implementation

 Proportional: a proportional mode of operation can be achieved with the

system shown in Figure 5-1. Operation is understood by noting that if the
input pressure increases, then the input bellows force the flapper to
rotate to close the nozzle. When this happens, the output pressure
increases so that the feedback bellows exert a force to balance that of
the input bellows. A balance condition then occurs when torques exerted
by each about the pivot are equal, or

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Chapter – 05
 pout  po A2 x2   pin  psp A1 x1 (5.1)

This equation is solved to find the output pressure

pout 
x1 A1
 pin  psp   po (5.2)
x2 A2

where po = pressure with no error

pin = input pressure (Pa)
A1 = input and setpoint bellows effective area (m2)
x1 = lever arm of input (m)
pout = output pressure (Pa)
A2 = feedback bellows effective area (m 2)
x2 = feedback lever arm (m)
psp = setpoint pressure

Equation – 5.2 represents the standard response of a proportional mode

in that output is directly proportional to the input. The gain in this case is
given as

 x  A 
K p   1  1  (5.3)
 x 2  A2 

Because the bellows are usually of fixed geometry, the gain is varied by
changing the lever arm length.

Example 5-1 Suppose a proportional pneumatic controller has A 1 = A2 = 5

cm2, x1 = 8 cm, and x2 = 5 cm. The input and output pressure ranges are 3 – 15
psi. Find the input pressure that will drive the output from 3 – 15 psi. The setpoint
pressure is 8 psi, and po = 10 psi. Find the proportional band.

Solution First, we find the gain from

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 Pneumatic Controllers

x  A1   8cm  5cm 2 


K p   1     
 x2  A2   5cm  5cm 2 

K p  1.6
Now we have
 
pout  K p pin  p sp  po
pout  1.6 pin  8  10
The low input occurs when pout  3 psi , so
3  1.6 p L  8  10, or
p L  3.625 psi
The high input occurs when pout  15 psi , so
15  1.6 p H  8  10, or
p H  11.125 psi
The proportional band (PB) is
 P  PL   11.125  3.625 
PB   H 100   100
 15  3   15  3 
PB  62.5%
Notice that this checks with
100 100
PB    62.5%
K p 1.6
which could be used because the input and output ranges are the same.

 Proportional – integral: This control mode is also implemented using

pneumatics by the system shown in Figure 5-2. In this case, the extra
bellows with a variable restriction is added to the proportional system.
Suppose the input pressure shows a sudden increase. This derives the
flapper toward the nozzle, increasing output pressure until the
proportional bellows balance the input as in the previous case. The
integral bellows is still at the original output pressure, because the
restriction prevents pressure changes from being transmitted
immediately. As the increased pressure on the output bleeds through the
restriction, the integral bellows slowly moves the flapper closer to the
nozzle, thereby causing a steady increase in output pressure (as dictated
by the integral mode). The variable restriction allows for variation of the
leakage rate, and hence the integration time.
 Proportional – derivative: This controller action can be accomplished
pneumatically by the method shown in Figure 5-3. A variable restriction
is placed on the line leading to the balance bellows. Thus, as the input
pressure increases, the flapper is moved toward the nozzle with no
impedance, because the restrictions prevent an immediate response of

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Chapter – 05
the balance bellows. Thus, the output pressure rises very fast as the
increased pressure leaks into the balance bellows and then, decreases
as the balance bellows moves the flapper back away from the nozzle.
Adjustments of the variable restriction allows for changing the derivative
time constant.

Figure 5-2: Pneumatic proportional-integral controller.

Figure 5-3: Pneumatic proportional-derivative controller.

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 Pneumatic Controllers

Figure 5-4: Pneumatic three-mode (PID) controller.

 Three mode: The three mode controller is actually the most common
type produced, because it can be used to accomplish any of the previous
modes by setting the restrictions. This device is shown in Figure 5-4,
and, as can be seen, it is simply a combination of the three systems
presented. By opening or closing restrictions, the three-mode controller
can be used to implement the other composite modes. Proportional gain,
reset time, and rate are set by adjustments of bellows separation and
restriction size.

5.5 Pneumatic Valves

Pneumatic valves are devices that permit control of the flow of compressed air.
Valves have two common features, a passageway through which air can flow
and some movable parts that open and close the passageway.

Valves are used for the following reasons:

1. To control the direction of flow;

2. To control the volume of flow; and

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Chapter – 05
3. To control or regulate the pressure in the system.

There are different types of valves used to control the pressure, flow rate and
direction of air in the pneumatic circuit. There are basically three types:

1. Check valve: Pneumatic check valve is employed to shut off the air flow
instantaneously if it attempts to flow in the reverse direction. It allows free
flow of air in the forward direction.
2. Flow control valve: Flow control valve is used to allow free flow in one
direction and metered or controlled flow in the opposite direction. Power
units for machinery have to affect movement at variety of speeds. In
adjustable flow control valves, the cross-section at the throttling point
affects the flow of air, and thus operating speed.
3. Directional control valve: Directional control valve used in pneumatic
systems functions in a way similar to that of hydraulic systems for a small
change in design. These valves are used to change the flow path of
compressed air. So as to extend, retract a cylinder or turn a rotary type
of actuators. They control direction of flow of air between different ports.

5.6 Pneumatic Actuators

Pneumatic actuators are similar to those used in hydraulic systems. Light

aluminum cylinders are common in pneumatic systems. The pneumatic actuator
is useful to translate a control signal into a large force or torque as required to
manipulate some control element.

Figure 5-5: A direct pneumatic actuator.

The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area. If we
imagine that a net pressure difference is applied to a diaphragm of surface area
A, then a net force acts on the diaphragm given by

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 Pneumatic Controllers

F  ( p1  p2 ) A (5.4)

where p1  p2 = pressure difference (Pascal, Pa)

A = diaphragm area (m2)
F = force (N)

The action of a direct pneumatic actuator is shown in Figure 5-5. Figure 5-5(a)
shows the condition in low signal-pressure state, where the spring S maintains
the diaphragm and the connected control shaft in a position as shown. The
pressure on the opposite (spring) side of the diaphragm is maintained at
atmospheric pressure by the open hole H. Increasing the control pressure (gauge
pressure) applies a force on the diaphragm, forcing the diaphragm and
connected shaft down against the spring force. Figure 5-5 shows this in the case
of maximum control pressure and maximum travel of the shaft. The pressure and
force are linearly related, as shown in Equation 5.4, and the compression of a
spring is linearly related to forces. Then we see that the shaft position is linearly
related to the applied control pressure

A
x  p (5.5)
k

where x = shaft travel (m)

p = applied gauge pressure (Pa)
A = diaphragm area (m2)
k = spring constant (N/m)

Many types of Pneumatic actuators are available but perhaps the most common
are two types: linear actuators- pneumatic cylinders and rotary actuator- piston
motor or vane motor.

5.6.1 Linear Actuators

Pneumatic cylinders may be single acting cylinder or double acting. A single

acting spring return cylinder is schematically shown in Figure 5-6.

Figure 5-6: Linear actuators.

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Chapter – 05
5.6.2 Rotary Actuators

Rotary actuators are similar to the hydraulic rotary actuators. There are two types
of rotary actuators: low speed piston motor and variable speed vane motor.
Piston motors are of radial type and shown in Figure 5-7.

(a): Piston motor (b) Vane motor

Figure 5-7: Pneumatic Actuators.

Vane motors are bidirectional and can rotate in either clockwise or

counterclockwise directions. The speed depends on the volume of air inducted in
and the torque depends on the pressure of the air. Unlike in the electrical motor,
torque is not a function of speed. A typical pneumatic system is illustrated in
Figure 5-8 to show the use of different pneumatic elements.

Figure 5-8: Typical Pneumatic system.

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 Pneumatic Controllers

Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. Compressor is a machine to compress 2. Pneumatic check valve is

air from atmospheric pressure to a employed to ___________ the
__________ level of pressure at the air flow instantaneously if it
expense of reduction of __________. attempts to flow in the reverse
direction.
a. Higher, Volume
b. Lower, Pressure a. Continue
c. Higher, Temperature b. Shut off
c. None of above

3. In Vane motors speed depends on the 4. Speed of vane motors depend

_________ of air inducted in and the on ___________ of induced
torque depends on the __________of air.
the air.
a. Volume
a. volume, temperature b. Pressure
b. volume, pressure c. Temperature
c. pressure, volume

5. Flow control valve is used to 6. Which one is the type of air

_____________ of air in one direction. compressor?

a. Shut off the air flow a. Bellows

b. Allow free flow b. Rotary actuator
c. Change the flow path c. Positive displacement

7. _____________ are used for 8. Piston motors are

removing all moisture from the air. ____________.

a. After coolers a. Of radial type

b. Air filters b. Bidirectional
c. Air dryers c. None of above

9. In pneumatic controllers, the gain is 10. Air filter is required to remove

normally described in terms of

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Chapter – 05
________________. the _________ from air

a. Proportional band percentage a. Dust

b. Set point pressure b. Moisture
c. None of above. c. Dew

Fill in the blanks

11. In pneumatic controllers, the gain is normally described in terms of

_______________.
12. Two most common types of pneumatic actuators are ______________ and
_____________.
13. There are two types of rotary actuators ______________ and _____________.
14. The torque of the vane motor depends on the ___________ of the air.
15. Valves have two common features, a _______________ and ____________.

True False

16. Check valve allows free flow of air in the reverse direction.
17. The pneumatic actuator is useful to translate a control signal into a large force or
torque.
18. Vane motors are unidirectional.
19. An air compressor is a machine to compress air from atmospheric pressure to a
lower level of pressure.
20. Unlike in the electrical motor, torque is not a function of speed in vane motors.

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 Chapter – 06
Hydraulic Controllers
6.1 Hydraulic Controllers
6.2 Basic Hydraulic System
6.3 Bernoulli’s Principle
6.4 Hydraulic System Circuits
6.5 Elements of Hydraulic Controllers
6.5.1 Hydraulic Amplifier
6.5.2 Electro-Hydraulic Amplifier
6.5.3 Hydraulic Fluids
6.5.4 Power Considerations
6.6 Hydraulic Pumps
6.6.1 Pumps Ratings
6.6.2 Types of Pumps
6.7 Hydraulic Reservoir
6.8 Hydraulic Actuators
6.8.1 Hydraulic Motors
6.8.2 Double-Acting Cylinder
6.8.3 Double –Rod Cylinder
Chapter – 06

6.1 Hydraulic Controllers

The transmission and control of forces and movement by using fluids is known as
Hydraulics. Hydraulic system converts and transmits mechanical energy. Mineral
oil or synthetic fluid is used for transmission of energy.

A hydraulic controller is a device that uses a liquid control medium to provide an

output signal that is a function of an input error signal. The error signal is the
difference between a measured variable signal and a reference set-point signal.
Self contained closed loop hydraulic controllers continue to be used for certain
types of process control problems, but as the use of the computer with its
electrical output, expands in process control applications, the electro-hydraulic
servo or proportional valve gains in usage.

6.2 Basic Hydraulic System

The word hydraulic is derived form the Greek word for water. Therefore, the
study of hydraulics can be considered to be the study of water flow. Figure 6-1
illustrates a way that water can be put to work. Water is directed from the nozzle
to a turbine that has blades. As the water strikes the blades, it causes the turbine
to turn. In this case, the energy from the flowing water is transferred to the rotary
motion of the turning turbine.

Figure 6-1: Water from a nozzle used to turn a turbine.

The energy developed from water flowing from the end of a nozzle is called
hydrodynamic energy. In contrast, the pressure of the fluid that causes the
movement of the manipulator’s arms (by compressing the fluid) is called
hydrostatic energy.

 Pressure and Hydraulic flow

Pressure (force per unit area) is developed in a system when the fluid used
encounters some type of opposition. The pressure can be developed in two
ways: through the use of a pump and through the use of a weight placed on the
fluids. An example of each is shown in Figure 6-2.
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 Hydraulic Controllers

Figure 6-2: Developing pressure on Fluids.

In Figure 6-2(a), the pump is used to pass fluid through a pipe. Because the pipe
is small, it creates pressure in the fluid line. In Figure 6-2(b), a weight is placed
on the fluid. This weight is the atmosphere, which applies a pressure of 14.7 psi
to the fluid.

Flow in a hydraulic system is measured in two ways: as velocity of fluid and as

flow rate of the fluid. Velocity of a fluid or simply fluid velocity is the average
speed at which the fluid’s travel per unit of time. The measurement of velocity is
either in feet per minute (fpm), in feet per second (fps) or in inches per second
(ips).

Flow rate of a fluid is a measure of the volume of a fluid passing a point in a

given time. Large volumes are measured in cubic inches per minute (in 3/min).
The difference between flow rate and velocity is illustrated in Figure 6-3.

Figure 6-3: Fluid velocity as a function of cross sectional area.

In this figure the smaller portion is 2 feet long to hold 1 gallon of oil. Same one
gallon of oil is accommodated in the large pipe of 1-foot. For a constant flow rate
of 1 gallon per minute, the oil travels in smaller part at a velocity of 2fpm, while in
larger part at a velocity of 1fpm, maintaining the same constant flow rate in gallon
per minutes. Thus, the velocity of the oil either increases or decreases depending
on the cross sectional area of the pipe.

Whenever a fluid is flowing, there must be a condition of unbalance to cause the

motion. Therefore, when fluid is flowing through a pipe, the pressure is always
greatest at the point closest to the input of the fluid. As the distance from the

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Chapter – 06

input increases, the pressure decreases. Figure 6-3 illustrates this decreasing
pressure. The pressure at the input, or the head point, is the greatest. As the fluid
flows through the pipe, the friction in the pipe causes the pressure to decrease.
The differences in pressure along the pipe are called pressure drops.

6.3 Bernoulli’s Principle

Hydraulic fluid has two types of energy: kinetic energy and potential energy.
Kinetic energy develops from the weight and the velocity of the fluid. Potential
energy develops from the pressure of the fluids.

Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist, found that when a hydraulic system has a
constant flow rate of fluid, energy is converted from one form to the other each
time the cross sectional area of the pipe is changed. Bernoulli’s principle says
that the sums of the potential energy and the kinetic energy at various points in a
system must be constant if the flow rate is constant.

Figure 6-4 illustrates the Bernoulli’s principle. In a small pipe at the left, pipe
velocity and hence the kinetic energy of the fluid is maximum. Therefore, the
potential energy (pressure) is low. The velocity and hence the kinetic energy
decreases as the fluid passes through large pipe. In this case the potential
energy and hence the pressure increases. This effect causes a constant flow
rate.

Figure 6-4: Bernoulli’s principle (pressure drop).

6.4 Hydraulic System Circuits

Hydraulic drive systems and circuits are of various types. So, symbols are used
to identify the different devices. The hydraulic circuit is much like an electric

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 Hydraulic Controllers

circuit, with different symbols. A hydraulic system has two basic components:
line and rotational components.

Figure 6-5 shows a simple hydraulic circuit with the different components. The
hydraulic pipes and tubes for fluid passage which are called hydraulic lines are
drawn as single lines. There are three types of lines used, the pressure line, the
pilot line and the drain line. The hydraulic symbols are shown in Appendix – D.

Figure 6-5: Schematic diagram for Hydraulic lines.

The pressure line carries the main stream or flow of fluid. The pilot line or the
dashed line controls operational valves or other components in the hydraulic
system. The drain line is the one to carry leakage oil back to the storage area,
called the reservoir. The relief valve is used as an outlet when the pressure in the
system rises above the desired level. As long as the pressure remains below this
level, then the relief valve is closed. As soon as the pressure overcomes the
setting of the relief valve, the valve opens and returns the fluid to the tank.
Circles are used in hydraulic drawings to illustrate the rotational components. A
power triangle is placed within the circle to denote energy sources (pump) or
energy receivers (motors).

6.5 Elements of Hydraulic Controllers

The major elements of hydraulic controllers include (1) an amplifier, (2) an error
detector, and (3) a signal-sensing section. The hydraulic relay is common to all
hydraulic controllers. The relay, shown in Figure 6-6, allows a small-mechanical
displacement to control the output from a hydraulic power supply in a fashion that
will drive a workload. The jet-pipe and spool valve are examples of these relays.

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Chapter – 06

Figure 6-6: Spool Valve.

6.5.1 Hydraulic Amplifier

The three major traditional types of hydraulic amplifiers are (1) jet-pipe valve, (2)
the flapper valve, and (3) the spool valve.

Figure 6-7: Elements of Hydraulic controllers.

 Jet-pipe valve: by pivoting a jet pipe, as shown in Figure 6-7, a fluid jet
can be directed from one recovery port to another. The fluid energy is
converted entirely to a velocity head as it leaves the jet pipe tip and then
is reconverted to a pressure head as it is recovered by the velocity ports.
The relationship between jet pipe motion and recovery pressure is
approximately linear. The proportional operation of the jet pipe makes it
very useful in proportional-speed floating systems (integral control), as
shown in Figure 6-7(a), or as the first stage of a servo or proportional
valve.

Position feedback can be provided by rebalancing the jet pipe from work
cylinder, as shown in Figure 6-7(b). A portional-plus-reset arrangement is

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 Hydraulic Controllers

shown in Figure 6-8. The hydraulic flow obtainable from a jet pipe is a
function of the pressure drop across the jet pipe.

Figure 6-8: Control Signaling with integral signal sensing.

 Flapper valve: this device makes use of two orifices in series, one of
which is fixed and the other is variable. The variable orifice consists of a
flapper and a nozzle. The nozzle restriction is changed as the flapper is
positioned closer to or farther from the nozzle. When the variable
restriction is changed, the pressure drop across the fixed orifice
changes, thus producing a variable output pressure with flapper position.
Single- and double-flapper arrangements are available as diagramed in
Figure 6-9.

Figure 6-9: Flapper Valves (a) Single, (b) Double.

 Spool valve: this device, when used in automatic control or servo

systems, usually is configured as a four-way valve, as previously shown
in Figure 6-6. A four-way valve can put full supply pressure on one side
of the work cylinder and drain the other side, or vice versa. If the widths
of the spool hands are greater than those of their respective ports, the
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Chapter – 06

valve is overlapped and is referred to as a closed-center valve. An

under lapped valve is referred to as an open-center valve. A line-to-line
valve is one in which the spool hands are the same as the porting. Flow
through the spool valve is proportional to the square root of differential
pressure across the valve.
 Two stage valves: When higher flows and pressures are required, a
two-stage valve may be used. In these cases the second stage usually is
a spool valve, while the first stage may be jet pipe, a spool valve or a
flapper valve. In two stage valves the second stage must be either
positioned, such as with springs, or provided with feedback to the first
stage as required. Feedback may be mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic.

6.5.2 Electro-Hydraulic Amplifier

Frequently the process variable is converted to an electric signal by an

appropriate transducer. In these cases the generation of the set points and the
error detection are performed electrically, and the error signal fed to the hydraulic
amplifier is an electric signal. When this is done, an electromechanical
transducer is required to generate the mechanical displacement. Two of the more
popular schemes are moving coil and the torque motor. The principle difference
between these two transducers is in the direction of the mechanical
displacement. The moving coil produces a linear mechanical displacement, while
the torque motor output is rotational. Electromechancial transducers
mechanically packaged together with hydraulic amplifier commonly are referred
to as servo or proportional valves.

 Servo valves: servo valves are available in one-, two-, and three- stage
designs. The single-stage design is used for the highest response rate;
three-stage designs are used for the highest power output. However,
two-stage is commonly used because it provides intermediate
characteristics of the two. Typical dimensions and clearances for servo
valves are given in Table 6-1. Reliable servo valves depend on
maintaining clean systems.

Table 6-1 Typical dimensions and clearances for servo valves

Dimensions
Parameter
Inches Millimeters
Air-gap spacing (each gap) 0.010-0.020 0.254-0.508
Maximum armature motion in air gap 0.003-0.006 0.076-0.152
Inlet orifice diameter 0.005-0.015 0.127-0.381
Nozzle diameter 0.010-0.025 0.254-0.635
Nozzle-flapper maximum opening 0.002-0.006 0.051-0.152
Drain orifice diameter 0.010-0.022 0.254-0.559
Spool stroke ±0.010-±0.060 ±0.254-±1.524
Spool or bushing radial clearance 0.0001-0.00015 0.0025-0.0038

 Proportional valves: these valves grew out of a need for lower-cost

servo valves capable of operating in dirty conditions. In many cases the
basic designs are identical. However, there are some designs unique to
proportional valves, such as proportional solenoids to drive the spool
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 Hydraulic Controllers

directly with a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) feedback in

a single stage.

In servo valves the spool and the sleeve or body are matched for very
close fit and zero overlap. Spools and bodies are interchangeable in
proportional valves, thus there is significant cost difference. However,
overlap results in dead zone, which can be a problem.

6.5.3 Hydraulic Fluids

Petroleum oil is optimum choice for the hydraulic fluids unless fire resistance is
required. In designing a hydraulic control system, the choice of fluid must be
made early because a number of features of the system must be tailored to the
fluid used.

Although there are numerous petroleum-based hydraulic oils designed

specifically for various types of systems, automatic transmission fluid has been
found to be a good engineering compromise for many systems because:

1. It is available worldwide to the same specifications

2. It contains viscosity index improvers which reduce the effects of viscosity
change with temperature
3. Like other quality hydraulic oils , it has rust, oxidation, and foam
inhabitations; and
4. It contains an antiwear zinc compound additive.

Synthetic hydrocarbon oils have all the advantages of natural oil, plus
complete freedom from wax content. Although the cost of synthetic oils is
relatively high, their use makes them applicable to install hydraulic controls in
adverse outside environments.

In recent times vegetable-oil based hydraulic fluids have also been utilized
(although very much expensive). These oils are readily biodegradable and
nontoxic. Tests indicate their better lubricity (less pump wear) and a bigger
viscosity index (less viscosity change with temperature) as compared with good
petroleum hydraulic fluids. Also, the vegetable oils have shown performance
characteristics compatible to those of petroleum oil at normal system operating
temperatures. The same seal materials and metals can be used for both types of
oils.

6.5.4 Power Considerations

Hydraulic controllers are generally applied where either high power or high
frequency response is required. The two requirements may or may not be
needed at the same time. Hydraulic fluids are considered incompressible so that
they can be handled under high-pressure conditions. The amount of power
delivered to the load is a function of the hydraulic power supply size, the
pressure drop required by the hydraulic controller, and the pressure drop losses
in the lines. With reference to Figure 6-10 and neglecting any line losses, it can

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be said that the pressure drop available for the load is equal to the supply
pressure less the hydraulic controller pressure drop. In equation form,

PL  PO  PC (6.1)

If the oil flow under these conditions is Q , then
Power available at load = PL Q

Qmax is determined by the hydraulic power supply capacity. As Q increases the

term PL Q also increases. However, increasing Q increases PC , thus
reducing PL . It can be shown that for most hydraulic controllers the maximum
PL Q occurs when PL  2Pc .

Figure 6-10: Hydraulic Flow Loop.

6.6 Hydraulic Pumps

The pump is used in the hydraulic circuits to convert mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy. The pump accomplishes this conversion by pushing the
hydraulic fluid through the system. Pumps are classified into two types:
hydrodynamic pumps and hydrostatic pumps.

The hydrodynamic pump employs water as the fluid under pressure. While the
hydrostatic pumps are the type usually found in robotic hydraulic drives. They
use hydraulic fluid as the fluid under pressure. These pumps provide a large
amount of output fluid for every stroke.

6.6.1 Pumps Ratings

A pump is rated by its maximum operating pressure and its output, in gallons per
minute, at a given drive speed. A second rating of a pump is its pressure rating,
which is specified by the manufacturer. Pressure rating tells the user the overall
length of services life of the pump. If a pump is operated at higher pressures than
those specified by the manufacturer, reduced pump life or more serious damage
may result. The third rating of a pump is its displacement. Displacement
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 Hydraulic Controllers

determines the output of fluid from the pump, and it is given in gallons per minute
or cubic inches per revolution.

6.6.2 Types of Pumps

Two types of pumps are found in hydraulic circuits: gear and vane. These pumps
must deliver constant flow of fluid to the various axes of the manipulator. The
fluid delivered allows movement of an axis and creates the lifting power of
manipulator.

Figure 6-11(a) illustrates the gear pump. A partial vacuum is created at the inlet
as the geared teeth unmesh. Fluids flow into the pump to fill the space and is
carried outside the gears. As the teeth mesh again at the outlet, the fluid is forced
out.

Figure 6-11(b) illustrates the vane pump. Fluid flowing into the pump from the
inlet side is trapped in the pumping chambers created by the vanes of the pump.
The fluid is pressed against the vanes of the pump, which fit into a slotted rotor.
Centrifugal force pushes the vane to the outside of the cam, where the fluid is
trapped. As the fluid presses against the vanes, the force causes the pump to
rotate around the rotor. Finally, the fluid exits at the outlet of the pump. High
pressure at the pump’s outlet imposes an unbalanced load on the gears and the
bearings supporting them.

(a) Gear pump (b) Vane Pump

Figure 6-11: Hydraulic Pumps.

6.7 Hydraulic Reservoir

Figure 6-12 illustrates a typical reservoir for hydraulic operations. The reservoir
contains several components: the inlet line, the baffle plate, the filter, the drain

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Chapter – 06

plug, the return, line to the pump, and the reservoir housing. The ends of the inlet
and outlet lines in the reservoir must be lower than the fluid level. If they are not,
the fluid will become aerated and foam, a condition called turbulence. Turbulence
in the reservoir decreases the hydraulic system’s efficiency. That is, turbulence in
the reservoir creates air in the fluid, which in turn, causes the temperature of the
fluid to increase.

The baffle plate is used to separate the inlet side from the outlet side of the
reservoir. Generally, the baffle plate is about two thirds of the height of the oil
level in the reservoir. The filter in the reservoir is used to trap all foreign materials
in the fluid. The drain plug is used to drain the fluid from the tank so that it can be
cleaned or so that routine maintenance can be performed.

Figure 6-12: Hydraulic Reservoir.

6.8 Hydraulic Actuators

A device that converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy is called a

hydraulic actuator. There are many cases when large forces are required. In
such cases, a hydraulic actuator may be employed. The basic principle is shown
in Figure 6-13. The basic idea is the same as for pneumatic actuators, except
that an incompressible fluid is used to provide the pressure which can be made
very large by adjusting the area of the forcing piston A1. The hydraulic pressure is
given by

p H  F1 / A1 (6.2)

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 Hydraulic Controllers

Figure 6-13: Hydraulic Actuator

where pH = hydraulic pressure (Pa)

F1 = applied piston force (Pa)

A1 = forcing piston area (m2)

The resulting force on the working piston is

Fw  p H A2 (6.3)

where Fw = force of working piston (N)

A2 = working piston area (m2)

Thus, the working force is given in terms of the applied force by

A2
Fw  F1 (6.4)
A1

There are two categories of actuators: Cylinders and Motors.

6.8.1 Hydraulic Motors

Hydraulic motor belong to the rotational type of hydraulic actuators. The hydraulic
motor resembles the hydraulic pump. The major difference is that a pump applies
pressure to the hydraulic fluid, while a motor receives pressure from the fluid.
This pressure causes the rotation of the motor. The rotating motor then develops
a torque, providing a continuous rotational motion.

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Chapter – 06

Figure 6-14: Double Acting Cylinder.

6.8.2 Double-Acting Cylinder

The double acting cylinder is shown in Figure 6-14. The double acting cylinder
has two oil ports, as shown in the figure. These ports allow fluid to enter and exit
in two directions. Thus, the cylinder can move in two directions.

In Figure 6-14(b), on the left, the fluid chamber is being filled from the top. This
port is called the input port. The output port at the bottom of the cylinder handles
the fluid flowing out of the cylinder. This fluid flow from top to bottom causes the
load to be lowered. During the reverse cycle, the fluid reverses direction. Fluid
now fills the bottom of the chamber.

Figure 6-15: Double Rod Cylinder.

6.8.3 Double –Rod Cylinder

The double rod cylinder is illustrated in Figure 6-15. The double rod cylinder has
the same number of ports as the double acting cylinder. The major difference
between the two types is that the double rod cylinder has two rods, which are
placed back to back. This design allows the cylinder to develop equal forces in
both directions, along with equal speeds. With the double rod leads from each
cylinder, double loads can be connected to this device.

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Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. A hydraulic controller is a device that 2. The energy developed from

uses a(n) ____________ control water flowing from the end of a
medium to provide an output signal nozzle is called ___________.

a. Mechanical a. Hydrodynamic energy

b. Electrical b. Hydrostatic energy
c. Liquid c. None of above

3. Flow rate of a fluid is a measure of the 4. Flow through the spool valve is
___________ of a fluid passing a __________ to the square root
point in a given time. of differential pressure across
the valve.
a. Temperature
b. Pressure a. Equal
c. Volume b. Proportional
c. None of above

5. The atmospheric pressure applies a 6. Potential energy develops from

pressure of ___________ to the fluid. the ___________ of the fluids.

a. 13.7 psi a. Pressure

b. 14.7 psi b. Volume
c. 15.7 psi c. Temperature

7. The sums of the potential energy and 8. The pressure line carries the
kinetic energy in a system must be ___________ of fluid.
constant if the ___________ is
constant. a. Pressure
b. Flow
a. Flow rate c. Energy
b. Fluid velocity,
c. Hydrostatic energy

9. The three stage design of servo 10. The single stage design of
valves is used for the _____________ servo valves is used for the
power output. ____________ response rate.

a. Lowest a. Lowest
b. Nominal b. Nominal
c. Highest c. Highest

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Fill in the blanks

11. The error signal is the ___________ between a measured variable signal and a
reference set-point signal.
12. Hydraulic fluid has two types of energies; __________ and ____________.
13. A hydraulic system has two basic components __________ and __________
components.
14. The pilot line or the dashed line controls ____________ or other components in
the hydraulic system.
15. A power triangle is placed within the circle to denote ____________ or
___________.
16. Flow in a hydraulic system is measured in two ways: as __________ and as
_________ of the fluid.

True False

17. The pressure of the fluid that causes the movement of the manipulator’s arms (by
compressing the fluid) is called hydrodynamic energy.
18. Kinetic energy develops from the weight and the volume of the fluid.
19. The pressure line is the one to carry leakage oil back to the storage area, called
the reservoir.
20. In jet-pipe valve the fluid energy is converted entirely to a velocity head as it
leaves the jet pipe tip and then is reconverted to a pressure head as it is
recovered by the velocity ports.
21. The pilot line controls operational valves or other components in hydraulic
system.

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 Chapter – 07
Speed Control
7.1 Final Control Operation
7.2 Stepper Motor
7.2.1 Types of Stepper Motor
7.2.2 Stepper Motor Control by Computer
7.2.3 Stepper Motor Control by
Microcontroller
7.2.4 Comparison between Stepper Motor &
Servo Motors
7.2.5 Difference between Stepper Motor and
Stepper Motor Controlled By a
Computer
7.3 Pulse Width Modulation DC Motor
Control
Chapter – 07
7.1 Final Control Operation

Final control element involves the steps necessary to convert the control signal
(generated by a process controller) into proportional action on the process itself.
For a typical process control application, the conversion of a process controller
signal to control function can be represented by the steps shown in Figure 7-1.
The input control signal may take many forms, including an electrical current, a
digital signal, or pneumatic pressure.

Signal
Actuator
Conditioning

Final Control
Element

Process

Figure 7-1: Final control operation sequence.

 Signal conversion: this step refers to the modification that must be

made to the control signal to properly interface with the next stage of
control, i.e., the actuator. The devices that perform such signal
conversions are often called transducers because they convert control
signals from one form of energy to another, such as current to pressure,
current to voltage etc. A corollary to the signal conversion process is the
development of special electronic devices that provide a high energy
output under the control of a low energy input. This is generally
described by the term industrial electronics.
 Actuators: the result of a signal conversions provide an amplified and/or
converted signal designed to operate (actuate) a mechanism that
changes a controlling variable in the process, such as valve or heater
that must be operated by some device. The actuator is translation of the
(converted) control signal in to action on control element.
 Control element: this device has direct influence on the process
dynamic variable and is designed as an integral part of the process.
Thus, if flow is to be controlled, then the control element, a valve, must
be built directly in to the flow system.

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In Figure 7-2 a control system is shown to control the degree of baking of, say,
crackers, as determined by the cracker color. The optical instrument system
produces a 4 – 20 mA conditioned signal that is an analog representation of
cracker color. The controller compares the measurement to a set point and
outputs a 4 – 20 mA signal that regulates the conveyer belt feedback motor
speed to adjust baking time. The final control operation is then represented by
signal conversion that transforms the 4-20 mA signals into a 50 -100 volt signal
as required for motor speed control. The motor itself is the actuator, and the
conveyer belt assembly is the control element.

Figure 7-2: Final control example.

Example 7-1 A magnetic amplifier requires 5 – 10 volt input signal from a 4 –

20 mA control signal. Design conversion system to provide this relationship.

Solution We must first convert the current to a voltage, and then provide
the required gain and bias. We can get voltage using a resistor in the current line
of, say, 100Ω. Then 4 – 20 mA becomes 0.4 – 2.0 volts. The amplifier system
must provide an output given by;
Vout  KVin  V B
where K = is the gain, and

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Chapter – 07
VB = is an appropriate bias voltage
We know that 0.4V input must provide 5V output, and 2V input must provide 10V
output. This allows us to find K and VB , using simultaneous equations as
5  0.4 K  V B
10  2 K  V B
Subtracting above equations, we get
5  1.6K
This value can be used in either equation to calculate the value of VB
V B  3.75
Thus, the result is
Vout  3.125Vin  3.75

The circuit shown in Figure 7-3 is the practical implementation of the design for
the given relationship.

7.2 Stepper Motor

Stepper motors are small motors where the magnetic field is rotated in small
steps in order to make the motor rotate. A stepper motor usually requires a
controller and a drive. The controller reads commands such as acceleration,
Velocity, Distance, and automatically generates the move profile that ramps the
speed up to 10 revolutions per seconds (RPS). Stepper motors and controllers
are one of the least expensive ways to get accurate positioning but stepper
motors only handle small loads. Contrary to what some people tell you, you can
have encoders on stepping motors to reduce the effects of motor slip.

Stepper motors offer significant advantages over the usual closed-loop

servomotors found in many industrial control applications. A stepper motor has
the capability of rotating in either direction, starting and stopping at various
mechanical positions, and moving its rotor in precise angular increments for each
input. The stepper motor operates through pulses of DC in its operation. Each
pulse causes the motor to rotate in a clockwise or counter clockwise direction,
and each pulse causes certain degree of rotation. Therefore, several pulses
applied to the motor supply a certain degree of movement. The great advantage
of a stepper motor is that it can be used to rotate a given number of turns and
even a precise fraction of one turn. In addition, it holds this position and so is
able to provide precise positioning for devices and equipment which require this
accuracy.

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 Speed Control

Figure 7-3: Practical implementation of Example 7-1.

The stepper motor comes in a variety of sizes, each size relates to a specific
rotation of the rotor. The following table lists the sizes of the typical stepper
motors.

Table 7-1 : Stepper motors

Size of motors Degrees of rotation per pulse
240 1.5º
180 2.0º
144 2.5º
72 5.0º
48 7.5º
24 15.0º
12 30.0º

From above table, we find that a stepper motor of size 240 rotates 1.5º for each
pulse input. A stepper motor of size 12 rotates 30º for each pulse input and so
on. The rating of stepper motor is given in steps per revolution of the motor.

A stepper motor consists of a magnetized rotor and a number of coils providing

poles around the stator. Each pole is switched in turn and the magnetized rotor
follows each energized pole. The step angle can be determined from the
equation:

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Chapter – 07
360 0
 (7.1)
mZ r

where θ = is the step angle

m = is the number of phases
Zr = is the number of poles on rotor

7.2.1 Types of Stepper Motor

There are three common types of stepper motors:

 Bipolar permanent magnet stepper motor: this motor operates on the

basic principle of magnets i.e., like poles repel each other while different
poles attract each other. The rotor consists of a permanent magnet that
is axially oriented and located at each end of the axle. The north pole of
the magnet is 180º away from the South Pole. The stator is the non-
rotating part of the motor that contains the primary windings. When
current is passed through these windings, a magnetic field is produced in
which the rotor can rotate. The stator also has geared teeth that allow
the stepping action to be developed between the stator and the rotor’s
teeth. The number of teeth on the stator differs from the number of teeth
on the rotor to allow the motor to rotate predictable amount. In the bipolar
stepping motor, small breaking action, or magnetic force is developed
due to the residual flux in the stator windings that keeps rotor in tact
when the current supply is cut off.
 Permanent magnet motor: this motor also runs on the same principle of
permanent magnets. The poles mounted outside are the stator poles.
As the stator pole, receive different voltages, their magnetic polarity
changes. During the first period, shown in Figure 7-4, stator poles A (top)
and C (bottom) are turned ON; stator poles B (left) and D (right) are
turned OFF. The applied voltage develops a magnetic field around the
stators. This field causes the motor to rotate. When the magnetic field
through the stator windings are reversed, the motor rotates in opposite
directions.
 Bifilar motor: different degrees of rotation can be obtained with bifilar
stepper motor. The bifilar motor contains the stator windings. The
difference between the bifilar stepper motor and the permanent magnet
stepper motor is that the stator windings are center tapped in the bifilar
motor.

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 Speed Control

Figure 7- 4: Stepper motor rotation.

7.2.2 Stepper Motor Control by Computer

Stepper motors are ideal for wide range of computer controller’s mechanical
equipment. We will find them in all sorts of devices, printers, disk drives, scanner
and junked devices of this sort are an ideal source of stepper motors for
experiments.

The motor used in this example is a small 12 V model with a 7.5º step angle.
Small motor of this sort is best controlled using one of the integrated circuit
stepper motor controller chip (like Philips SAA 1027).

This chip makes a stepper motor very easy to control from one computer or
microcontroller. There are just three input lines for connection to the PC parallel
interface or I/O port. The motor will turn clockwise when pin 3 is low and
counterclockwise when pin 3 is high. The motor will turn one-step for every low to
high transition on pin 15, the reset line on pin2 will normally be kept high, when it

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Chapter – 07
is taken low it will reset the chip and take pin 6 and pin 9 low, and pin 8 and pin
11 high. The reset is not normally used.

Figure 7-5: Stepper motor control circuit.

 Four-Coil Unipolar Variety Stepper Motor: the most common stepper

motor is the four-coil unipolar variety; a typical coil format is shown below
in Figure 7-6. These are called unipolar because they only require that
their coils be driven ON and OFF. Bipolar stepper requires that the
polarity of power to coils be reversed. The normal stepping sequence for
Four-coil unipolar variety stepper motor is shown in Table 7-3.

Table 7– 2:
Pin State Motor Direction Turns Reset Line
Low Clockwise
3 — Normally kept
High Counter clockwise high. Reset the
2 Normally kept high — — chip when
For every low to taken low
15 — Motor will turn one step
high transition
SAA1027 operates at +12V (logic high is>+7.5V and logic low is <-4.5 V)

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 Speed Control

Figure 7-6: Four coil uni-polar stepper motor.

Table 7-3: stepping sequence for four-coil unipolar variety stepper motor
Step Sequence
1 2 3 4 1
Coil 1 1 1 0 0 1
Coil 2 0 0 1 1 0
Coil 3 1 0 0 1 1
Coil 4 0 1 1 0 0

If we run the above stepping sequence forward, the stepper motor rotates
clockwise, while running it backward results in the counterclockwise rotation of
the stepper motor. The motor speed depends on how fast the controller runs
through the step sequence. The software based stepper motor has built-in
brakes that are also applied.

7.2.3 Stepper Motor Control by Microcontroller

Although computers can easily be used to automate almost any device, but it
would be waste of its tremendous potential both in terms of cost and efficiency to
just control a single or more stepper motors through this highly efficient machine.
Therefore, other devices are designed such as microcontrollers that are capable
of providing similar performance at the reduced cost and minimum waste of
potentials.

The microcontroller is a best alternative because it is capable of performing

almost all activities which can be achieved through the use of a computer at
dramatically reduced price and lower wastage of resources.

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Chapter – 07

Figure 7-7: System diagram.

Microcontrollers

A microcontroller is an embedded, dedicated, low power consumption special

purpose device used to make life as simple as possible. Microcontrollers are
hidden inside a surprising number of products these days. If your microwave
oven has an LED or LCD screen and a keypad, it contains a microcontroller. All
modern automobiles contain at least one microcontroller, and can have as many
as six or seven.

A microcontroller is a computer-on-chip. The desktop computer you are using is a

"general purpose computer" that can run any of thousands of programs.
Microcontrollers are "special purpose computers. The microcontroller used in this
example is 8051 (the IC used is 89C52 due to its cheapness) microcontroller.

A typical 8051 contains:

1. CPU with Boolean processor

2. 5 or 6 interrupts: 2 external

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 Speed Control

3. 2 or 3 16-bit timer/counters
4. Programmable full-duplex serial port (baud rate provided by one of the
timers)
5. 32 I/O lines (four 8-bit ports)
6. RAM, ROM/EPROM in some models

Table 7-4 summarizes the differences among popular 8051 family chips. The
8052 is an enhanced 8051, with an extra timer and more RAM and ROM. The
8031 and 8032 are identical to the 8051 and 8052, except that the ROM area is
unused, and program code must be stored in an external EPROM or other
memory chip. Similarly, 89C52 is an enhanced 8052 microcontroller, which is
actually used in this example.

Table 7-4: Comparison of Microcontrollers

Chip Program Memory
RAM (Bytes) Timers
Type Kilobytes
8051 ROM 4 128 2
8052 ROM 8 256 3
8031 None - 128 2
8032 None - 256 3
8751 EPROM 4 128 2
8752 EPROM 8 256 3

The pin diagram of 8052 controller is shown in Figure 7-8. There are four ports in
8052, however only two are used in this particular application to control stepper
motor. Port 1 is used for data transfer between the microcontroller and the motor.
As the current derive capabilities of the microcontroller are not enough to operate
a motor, we have added a buffer between the two. Only two bits of port 3 are
used. P3.1 is used as a status bit to check that whether user wants to drive the
motor at high speed or low. If the bit is set the motor speed is slower. Likewise
P3.2 is used to rotate the motor in clockwise or anticlockwise direction.

Table 7-5: Bit pattern

Index 1a 1b 2a 2b
1 1 0 0 1
2 1 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 0
4 0 0 1 1
5 1 0 0 1
6 1 1 0 0
7 0 1 1 0
8 0 0 1 1

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Chapter – 07
Circuit Operation

Firstly, after the reset, the microcontroller moves data 110001100 to the port P1
to energize the respective poles of the motor. After a certain amount of delay
governed by the bit status of P3.1, the controller rotates the data 11001100 to left
or right depending upon the bit condition of P3.2. When the data is moved right
the next bit becomes, 01100110, hence the next two poles of the motor are
energized and the rotor moves a step. The controller keeps on rotating the data
right (or left) generating the bit pattern shown in Table 7-5 for stepper motor
section and hence the motor rotates clockwise (or anticlockwise).

Figure 7-8: Pin diagram of 8052.

7.2.4 Comparison between Stepper Motor and Servo Motors

For some applications, there is a choice between using servomotors and

stepping motors. Both types of motors offer similar opportunities for precise
positioning, but they differ in a number of ways. Servomotors require analog
feedback control systems of some types. Typically, this involves a potentiometer

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 Speed Control

to provide the feedback about the rotor position, and some mix of circuitry to
drive a current through the motor inversely proportional to the difference between
the desired position and the current position.

In making a choice between steppers and servos, a number of issues must be

considered; which depends upon the application for which motor is used. For
example, the repeatability of positioning done with stepping motor depends on
the geometry of the motor rotor, while the repeatability of positioning done with a
servomotor generally depends on the stability of the potentiometer and other
analog components in the feedback circuit.

Stepping motors can be used in simple open-loop control systems; these are
generally adequate for systems that operate at low accelerations with static
loads, but closed loop control may be essential for high acceleration, particularly
if they involve variable loads. If a stepper in an open-loop control system is over-
torqued, all knowledge of rotor position is lost and the system must be
reinitialized; servomotors are not subject to this problem.

7.3.4 Difference between Stepper Motor and Stepper Motor Controlled By

a Computer

Unlike ordinary stepper motors, which spin freely when power is applied,
steppers require that their power source be continuously pulsed in specific
patterns. These patterns, or step sequence determines the speed and direction
of the motor’s motion. The fixed stepping angle gives steppers their precision.
The speed can be easily varied with the help of software or microcontroller in
computer controlled stepper motors contrary to DC stepper motor where it is
difficult task to get the accurate angular movement.

The computer controlled stepper motors have the complex circuitry but this
generates comparatively very good results as compared to the ordinary DC
motor controller. To control the computer controlled stepper motor is not a big
problem as we have a microcontroller to respond, to get the required results as
compared to the simple stepper motor.

7.3 Pulse Width Modulation DC Motor Control

For the control of electric motors, a simple controller with a voltage supply and a
switch or potentiometer is sufficient. The main problem is poor performance, the
motor tending to jump almost instantly from a stationary position to what is often
more than half speed. The main cause seems to be the starting characteristic of

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motor itself, which when under load seems reluctant to start. A motor has a
relatively low resistance when it is stationary. As the speed control is advanced,
the current through the motor increases, but the voltage across the motor
remains quite low. The speed control therefore has to overcome its reluctance to
start. As the motor speed and the load on it changes, there are changes in the
internal resistance. Speed regulation is not very good under these
circumstances, particularly at low speed.

Figure 7-9: PWM control circuit.

PWM is common technique for speed control. A good analogy is bicycle riding.
We peddle and then coast using momentum to carry ourselves forward. As we
slow down, we peddle to speed up and then coast again. The PWM for motor
speed control works in a similar way. Instead of peddling, motor is given fixed
voltage and starts spinning. The voltage is then removed and the motor coasts.
By continuing this voltage on-off duty cycle, motor speed is controlled.

To control the speed of a DC motor we need a variable voltage DC power

source. However if you take a 12 V motor and switch on the power to it, the
motor will start to speed up: motors do not respond immediately so it will take
some time to reach full speed. If we switch the power OFF sometime before the
motor reaches full speed, then the motor will start to slow down. If we switch the
power ON and OFF quick enough, the motor will run at some speed part way
between zero and full speed. This is exactly what a PWM controller does; it
switches the motor on in a series of pulses. To control the motor speed, PWM
controller varies (modulates) the width of the pulses, hence – Pulse Width
Modulation.

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In Figure 7-9, the first 555 serves as an astable multivibrator providing pulses at
frequency of approximately 1200 Hz. The second 555 serves as a pulse modifier
and with its control can produce pulse widths from 3% to 97%.

Rather than feeding the motor with a simple DC voltage, it is fed with a pulse
signal. The waveforms of Figure 7-10, will help to illustrate different duty cycles.
In each case, the signal has maximum and minimum potentials of 12 V and 0V.

In Figure 7-10(a), the signal has a mark-space ratio of 1:1, with the signal at 12 V
for 50% of the time; the average voltage is 6 Volts. In Figure 7-10(b), the mark-
space ratio is 3:1, which means that the output is at 12 V for 75% of the time.
This clearly gives an average output potential of 9 Volts. In Figure 7-10(c), the
mark-space ratio is 1:3, giving an output signal that is 12 V for just 35% of the
time. The average potential of this signal is just 3 Volts. Thus by varying, the
mark-space ratio of the signal, it is possible to obtain any desired average output
voltage from 0 to 12 V.

12 V

6V

0V
(a) ratio of 1:1, with the signal at 12 V for 50% of the time; the average
voltage is 6 Volts

12 V
9V

0V
(b) ratio of 3:1, with the signal at 12 V for 75% of the time; the average
voltage is 9 Volts

12 V

3V
0V
(c) ratio of 1:3, with the signal at 12 V for 35% of the time; the average
voltage is 3 Volts

Figure 7-10: PWM control pulses.

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Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. In Stepper motor, ______________ is 2. The stepper motor operates

rotated in small steps in order to rotate through pulses of _____ in its
the motor. operation.

a. Magnetic field a. DC
b. Electric field b. AC
c. Electromagnetic field c. Both AC and DC

3. A stepper motor of size 12 rotates 4. Stepper motor of size 240

_______ for each pulse input and so rotates _______ for each pulse
on. input.

a. 3.0º a. 1.5º
b. 30º b. 15º
c. 0.3º c. 0.15º

5. The north pole of the magnet is 6. Servomotors require analog

________ away from the South Pole. ___________ control systems.

a. 45º a. Feedforward
b. 90º b. Feedback
c. 180º c. No feedback

7. The repeatability of positioning done 8. As the speed control is

with stepping motor depends on the advanced, _______ through
geometry of the _______________. motor increases, but ______
across the motor remains low.
a. Motor stator
b. Motor rotor a. Voltage, current
c. Potentiometer b. current , voltage
c. None of above

9. Stepping motors used in open-loop 10. A motor has a relatively _____

control systems are adequate for resistance when it is
systems that operate at ___________ stationary.
accelerations with static loads.
a. Low

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a. Low b. Medium
b. Medium c. High
c. High

Fill in the blanks

11. A stepper motor usually requires a ___________ and a ___________.

12. A stepper motor consists of a _______________ rotor and a ________________
providing poles around the stator.
13. The stator is the _____________ part of the motor that contains the primary
windings.
14. The repeatability of positioning done with a servomotor generally depends on the
stability of the _________________ and other _______________ in the
feedback circuit.
15. _________ is common technique for speed control.

True False

16. A stepper motor can rotate only in one direction.

17. As the size of the stepper motor increases the degree of rotation per pulse
decreases.
18. The stator windings are center tapped in the permanent magnet stepper motor.
19. The number of teeth on the stator and rotor are kept same in order to allow the
motor to rotate.
20. Different degrees of rotation can be obtained with bifilar stepper motor.

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Position Control
8.1 Friction
8.2 Backlash
8.3 Resilience
8.4 Machine Tool Control
8.5 Examples on Position Control
Chapter – 08
8.1 Friction

In order to analyze friction, we consider loads that are driven by rotating

machinery and the friction characteristics expressed in terms of load. When the
shaft is at rest, a static torque T S is required to set the shaft in motion. Under the
low-speed conditions, the friction characteristic exhibits a negative slope,
resulting in reduced friction with increasing speed. This is an unstable operating
state. Over a certain range of speeds, the torque required to drive the shaft is
approximately constant and is known as coulomb torque T C.

As the shaft speed increases, the torque to overcome friction rises in a linear
fashion and is known as viscous friction. Practically all loads exhibit this
characteristic, but fortunately, for the most of the time, they operate in the
viscous (linear) friction region.

TC

Speed

Figure 8-1: Friction characteristic curve.

Some installations, notably radio telescopes, operate continuously at very low

speeds, frequently on the unstable part of the friction characteristics. Machine
tools often operate close to the zero speed regions when carrying out fine
machining operations, sometimes resulting in what is known as the stick/slip
phenomenon when the output moves in a series of jumps. This gives rise to
imperfections in the machine surface. To overcome the static torque, it is
permissible in some servo systems to vibrate the output shaft by some external
means at a frequency that is outside the bandwidth of the control system.

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Since any form of friction dissipates energy, it has a stabilizing effect. In practice,
the coulomb torque is normally small and may be neglected as far as its
contribution to damping is concerned. The static torque is of greater significance,
since it can introduce position errors.

8.2 Backlash

Backlash is a play or lost motion that occurs between two loosely fitting parts.
Backlash is a non-linearity, which is characterized by a dead zone, or region of
zero sensitivity, when the input drive reverses direction. It commonly occurs in
gear drives, as shown in Figure 8-2. The input gear must move through an angle
φ before the output commences moving, as shown in Figure 8-2. When the input
gear reverses, it turns through 2φ before the output gear is reengaged.

Figure 8-2: Phase lag due to back lash.

The purpose of the backlash adjustment is to prevent gears from jamming

together and making contact at more than one location. A lack of backlash
results in excessive noise in the gear train, overloading of the gears, overheating
of the gears, and even seizing and failure of the gears. Without backlash, the two
gears will make contact at more than one point. On the other hand, too much
backlash creates problems in gear trains that frequently reverse, as the gear
teeth will overrun and cause the gear to slip.

8.3 Resilience

Errors are introduced by the resilience, or flexibility, of the output drive shaft. The
effect of resilience is similar to that of a spring. The load torque causes the shaft

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to twist, and in this way the output lags behind the input, and a destabilizing
effect is introduced. This problem is encountered where long drive shafts are
used, e.g., in some machine tools.

8.4 Machine Tool Control

Machine tool control systems enable the position of a tool or workpiece to be

controlled during a machining process. The tool is assumed tacitly to be in a
given position relative to that point at which the measurement is made. This is
not always the case, unless the machine tool and control system are designed as
an integrated unit. Machine tools for these applications must have the minimum
of backlash and friction.

Numerical or digital control is becoming increasingly popular and may be divided

into two groups:

 Point-to-point
 Continuous path

Point-to-point systems are employed where specific operations have to be

carried out at a series of points, or between two points in a given plane, e.g.,
drilling and plain milling operations. It is particularly applicable to on/off and batch
production. Continuous path control requires the use of a general-purpose
computer which in turn also requires producing a record on a disk or tape. A
small special-purpose computer is also required in association with the machine
tool to decode the information into tool or workpiece position and speed.

Position control systems used on machine tools are conventional. The main
differences lie in the transducers and the fact that a computer sometimes
exercises control over the system.

The method of locating the work position is usually either by measurement of the
lead screw angular movement, or by measurement of the position of some point
on the worktable. The former is simple, but problems of backlash in the
transmission are experienced, while the latter is more accurate and expensive.
Transducers used for angular measurement include potentiometers (resistive
and inductive), synchronous and coded commutators. Generally, a number of
transducers are mounted on each axis to increase the accuracy by hierarchical
control (sometimes known as coarse/fine control). Transducers used to measure
linear motion include linear versions of synchronous and diffraction gratings.

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 Position Control

Analog methods are also used to produce objects of two and three dimensions
using profiling techniques. Figure 8-3 shows a simplified schematic diagram for a
two-dimensional profiling system applied to a milling machine. The tracing head
touches are template. The X and Y coordinate of the point of contact being
transmitted to the controller. Any errors present will manifest themselves as
changes in stylus deflections. The X and Y-axis motors (controlling the
movement of the table and saddle of the machine) drive the template so as to
maintain the stylus in a perpendicular plane.

The cutter is in a fixed position, and the workpiece is moved relative to it by the
template position control. Since this is a position control system, errors exist
when it is used as a profile following system, because the output is commanded
to move at a given velocity. At low speeds, the error is roughly proportional to the
feed rate and is typically 0.00025 inch for a feed rate of 1 inch/min. The machine
operator has overall control of the machine, and he “steers” the template to the
stylus at the commencement of cutting, and away from it at the end. Alternatively,
the machine may contain some form of automatic co-ordinate setting facility,
allowing it to proceed to a given point before commencing cutting.

Many machine tools use linear hydraulic motors to operate the bed of the
machine as these have a more rapid response than electric motors of the same
size.

Figure 8-3: Two dimensional profiling system applied to a milling machine.

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Two-dimensional tracing is used in several other industrial applications. An
example being sheet metal cutting by a burner. Here the profile could be solid or
in the form of a black and white drawing, the tracing head using photoelectric
devices.

Contouring or three-dimensional tracing, can be carried out using a solid

template. Successive passes being made across the template by the three-
dimensional tracing head. The complexity of the control system, and cutting head
is obviously much greater than in two-dimensional operations.

8.5 Examples on Position Control

A major disadvantage of small dc servomotors is their high power/volume ratio.

In addition, reversal of rotation is attained by the relatively simple means. One
application is considered below.

A relay-controlled servo system is shown in Figure 8-3, the split-field motor

operating whenever one of its field winding is energized. The relay is of the
‘centre-stable’ type, having three operating positions and transfer characteristics.
With a small (or zero) voltage applied to the relay winding, the relay contact arm
is in the horizontal position and no current flows in the motor field windings.
When the error exceeds a predetermined value, which is set by the relay pull-in
voltage, the motor field is excited and the armature is driven in a direction to
reduce the error. The motor runs at a constant speed whenever the relay
contacts are closed, and will therefore approach its new position at a faster rate
than a servo system with a continuously variable error.

The motor torque falls to zero when the voltage applied to the relay winding falls
below its dropout value. Ideally, the pull-in and dropout potentials are the same,
but in practice, the dropout value is less than that required to close the relay
contacts. This gives rise to a ‘hysteresis’ effect, which can be troublesome.

Providing that the system is stabilized, which may readily be achieved by

incorporating a phase-advance network in the amplifier, the relay servo system is
likely to have a shorter response time than a similar continuous system. Offset
against this is the fact that the relay has a dead zone in its characteristic,
resulting in a finite position error between the input and output shafts.

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Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. When the shaft is at rest, a _______ 2. In practice, the coulomb torque is

TS is required to set the shaft in normally ______ and may be
motion. neglected as far as its contribution to
damping is concerned.
a. Static torque
b. Momentum a. Large
c. Torque b. Medium
c. Small

3. Backlash is a _____________, which 4. A ___________ of backlash results in

is characterized by a dead zone, or excessive noise in the gear train,
region of zero sensitivity, when the overloading of the gears, overheating
input drive reverses direction. of the gears, and even seizing and
failure of the gears.
a. Linearity
b. Nonlinearity a. Lack
c. None of above b. Presence
c. None of above

Fill in the blanks

5. Over a certain range of speeds, the torque required to drive the shaft is
approximately constant and is known as _____________.
6. _____________ is the phenomenon when the output moves in a series of jumps.
7. Problems of _______________ are experienced in locating the work position by
measurement of the lead screw angular movement.
8. Continuous path control requires the use of a _______________________.
9. Vibrating the output shaft by some external means at a frequency that is
____________________ of the control system overcome the static torque.

True False

10. As the shaft speed increases, the torque to overcome friction rises in a non-linear
fashion.

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11. Any form of friction dissipates energy.
12. Continuous path systems are employed where specific operations have to be
carried out at a series of points, or between two points in a given plane.
13. A major disadvantage of small dc servomotors is their high power/volume ratio.
14. The method of locating the work position by measurement of the lead screw
angular movement is more accurate and expensive.

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 Chapter – 09
Robotics
9.1 Introduction to Robotics
9.2 Requirements of a Robot
9.2.1 Controller
9.2.2 Arm or Manipulator
9.2.3 Power Supply
9.2.4 End Effector
9.2.5 Sensor
9.3 Types of a Robot
9.4 Robot Motion
9.4.1 Base Travel
9.4.2 Axes Control
9.5 Robot Technology Levels
9.5.1 Low Technology Robots
9.5.2 Medium Technology Robots
9.5.3 High Technology Robots
9.6 Robot’s presence around us
9.7 Robot Terminology
Chapter - 09
9.1 Introduction to Robotics

Most of Artificial Intelligence will eventually lead to robotics. Most neural

networking, natural language processing, image recognition, speech
recognition/synthesis research aims at eventually incorporating their technology
into the epitome of robotics - the creation of a fully humanoid robot.

The field of robotics has been around nearly as long as Artificial Intelligence - but
the field has made little progress. This is only natural, since the field not only
attempts to conquer intelligence, but also the body that embodies it. Robotics,
though, is not just about humanoid robots; but also about their commercial
applications in manufacturing, safety and hundreds of other fields. Let us back-
track though, and look at what is a robot?

The robot is a tool that is used in the manufacturing environment to increase the
productivity. It can be used to do routine jobs, or it can perform jobs that might be
hazardous to human worker. The term robot comes from the Czech word
“robotit”, which means “to drudge or to do menial unpleasant work”. The word
robot was first used by a Czechoslovakian dramatist, Karel Capek, in his play
‘Rossum’s Universal Robots’ R.U.R which opened in Prague in January 1921.

Definition: A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to

move parts, materials, tools or special devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of different tasks.

The robot can be thought of as a machine that will move an end-of-arm tool,
sensor, and/or gripper to a preprogrammed location. When the robot arrives at
this location, it will perform some sort of task, like welding, sealing,
loading/unloading, or a host of assembly jobs.

In simple, they function to relieve us from danger and tedium:

 Safety: Robotics have been developed to handle nuclear and radioactive

chemicals for many different uses including nuclear weapons, power
plants, environmental cleanup, and the processing of certain drugs.
 Unpleasantness: Robots perform many tasks that are tedious and
unpleasant, but necessary, such as welding or janitorial work.
 Repetition and precision: Assembly line work has been one of the
mainstays of the robotics industry. Robots are used extensively in
manufacturing and, more glamorously, in space exploration, where
minimum maintenance requirements are emphasized.

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The first industrial modern robots were the Unimates developed by George Devol
and Joe Engelberger in the late 50's and early 60's. The first patents were by
Devol for parts transfer machines. Engelberger formed Unimation and was the
first to market robots. As a result, Engelberger has been called the 'father of
robotics.'

Modern industrial arms have increased in capability and performance through

controller and language development, improved mechanisms, sensing, and drive
systems. In the early to mid 80's the robot industry grew very fast primarily due to
large investments by the automotive industry. The quick leap into the factory of
the future turned into a plunge when the integration and economic viability of
these efforts proved disastrous. The robot industry has only recently recovered to
mid-80's revenue levels. In the meantime there has been an enormous shakeout
in the robot industry. In the US, for example, only one US Company, Adept,
remains in the production of industrial robot arm business. Most of the rest went
under, consolidated, or were sold to European and Japanese companies.

In the research community the first automata were probably Grey Walter's
machina (1940's) and the John's Hopkins beast. Teleoperated or remote
controlled devices had been built even earlier with at least the first radio
controlled vehicles built by Nikola Tesla in the 1890's. Tesla is better known as
the inventor of the induction motor, AC power transmission, and numerous other
electrical devices. Tesla had also envisioned smart mechanisms that were as
capable as humans.

Shakey navigated highly structured indoor environments in the late 60's and
Moravec's Stanford Cart was the first to attempt natural outdoor scenes in the
late 70's. From that time there has been a proliferation of work in autonomous
driving machines that cruise at highway speeds and navigate outdoor terrains in
commercial applications.

9.2 Requirements of a Robot

For a machine to qualify as a robot, it usually needs following five parts:

 Controller
 Arm or Manipulator
 Power Supply or Drive System
 End Effector
 Sensor

9.2.1 Controller

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Every robot is connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of the arm
working together. This computer is known as the controller. The controller
functions as the "brain" of the robot. The controller also allows the robot to be
networked to other systems, so that it may work together with other machines,
processes, or robots.

Robots today have controllers that are run by programs - sets of instructions
written in code. Almost all robots of today are entirely pre-programmed by
people; they can do only what they are programmed to do at the time, and
nothing else. In the future, controllers with artificial intelligence, or AI could allow
robots to think on their own, even program themselves. This could make robots
more self-reliant and independent.

A controller performs three basic functions:

1. Stores the preprogrammed information for later recall

2. controls peripheral devices, and
3. Communicate with other parts (like computers) within the plant for
constant updates in production.

The controller can be made from mechanically operated drums that step through
sequence of events. The controller used nowadays are very complex devices
i.e., they are microprocessor operated. The controller also contains some
memory to store the preprogrammed information. This makes controller to be
very flexible in its operation.

The controller can send electric signals over a communication lines that allow it
to talk with the various axes of the manipulator. This communication between a
controller and manipulator maintains a constant update of the location and the
operation of the system. The controller also controls any tooling placed on the
end of the robot’s wrist. The controller also has the job of communication with the
different plant computers. The communication link establishes the robot as part
of a computer-assisted manufacturing (CAM) system.

9.2.2 Arm or Manipulator

Robot arms or manipulator come in all shapes and sizes. The arm is the part of
the robot that positions the end-effector and sensors to do their pre-programmed
business.

Many (but not all) resemble human arms, and have shoulders, elbows, wrists,
even fingers. This gives the robot a lot of ways to position itself in its
environment. Each joint is said to give the robot 1 degree of freedom. So, a
simple robot arm with 3 degrees of freedom could move in 3 ways: up and down,

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left and right, forward and backward. Most working robots today have 6 degrees
of freedom.

The manipulator, which does the physical work of the robotic system, consists of
two sections: the mechanical section and the attached appendage (the
appendage, is the arm of the robot, it can be either straight, movable arm or
joined arm. The joined arm is also known as an articulated arm). The
manipulator has also a base to which the appendages are attached. The
appendages of the robot manipulator give the manipulator its various axes of
motion. Figure 9-1 illustrates the connection of the base and the appendage of
the robot.

At the end of arm, a wrist (see Figure 9-1) is connected. The wrist is made up of
additional axes and wrist flange. The wrist flange allows the robot user to
connect different tooling to the different wrist for different jobs.

The manipulator’s axes allow it to perform work within a work cell. The work cell
is directly proportional to the size of the robot. The movement of the manipulator
is controlled by actuators or drive systems. The drive system can use electric,
hydraulic, or pneumatic power.

Figure 9-1: Robot manipulator.

9.2.3 Power Supply

The power supply is the unit that supplies power to the controller and the
manipulator. Two types of the powers are delivered to the robotic system. One
type of the power is the AC power for operation of the controller. The other type
of the power is used for driving the various axes of the manipulator. The power

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required by the manipulator can be developed from hydraulic-, pneumatic, or
electric-power source. These power sources are the part of the total components
of the robotic work cell. In each of the three power systems for the manipulator’s
axes, a feedback – monitoring system is used. This system constantly feeds
back positional data for each axis to the controller.

9.2.4 End Effector

The end-effector is the "hand" connected to the robot's arm. It is often different
from a human hand - it could be a tool such as a gripper, a vacuum pump,
tweezers, scalpel, blowtorch - just about anything that helps it do its job. Some
robots can change end-effectors, and be reprogrammed for a different set of
tasks. If the robot has more than one arm, there can be more than one end-
effector on the same robot, each suited for a specific task.

The end effector gives the robotic system the flexibility necessary for the
operation of the robot. It is generally designed to meet the needs of the robot
user. End effector is the only component found on the robotic system that may be
changed from one job to another. The changing of the end effector and the
reprogramming of the robot allow the robotic system to be very flexible.

9.2.5 Sensor

Most robots of today are nearly deaf and blind. Sensors can provide some limited
feedback to the robot so it can do its job. Compared to the senses and abilities of
even the simplest living things, robots have a very long way to go. The sensor
sends information, in the form of electronic signals back to the controller.
Sensors also give the robot controller information about its surroundings and lets
it know the exact position of the arm, or the state of the world around it.

Sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell are the kinds of information we get from our
world. Robots can be designed and programmed to get specific information that
is beyond what our 5 senses can tell us. For instance, a robot sensor might "see"
in the dark, detect tiny amounts of invisible radiation or measure movement that
is too small or fast for the human eye to see.

9.3 Types of Robot

Robots can be found in the manufacturing industry, the military, space

exploration, transportation, and medical applications. Below are just some of the
uses for robots.

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Typical industrial robots do jobs that are difficult, dangerous or dull. They lift
heavy objects, paint, handle chemicals, and perform assembly work. They
perform the same job hour after hour, day after day with precision. They don't get
tired and they don't make errors associated with fatigue and so are ideally suited
to performing repetitive tasks. The major categories of industrial robots by
mechanical structure are:

 Cartesian/Gantry robot: Used for pick and place work, application of

sealant, assembly operations, handling machine tools and arc welding.
It's a robot whose arm has three prismatic joints, whose axes are
coincident with a Cartesian coordinate.
 Cylindrical robot: Used for assembly operations, handling at machine
tools, spot welding, and handling at diecasting machines. It's a robot
whose axes form a cylindrical coordinate system.
 Spherical/Polar robot: Used for handling at machine tools, spot
welding, diecasting, fettling machines, gas welding and arc welding. It's a
robot whose axes form a polar coordinate system.
 SCARA robot: Used for pick and place work, application of sealant,
assembly operations and handling machine tools. It's a robot which has
two parallel rotary joints to provide compliance in a plane.
 Articulated robot: Used for assembly operations, diecasting, fettling
machines, gas welding, arc welding and spray painting. It's a robot
whose arm has at least three rotary joints.
 Parallel robot: One use is a mobile platform handling cockpit flight
simulators. It's a robot whose arms have concurrent prismatic or rotary
joints.

9.4 Robot Motion

Robot motion can be classified into two basic formats: the base travel and the
axes control, which includes the arm motion, the wrist action, and the gripping
action.

9.4.1 Base Travel

The travel of the robot refers to the movement of the base. In most cases, the
base of the robot is permanently mounted on some floor. However, the travel of
the base can be regulated by mounting the base to rails or tracks, thereby
making the robot movable. Figure 9-2(a) illustrates a mounting of the robot
manipulator to a track. For some jobs, the base may have to be mounted
overhead or at a slight angle. Figure 9-2(b) illustrates a typical overhead
connection of the robot’s base. This connection is called the gantry-mounted
robot.

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Figure 9-2: Robot manipulator base mount.

9.4.2 Axes Control

As mentioned earlier, for some robots, the control of the robot’s position is due to
a constant feedback from the axes to the controller. This constant update is
accomplished through devices known as servo systems, or simply servos. A
servo system is a device that provides positional control over the axes of the
robot. The servo contains the command pulses that cause the motor to move, a
feedback device that converts the positional data of the motor into electric
pulses, and a feedback device that sends the positional information back to the
robot controller. When the feedback pulses and the command pulses are the
same, we say that the servo is in position.

With regard to axes control, robots used in the industrial applications are
classified into two areas: non-servo controlled robots and servo controlled robots.

 Non-servo control: robots with non-servo controls are identified as

bang-bang robots. The movement of these robot’s axes is stopped by a
hard mechanical stop (hence the term bang-bang) placed in the travel
path. Each time a new axis of travel is used, the robot’s hard stop must
be changed. These robots can only have three degrees of freedom:
up/down, in/out, and left/right. Figure 9-3 illustrates the non-servo
controlled robotic systems. Notice in the figure that there is no feedback
to the controller to identify the relative position of each axis.

Figure 9-3: Non-servo control.

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 Robotics
 Servo control: the servo control allows the mechanics of the robot to
communicate with the electronics of the controller. These robots are
further classified as continuous path or point-to-point servo controlled.
Continuous path servo-controlled robots allow a smooth path to be
traced out by the axes of the robot. Generally, this path is a curved path.
The curved path developed by these robot works well in the areas of
welding, spray paining etc. The point-to-point servo controlled robot
allows movement of axes between a starting point and a preprogrammed
ending point. In this robot, all axes move at the same time in order to
reach the preprogrammed point. Applications for the point-to-point robots
are found in machine loading and unloading.

Figure 9-4: Closed-loop servo control.

Each of these styles of axes movement can be found in different robots. In

addition, in many cases, the point-to-point movement and the continuous path
movement are found in the same robotic package.

9.5 Robot Technology Levels

Industrial robots have three levels of technology: low technology, medium

technology, and high technology. Each of these different classes of robotic
operation has unique characteristics.

9.5.1 Low Technology Robots

Low technology robots are used in the industrial environment for jobs like
machine loading and unloading, material handling, press operation, and very
simple assembly operations.

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Axes: The first characteristic of the low technology robot is the number of axes
found on the system. Low technology robots generally have between two and
four axes of movement. They are basically non servo controlled robots. Thus,
mechanical stops are used at the end of each axis of travel.

Payload: One of the important concerns of the low technology robot is the
maximum payload found at the end effector. Payload is the load capacity a
manipulator can position. This weight is measured at the center of the wrist
flange of the robot. In low technology robots, the maximum amount of weight can
range from 3 to 13.6 kilograms.

Cycle Time: The time it takes the robot to move from one location to the next is
also very important in any robot operation. This time is generally called the cycle
time. The cycle time of the robot depends on two factors: the payload and the
length of the manipulator’s arm. Low technology robots will generally have very
high cycle times.

Accuracy: The accuracy of the robotic operation describes how closely a robot
can position its manipulator to a given programmed point. Related to the
system’s accuracy is its repeatability, which describes how often the robot doing
the same program can repeat its moves to a given point.

Many of the low technology robots are capable of developing high accuracy and
repeatability. The accuracy of the low technology robots ranges from 0.050 to
0.025 millimeters.

Actuations: The method of driving the robot’s axes, called actuation differs
among various low technology robots. The actuation can be accomplished
through the use of pneumatics, hydraulics, or electricity.

Controllers: The low technology robots are identified as hard automation

systems. Hard automation systems are controlled by the setting of various cams
or sequencing valves. Each time a new job must be done, a hard automation
system must have its cams and sequencing valves reset.

With low technology robots, each new job must be re-preprogrammed. Low
technology robots have a very limited amount of memory space available for
program information. Generally, only timing information and sequencing
information can be programmed.

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9.5.2 Medium Technology Robots

Medium technology robots are used primarily for picking and placing and for
machine loading and unloading. These robots are a bit more sophisticated than
the low technology robots.

Axes: In majority of cases, the medium technology robots have a greater number
of axes on the manipulator than the low technology robots. The number of axes
on these robots is increased because of the addition of a wrist. The wrist
connected to the end of the robot’s arm gives the system two or three additional
axes. The wrist also gives greater maneuvering power to the manipulator. The
wrist allows the robot to develop movements that the low technology robot is not
capable of.

The basic medium technology robot has three axes, or degrees of freedom as
shown in Figure 9-5. With the addition of a wrist, three additional axes are added
to the robot. These axes are called the roll, the pitch (bend), and the yaw
(rotational) axis of the wrist.

Payload: Medium technology robots have a greater payload capacity than the
low technology robots. These robots are capable of handling weights at the end
of the wrist ranging from 68 to 158 Kgs.

Cycle Time: For a medium technology robot, a movement in the reach axis of 25
to 65 cm takes 1.0 second to execute. In a rotation around the center axis, the
robot can move at a rate of 150 cm/sec. However, these robots will have greater
cycle times than the low technology robots.

Accuracy: Because of the increased number of axes on medium technology

robots, their accuracy and repeatability are not as good as the accuracy and
repeatability of low technology robots. The main reason is that the several axes
must converge on a point. The error that is developed because of several axes
having to be positioned creates additional error in the accuracy of the robot. The
accuracy of the medium technology robots can range from as low as 0.2
millimeter to as high as 1.3 millimeters.

Actuations: The medium technology robots are driven by two types of motors:
hydraulic or electric. These two types of actuation are used because of the heavy
payloads.

Controllers: The controllers found on the medium technology systems are

microprocessor based. The system can have either an 8 bit or 16 bit
microprocessor. With the increased power of the processor, memory size is also

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increased. Thus, positional data can be programmed into these robots, stored in
memory, and recalled for later jobs.

Figure 9-5: Medium Technology robots.

9.5.3 High Technology Robots

High technology robots (HT-Robots) can be used for material handling, press
transferring, painting, sealing, spot welding etc.

Axes: High technology robots have from 6 to 9 axes. As technology increases,

the number of axes may increase to 16 or more. These robots movements are
meant to resemble human movements as closely as possible.

Payload: The payload for these robots remains about the same as the pay load
for medium technology robots from 68 to 150 KG.

Cycle Time: The cycle times of the high technology robots are about the same
as the cycle times of medium technology. The main difference is that these
robots have a cycle time for each axis. Thus, the cycle times for these robots are
based on a composite time of all the axes moving together.

Accuracy: The accuracy of high technology robots is greater than the accuracy
of the other two classes of robots. The increase is due to the positional data that
is fed back to the controller, thus allowing the servo system to develop accurate
positional data. The specifications of the accuracy of many of the high technology
robots are from 1 to 0.4 mm.

Actuations: The main drive systems found on the high technology robots are
electric drive motors and hydraulic drives.

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Controllers: The real achievement in high technology robots is the controllers.
These controllers are powered by 16 bit microprocessors. The memory capacity
for these units is on the order of 16KB and above.

The major feature of the high technology robot that distinguishes it from the other
classes of robots is the ability of their controller to interface with additional
peripheral devices in the robot’s environment. These devices, such as sensor,
vision systems, and offline programming, are all part of the increased capabilities
of high technology robots.

Table in Appendix - E summarizes all characteristics of the three classes of

robots.

9.6 Robot’s presence around us

The need for industrial robots (for manufacturing automation) appears to be

primarily driven by the shortage of labor and the cost of labor. However, there are
applications in hostile environments in which it is necessary to use robots (for
example, in space, nuclear plants) or it is too dangerous to use humans (for
example, military operations). There are areas where the physical task demands
skills that humans simply do not have (for example, surgery). Some of these are
briefly described here.

 Space robotics: Space exploration needs human intelligence but does

not need the physical presence of human beings. In principle, human
operators on earth can control partially autonomous vehicles and
manipulators on the Moon, or on distant planets.
 Virtual reality: Virtual reality systems (simulators) can be used for
training and educating people. An important component of these systems
is the haptic interface that allows the user to feel the virtual environment
and exert forces on it. Thus, a virtual reality system is a robot plus high-
resolution displays.
 Highway: Cars are being equipped with increasingly sophisticated
sensors, navigation systems and controllers. Highway maintenance and
construction are also areas where robotic systems can be used for
automation.
 Medical Robotics: In robot-assisted surgery, the surgeon directs the
robot to make controlled, high-precision incisions with accuracy far better
than a human surgeon can. The latest advance in laproscopic surgery
involves inserting a micro-robot through a small incision in the body and
teleoperate it to perform surgery, suturing, etc.
 Personal care for disabled people: There are many assistive devices
for people with disabilities. Robots can be vocational assistants by

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operating as arms for paraplegics. They can be used to fetch papers or
pick up the phone. In a home, they can be used to push open doors, get
water from a faucet, and pick up trash from the floor. Since a human user
controls the personal robot, the robot needs to have very limited
intelligence.
 Entertainment: An Entertainment robot is a fast growing market that is
fueled by growth in theme parks. In Disney’s theme parks, robots are
used to create animated figures. Ford used a robot to advertise its new
1996 models. Virtual reality systems are also ready to take off.

9.7 Robot Terminology

 Robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to

move parts through variable programmed motions for the performance of
variety of tasks.
 Preprogrammed location, these are paths that the robot must follow to
accomplish some task. These preprogrammed locations are stored in the
robot’s memory.
 Manipulator is the arm of the robot. It allows the robot to bend, reach,
and twist. This movement is provided by the manipulator’s axes, also
called the degrees of freedom of the robot.
 Tooling and grippers, these are not part of the robot itself: rather they
are attachments that fit on the end of the robot’s arm. These attachments
allow the robot to lift parts, spot-weld, paint, arc weld, drill, and do variety
of tasks.
 Accuracy: is the ability of a robot to go to the specified position without
making a mistake. It is impossible to position a machine exactly.
Accuracy is therefore defined as the ability of the robot to position itself
to the desired location with the minimal error (usually 0.001 inch).
 Payload is the maximum weight-carrying capacity of the robot. Robots
that carry large weights, but must still be precise are expensive.
 Speed, the amount of distance per unit time at which the robot can
move, usually specified in inches per second or meters per second. The
speed is usually specified at a specific load or assuming that the robot is
carrying a fixed weight. Actual speed may vary depending upon the
weight carried by the robot.
 Haptics, from the Greek, meaning “to touch”. Haptic interfaces give
human operators the sense of touch and forces from the computer,
either in virtual or real, remote environments. Also called force reflection.
 Actuator Provides force for robot motion.
 Dynamics is the study of motion with regard to forces.
 Kinematics is the study of motion without regard to forces.
 Anthropomorphic Like human beings.

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 DOF degrees-of-freedom or mobility is the number of independent
motions a device can make.
 Repeatability, to replace the human worker successfully, a robot must
be able to replicate the required work motions within some specified
precision or tolerance. This replication of motion with precision is known
as repeatability.
 The base of the robot, which serves to support the arm, is called the
shoulder. In some robots, the arm can rotate about the shoulder; in
others, the arm is mounted on a vehicle and can move back and forth on
a shoulder track.
 The Work cell of the robot is the total environment in which the robot
must perform its task. Included in this cell may be the controller, the
robot manipulator, a work table, safety features, or a conveyor.
 The wrist of the robot is used to aim the hand at any part of the work
piece. The wrist may use any of three motions: a pitch or up and down
motion; a Yaw or side to side motion; and a roll or rotating motion.

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Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. The work cell is directly proportional to 2. The AC power applied to the

the ____________ of the robot. robot is used for the operation
of ______________.
a. Manipulator
b. End-Effector a. Controller
c. Size b. Manipulator
c. Grippers

3. The point-to-point servo controlled 4. Non servo control robots are

robot, all axes move at the _______________.
________________ in order to reach
the preprogrammed point. a. Closed loop
b. Open loop
a. same time c. None of above
b. different times
c. none of above

5. Articulated robot’s arm has at least 6. Low technology robots will

___________ rotary joints. generally give very
_____________ cycle times.
a. One
b. Two a. High
c. Three b. medium
c. low

7. The basic medium technology robot 8. The cycle times for HT-robots
has ___________ axes. are based on a(n) __________
time of all the axes moving
a. One together.
b. Two
c. Three a. Individual
b. Composite
c. None of above

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9. The accuracy of the low technology 10. The payload of HT- robots is
robots ranges from ____________ to _______________ the payload
__________. of medium technology robots.

a. 0.5, 0.20 a. Lower than

b. 0.05. 0.52 b. Same as
c. 0.05, 0.25 c. Greater than

Fill in the blanks

11. The servo control robots are further classified as ________________ or

______________ servo controlled.
12. Non Servo control robots can only have __________ degrees of freedom.
13. Industrial robots have _______________ level(s) of technology, namely
__________________.
14. The cycle time of the robot depends on two factors: the ____________ and the
____________________.
15. The low technology robots are identified as ________________ systems.

True False

16. The point-to-point servo controlled robot allows movement of axes between a
starting point and a preprogrammed ending point.
17. The movement of servo control robot’s axes is stopped by a hard mechanical
stop.
18. Low technology robots are basically servo controlled robots.
19. The accuracy of medium technology level is not as good as the accuracy and
repeatability of low technology robots.
20. The accuracy of high technology robot is greater than the accuracy of the other
two classes of robots.

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Manipulator
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Cartesian Coordinates
10.3 Cylindrical Coordinates
10.4 Polar Coordinates
10.5 Articulate Coordinates
10.6 Arm Kinematics

10.6.1 Forward and reverse kinematics

(transformation) of three degrees of
freedom of robot arm
10.6.2 Forward And Reverse Transformation Of
A Four Degree Of Freedom
Manipulator In 3-D
10.6.3 Homogeneous Transformations

10.7 Wrist Rotation

10.8 Manipulator Drive Systems
10.9 Workspace

10.9.1 Dexterous and Accessible Workspace

10.9.2 Developing a Workspace
Chapter – 10
10.1 Introduction

The points at which a robot’s manipulator bends, slides, or rotates are called
joints or axes of motion; they include the shoulder, the elbow, the wrist, and the
finger joints. The number of joints an industrial robot has determines its degrees
of freedom of motion. Each axes equals one degree of freedom.

The robot manipulator is classified according to its arm movement. Moreover, the
arm movement is defined by the four coordinate systems: Cartesian coordinates,
polar coordinates, cylindrical coordinates, and articulate coordinates.

The motion of manipulator is driven by electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic power

sources. These power sources are converted through actuators to provide the
power for driving the motion of the robot manipulator.

The range of axis motion defines the work envelope of the robot manipulator.
The work envelope is the area in which the axis motions can operate without any
obstruction. These motions are identified as the arm geometry.

10.2 Cartesian Coordinates

From a mathematical stand point, the Cartesian coordinate system identifies

three basic axes, or three planes. These planes are the X plane, the Y plane, and
the Z plane. Each of these planes relates to movement of the arm axis from a
point of origin. Generally, this point of origin in the robot is the centerline of the
robot. Positioning may be done by straight or linear motion along three axes:
back and forth, in and out, and up and down.

work cell
Figure 10-1: Cartesian coordinates X, Y, and Z, and its work cell.

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Figure 10-1 illustrates the three axis of the Cartesian coordinate system. Notice
that at the convergence of the three axes, is the center point or the point of the
origin. The manipulator can move through space only in the X, Y, and Z planes to
reach its target. Generally, the Cartesian coordinate system operates within a
rectangular pattern. Hence, the work envelope of this system is rectangular.

Movement between two of the axes in the Cartesian system is impossible. A

robot with Cartesian coordinate axes is basically used for point-to-point
applications. Therefore, the Cartesian coordinate system is a useful system for
robots that are loading and unloading material into machines. The Cartesian
coordinate robot is restricted to low-technology robotic system.

10.3 Cylindrical Coordinates

The cylindrical coordinate system incorporates three degrees of freedom, or

three axes: the theta (θ, Greek letter theta), or rotational (the Z, or up-and-
down, axis); and the R (reach), or in-and-out, axis. This robotic system is called
the cylindrical system because the work envelope of the robot traces out a
cylinder.

Figure 10-2 shows a cylindrical coordinate robot. The theta axis defines the
rotation around the base. In many robotic systems, this rotational base has about
300º of movement. The remaining 60º is identified as a dead zone, which is a
safety zone of operation. The reach, R, of the robot can range from 500 to 1500
millimeters, depending on the robot and the task. The Z-axis ranges from 100 to
1100 millimeters. The work envelope of a cylindrical coordinate robot is a
cylinder. Figure 10-2(b) illustrates the typical work envelope for cylindrical robot.

(a) Three axes of a Cylindrical robot

(b) its work envelope
Figure 10-2: Cylindrical coordinate robot.

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10.4 Polar Coordinates

If the arm not only rotates about the base, but also rotates about an axis in the
vertical plane, the robot is known as polar- or spherical-coordinates robot. The
polar coordinate system also has three axes: the theta (θ) axis, the reach (R)
axis, and the beta (β) the bend up and down axis. This robotic system is called
the spherical system, because the robot’s manipulator traces out a sphere as its
work envelope.

The polar coordinates robot can reach things almost directly above itself, as well
as around itself. Again, the rotational axis of most robots is limited to a turning
range of less than 3600 and the bend up and down axis may be limited to 60 0 or
less. Most polar coordinate robots use some type of positional feedback
information that makes them closed loop servo-controlled robots. Figure 10-3,
illustrates the movement and the axes of the polar coordinate robot. The polar
system’s theta and R axes define the same movements as the theta and R axes
of the cylindrical system. The beta axis allows the robot’s entire arm to bend in
an up-and-down direction.

(a) Three axis of a polar

(b) work cell
coordinate robot
Figure 10-3: Polar coordinates robot.

10.5 Articulate Coordinates

If the arm can rotate about all three axes, the robot is called a revolute
coordinates, articulate, anthropomorphic or jointed arm robot. It is the most
popular robot for industrial applications. The articulate coordinate system is
defined by three axes: θ, the base rotational axes; W or β, the upper arm

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rotational axis; and U or α, the lower arm rotational axis. In theory, the revolute
coordinates arm can reach things all around it, including things above and below
it. Again, most rotational axes do not rotate a full 3600. In any case, the revolute
coordinates or jointed arm robot can serve the largest work area for the smallest
floor space.

Figure 10-4(a) illustrates the movements and the axes of the articulate system.
The theta, or waist axis, provides the rotation around the base. The W, or
shoulder, axis provides the movement similar to the movement allowed by the
beta axis in the polar coordinate robot. The U, or freedom or elbow, axis allows a
bending movement.

Figure 10-4(b) illustrates the tear drop side view of the work envelope of an
articulate coordinate robot. The work envelope of the robot reaches to the floor
and reaches above the horizontal plane of the top of the robot’s forearm.

(a) Three axes of an Articulate

coordinates robot
(b) Work cell (tear drop view) of articulate
robot

Figure 10-4: Articulate coordinates robot.

10.6 Arm Kinematics

Robot arm kinematics deal with the analytical study of the motion of a robot arm
with respect to a fixed reference coordinate system as a function of time. The
mechanical manipulator can be modeled as an open loop articulated chain with
several rigid links connected in series by either ‘revolute’ or ‘prismatic’ joints
driven by actuators.

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For a manipulator, if the position and orientation of the end-effector are derived
from the given joint angles and link parameters, the scheme is called the forward
kinematics problem. If, on the other hand, the joint angles and the different
configurations of the manipulator are derived from the position and orientation of
the end-effector, the scheme is called the reverse kinematics problem. Figure
10-5 illustrates the scheme of forward and reverse kinematics.

Figure 10-5: Forward and inverse (or Reverse) kinematics scheme.

Representing the Position

Considering the revolute type of joint only, the position of the end-effector can be
represented by the joint angles, θ1, θ2, …, θn as,

PJOINT  1 , 2 , 3 ,... n  (10.1)

The position of the end-effector can also be defined in world space as,

PWORLD  x, y, z  (10.2)

For a Revolute-Revolute (R-R) joint having two degrees of freedom, the

schematic diagram of the links in 2-D, is shown in Figure 10-6. l1 and l2 are the
links. θ1 and θ2 are the angles of rotation.

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 Manipulator

Figure 10-6: R-R type two DOF 2-D manipulator.

10.6.1 Forward and reverse kinematics (transformation) of three degrees

of freedom of robot arm

Forward transformation

The position and orientation of the end-effector shown in Figure 10-7 in world
space can be determined from the joint angles and the link parameters by the
following equations,

x3  l1 cos  1  l 2 cos( 1   2 )  l3 cos( 1   2   3 ) (10.3)

y3  l1 sin  1  l 2 sin( 1   2 )  l3 sin( 1   2   3 ) (10.4)
  ( 1   2   3 ) (10.5)

Reverse Transformation

The joint angles can also be determined from the end-effector position (x3, y3),
and the orientation (Φ), using reverse transformation in the following way

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Figure 10-7: Three Degrees-of-Freedom 2-Dimensional manipulator.

x2  x3  l3 cos  (10.6)
y 2  y3  l3 sin  (10.7)

From the given geometry,

x2  l1 cos  1  l 2 cos  1 cos  2  l3 sin  1 sin  2 (10.8)

y3  l1 sin  1  l 2 sin  1 cos  2  l3 cos  1 sin  2 (10.9)

Squaring and adding Equations 10.8 and 10.9,

x22  y 22  l12  l 22
cos  2  (10.10)
2l1l 2

Substituting the value of θ2 in Equations 10.8 and 10.9, we obtain the value of θ1.
Finally, the value of θ3 can be obtained using the following relation

 3    1   2  (10.11)

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10.6.2 Forward and Reverse Transformation of a Four Degrees of

Freedom Manipulator In 3-D

A 4-degree of freedom manipulator in 3-D is illustrated in Figure 10-8. Joint 1

allows rotation about the z-axis, joint 2 allows rotation about an axis
perpendicular to the z-axis, joint 3 is a linear joint and joint 4 allows rotation about
an axis parallel to the joint 2 axis.

Let θ1 = angle of rotation of joint 1 (base rotation)

θ2 = angle of rotation of joint 2 (elevation angle)
l1 = length of the linear joint 3 (extension)
(a combination of l2 and l3)
θ4 = angle of rotation of joint 4 (pitch angle)

Figure 10-8: Four DOF 3-D manipulator.

Forward Transformation

The position of the end-effector P in world space is given by

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Chapter – 10
x  l cos  2  l 4 cos  4   cos  1 (10.12)
y  l cos  2  l 4 cos  4   sin  1 (10.13)
z  l1  l sin  2  l 4 sin  4 (10.14)

Reverse Transformation

If the pitch angle (θ4) and the world coordinates (x, y, z) of the point P are given,
the joint positions can be determined in the following way:

Let the coordinates of the joint 4 be (x4, y4, z4).

Then,

x 4  x  cos  1 (l 4 cos  4 ) (10.15)

y 4  y  sin  1 (l 4 cos  4 ) (10.16)
y 4  z  l 4 sin  4 (10.17)

Now the values of θ1, θ2 and l can be found by

y4
cos  1  (10.18)
l
z l
sin  2  4 1 (10.19)
l
 
l  x 24  y 42  z 4  l12 
1/ 2
(10.20)

10.8.3 Homogeneous Transformations

The use of homogeneous transformations is a general method for solving the

kinematic equations of a robot manipulator with many joints. A generalized
transformation is now described by a single matrix that combines the effects of
translation and rotation.

Rotation matrices (4X4) are defined as:

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 Manipulator

1 0 0 0
0 cos   sin 0
Rot  x,    (10.21)
0 sin  cos  0
 
0 0 0 1
 cos  0 sin  0
 0 1 0 0
Rot  y,    (10.22)
 sin  0 cos  0
 
 0 0 0 1

cos   sin  0 0
 sin  cos  0 0
Rot z,    (10.23)
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1

Here Rot x,  , Rot  y,  , and Rot z,  indicate a rotation of an angle θ
around x, y, or z axis respectively and then can be multiplied with the position
vector to find a new point that results from rotating a given point about its axis (x,
y, or z) through an angle θ.

The translation matrix (4X4) is also defined as:

1 0 0 a
0 1 0 b 
Trans(a, b, c)   (10.24)
0 0 1 c
 
0 0 0 1

The translations a, b, c are respectively along the x, y, and z-axis.

Transformation matrices are often used to describe the location of one

coordinate system (coordinate frame) relative to another. The origin of the
second frame may then be found as the transformation of the point.

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0 
0 
 
0 
 
1 

10.7 Wrist Rotation

The four different coordinate systems describe the planes in which the
manipulator is able to maneuver. Each of these systems gives only limited axis
movement. The addition of a wrist at the end of the robot’s arm extends the
mobility of the robotic system, and it also increases the dimensions of the work
envelope. Figure 10-9 illustrates the movement and the axes of a wrist. It shows
a wrist that develops three additional axes of movement: the yaw axis, the pitch
axis, and the roll axis.

Figure 10-9: Wrist axis motion.

The yaw axis describes the wrist’s angular movement from the left side to the
right side. This motion can range from a 900 movement to a 2700 movement,
depending on the design of the wrist. The pitch axis describes the wrist’s
rotational movement up and down. The angular motion of the pitch can range
from merely a few degrees of motion to 2700, depending on the application of the
wrist. The roll axis describes the rotation around the end of the wrist. The roll
axis can provide rotation up to 3600. With an end effector connected to the roll
axis, a full 3600 of rotation can be achieved.

The degrees of rotation that the wrist provides are variable. The addition of the
wrist to the robot’s arm allows the end effector to reach into areas that could not
be reached by robots using only one of the four coordinate systems for the arm.
The flexibility of the system is thus increased with the different wrist designs used
in the robotic operation.

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 Grippers

The choice of grippers can determine whether a robot succeeds or fails in

performing a task. A very accurate and expensive robot equipped with the wrong
gripper can be useless for a specific task.

The gripper or hand of the robot attaches to the wrist end of the arm and serves
to handle or process parts. The human hand is one of the most versatile end
effectors in existence. Besides having pitch, yaw and roll control, the hand also
has three joints in each finger and two in the thumb. While these joints have only
a simple rotational ability, the joints at the base of the fingers can also move
sideways, thus allowing the hand to assume many shapes and grip objects of
many different sizes and shapes. The hand is also covered with positional
feedback indicators, in the form of pressure and heat sensors. These tell what is
being touched, how hard it is, and how hot or cold it is relative to the hand’s
temperature.

10.8 Manipulator Drive Systems

The manipulator must have some type of drive system that will cause the
machines to operate. In industrial robots, there are three basic drive systems:
hydraulic, pneumatic, and electric.

Table 10-1 : Comparison For Payloads for Three Drive Systems

LT-Robots MT-Robots HT-Robots
Payload 3 – 4.5 Kg 22.7 – 56.7 Kg 3 – 80 Kg
Drive system Pneumatic Hydraulic Electric

 Pneumatic: in about 30% of the robotic systems used in industries,

pneumatic power is used for the axes driving power. Pressurized air is
supplied through lines to cylinders, causing the air pressure to be
transformed into mechanical axis movement. The major problem with the
pneumatic system is the limited amount of pneumatic power that can be
converted into lifting power, or torque. The applications of pneumatic
drives are simple assembly, die-casting operations, material handling,
and machine-loading and unloading operations.
 Hydraulic: hydraulic drive systems are used in about 45% of the
industrial applications. The hydraulic system supplies fluid under
pressure to a cylinder. The pressurized fluid entering the cylinder causes
the cylinder to extend or retract. The cylinder is connected to the
manipulator’s axis. The hydraulic system used in robotics has two

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disadvantages. First, it is the most costly drive system. Second, the
hydraulic fluid may leak onto the shop floor. The torque delivered by the
hydraulic system is the best of the three systems.
 Electric: they use either AC or DC electric motors. These motors are
connected to the manipulator’s axes through the gear reduction process.
The gear reduction process allows the electric motor to develop the
torque necessary for the robots to lift the heavy payloads. The electric
drive systems are very versatile in their operations.

10.9 Workspace

In order to study the workspace of a robot, the structure of the robot can be
considered as consisting of the arm and the hand. The arm is the large regional
structure for global positioning of the hand, which is the small orientation
structure for orienting the tool. The most important characteristic to any individual
working near the robotic system is how far the robot can reach. The reach of the
robot is defined as the workspace or work envelope of the system. All
programmed points within the reach of the robot are part of the workspace.

The primary workspace of such a robot with a large regional structure and a
small orientation structure is determined by the arm. The hand generates the
secondary workspace of a robot.

In performing tasks, a manipulator has to reach a number of workpieces or

fixtures. Workspace is a volume of space which the end-effector of the
manipulator can reach. Workspace is also called work volume or work envelope.

The size and shape of the workspace depends on the coordinate geometry of the
robot arm, and also on the number of degrees of freedom. Some workspaces are
quite flat, confined almost entirely to one horizontal plane. Others are cylindrical;
still others are spherical. Some workspaces have very complicated shapes.

When choosing a robot arm for a certain industrial purpose, it is important that
the workspace be large enough to encompass all the points that the robot arm
will need to reach. But it's wasteful to use a robot arm with a workspace much
bigger than necessary.

The Cartesian coordinate has a rectangular work envelope. The envelope of a

cylindrical coordinate robot is cylindrical. The work envelope of the polar
coordinate robot is spherical. Moreover, the articulate coordinate robot has a
tear-shaped work envelope.

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For the description (drawing) of a work envelope, the measurements are taken
from the wrist flange. Thus if any end-of-arm tooling is attached to the robot, the
work envelope size will increase by the length of the end-of-arm tooling.

10.9.1 Dexterous and Accessible workspace

The workspace of a robot is an important criterion in evaluating manipulator

geometries. Manipulator workspace may be described in terms of the dexterous
workspace and the accessible workspace. Dexterous workspace is the volume of
space which the robot can reach with all orientations. That is, at each point in the
dexterous workspace, the end-effector can be arbitrarily oriented.

The accessible workspace is the volume of space which the robot can reach in at
least one orientation. In the dexterous workspace the robot has complete
manipulative capability. However, in the accessible workspace, the manipulator's
operational capacity is limited because the terminal device can only be placed in
a restricted range of orientations. In other words, the dexterous workspace is a
subset of the accessible workspace.

10.9.2 Developing the workspace

Figure 10-10 shows the work area of two- and three-link robots. These plots can
be obtained on a microcomputer programmed so that the numeric keypad could
be used to move each link.

The procedure for obtaining these areas is to move each link through its angular
range of motion in a manner similar to the physical motion of the robot arm.

Figure 10-10: Development of workspace.

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Chapter – 10
Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. Cartesian coordinate system identifies 2. The Cartesian coordinate robot

________ basic axe(s). is restricted to _____________
robotic system.
a. One
b. Two a. Low-technology
c. Three b. Medium-technology
c. High-technology

3. The cylindrical coordinate system 4. The theta axis in cylindrical

incorporates ________ degrees of coordinate robots defines the
freedom. rotation around the_________.

a. One a. Reach
b. Two b. Base
c. Three c. Range

5. The theta, or waist axis, provides the 6. The yaw axis describes the
____________ around the base. wrist’s ______________ from
the left to right.
a. Rotation
b. Bending movement a. Rotational movement
c. Base b. Angular movement
c. Linear movement

7. For a manipulator, the joint angles and 8. For a manipulator, if the

the different configurations of the
manipulator are derived from the
position and orientation of the end-
effector, the scheme is called the
________________ problem.
position and orientation of the
end-effector are derived from
the given joint angles and link
parameters, the scheme is
called the _________ problem.

a. Forward kinematics a. Forward kinematics

b. Reverse kinematics b. Reverse kinematics
c. None of above c. None of above

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 Manipulator

9. The pitch axis describes the wrist’s 10. The degrees of rotation that
_______________ up and down. the wrist provides are ______.

a. Rotational movement a. Fixed

b. Angular movement b. Variable
c. Linear movement c. None of above

Fill in the blanks

11. The work envelope is the area in which the _________ motions can operate
without any obstruction.
12. If the arm not only rotates about the base, but also rotates about an axis in the
vertical plane, the robot is known as __________ or ____________ coordinates
robot.
13. If the arm can rotate about all three axes, the robot is called a(n) ____________
coordinate robot.
14. The addition of a ___________ at the end of the robot’s arm extends the mobility
of the robotic system.
15. The reach of the robot is defined as the ______________ of the system.

True False

16. The Cartesian coordinate system operates within a cylindrical pattern.

17. Movement between two of the axes in the Cartesian system is impossible.

18. Degrees of freedom determine the flexibility in the movement of robot.

19. The addition of the wrist to the robot’s arm restricts the end effector to reach into
areas that could not be reached by robots using only one of the four coordinate
systems for the arm.

20. The total environment in which a robot can perform its tasks is known as the
base.

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 Chapter – 11
End Effector
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Basic Considerations for End
Effectors
11.3 Gripper Design
11.4 Mechanical Grippers
11.4.1 Gripping Force
11.4.2 Drive Systems
11.5 Vacuum Grippers
11.6 Magnetic Grippers
11.7 End of Arm Tooling
 End Effector

11.1 Introduction

In robotics, an end effector is a device or tool connected to the end of a robot arm.
The structure of an end effector, and the nature of the programming and hardware
that drives it, depends on the intended task.

If a robot is designed to set a table and serve a meal, then robotic hands, more
commonly called grippers, are the most functional end effectors. The same or similar
gripper might be used, with greater force, as a pliers or wrench for tightening nuts or
crimping wire. In a robot designed to tighten screws, however, a driver-head end
effector is more appropriate. A gripper is a hindrance in that application; the driver
can be attached directly to the robot arm. The driver can be easily removed and
replaced with a device that operates with similar motion, such as a bit for drilling or
an emery disk for sanding.

A robot arm can accommodate only certain end-effector task modes without changes
to the ancillary hardware and/or programming. It is not possible to directly replace a
gripper with a screwdriver head, for example, and expect a favorable result. It is
necessary to change the programming of the robot controller and use a different set
of end-effector motors to facilitate torque rather than gripping force. Then the gripper
can be replaced with a driver head.

The purpose of the robot manipulator is to perform work. The work performed by the
manipulator must be accomplished by an end effector attached to the end of robot’s
arm. The end effector can be a gripper (hand) or end-of-arm tooling.

The manipulator is responsible for moving the end effector to programmed locations.
Once the robot has moved the end effector to its location, the particular task that is
programmed for the end effector will be performed.

Many different designs can be used as an end effector, depending on the task to be
performed by the robot. The robot’s end effector can be designed to mechanically
grip a part, to use a vacuum to lift and transfer a part, or to use an electromagnet to
lift and move.

11.2 Basic Considerations for End Effectors

The end effector of the manipulator will cause certain problems that the programmer
must be aware of. These problems involve program control, the size of the work
envelope, cycle times, and the safety of worker.

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 Types: End effectors are classified into two classifications: grippers (hands)
and end-of-arm tooling. The gripper is used to lift parts or to transfer parts
from one location to another. A typical gripper is illustrated in Figure 11-1. In
this figure, the gripper is responsible for picking up parts from an assembly
line and placing the parts into chuck of a machine. With the same gripper,
the robot then picks the part from the chuck and palletizes the parts on the
table. The gripper in this application is doing nothing to part itself.

The end effector is generally mounted to the left of the manipulator’s arm.
This mounting is called end effector mounting flange. In the majority of
industrial robots, a bolt hole pattern is mounted on this flange. The holes are
arranged so that the end effector can be mounted in several different planes.
The end effector is then screwed into the flange for a secure fit.

Each manipulator is able to lift the certain number of pounds. This lifting
capacity of manipulator is called its payload. The user of the robotic system
must know the weight of the end effector in order to determine the robot’s
actual payload.

Figure 11-1: Gripper used to transfer parts.

 Program control: The programmer of the robot can control the action and
path of the end effector through the program. Thus, the programmer is able
to move the end effector to the same location repeatedly.
 Work envelopes: The programmer must be aware that the addition of an
end effector to the manipulator will increase the size of the robot’s work
envelope. For instance, a typical articulate robot arm has a work envelope of
about 6 feet. When end-of-arm tooling is added to the manipulator, the size
of the work envelope increases by 1.5 feet. This simple addition of 1.5 feet to
the size of the robot’s work envelope might mean that the robot now will not
fit in the area for which, it was planned. Thus, the designer of the robotic

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 End Effector

work cell must take the size of the end effector into account when planning a
robotic application.
 Cycle times: The cycle times of the robot are very important in meeting the
production deadlines. In addition, the movement of the robot’s end effector
should be articulated only in small movements to ensure that cycle times are
met. Several methods can be employed to ensure that a robot with an end
effector will perform its task within the correct cycle times.

The parts presented to the robot should always be placed in front of the
manipulator. Placing the part in front of the manipulator means that the robot
needs to make only short moves to grasp a part. Thus, the orientation of the
workpiece can shorten the cycle time.

 Safety: A safety joint is normally attached between the manipulator and the
end effector to prevent any damage to the robot. In many high- and medium-
technology controllers, an electronic circuit is added to the end effector’s
flange. Figure 11-2 illustrates an electronic switch added to the end effector’s
flange. The switch is normally closed switch. When the safety joint is broken,
the switch is activated. The switch then sends a signal to the robot controller,
alerting the controller that the safety joint has broken. This alarm condition
causes the robot to cease operation and calls for an operator to come to the
work cell.

Figure 11-2: Safety joint and an Alarm Switch for an end effector.

11.3 Gripper Design

The choice of grippers can determine whether a robot succeeds or fails in performing
a task. A very accurate and expensive robot equipped with the wrong gripper can be
useless for a specific task.

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Chapter – 11

The gripper or hand of the robot attaches to the wrist end of the arm and serves to
handle or process parts. The human hand is one of the most versatile end effectors
in existence. Besides having pitch, yaw and roll control, the hand also has three
joints in each finger and two in the thumb. While these joints have only a simple
rotational ability, the joints at the base of the fingers can also move sideways, thus
allowing the hand to assume many shapes and grip objects of many different sizes
and shapes. The hand is also covered with positional feedback indicators, in the form
of pressure and heat sensors. These tell what is being touched, how hard it is, and
how hot or cold it is relative to the hand’s temperature.

The gripper is composed of two sections: the fingers that grip the part and the
actuating circuitry that causes the fingers to open and close. A person who is
designing grippers should consider several key factors. The following list describes
some of these concerns:

1. The part the gripper is to grasp should be within reach

2. The fingers of the gripper should be able to accommodate various size of
parts and should be self-adjusting
3. Finger pads should be used when the gripper will pick up and place delicate
parts
4. The gripper must be in correct position to grasp the part
5. The gripper must grasp the part in the area where the part is largest

11.4 Mechanical Grippers

Many of the grippers are used to transfer parts from one location to another or to
assemble parts. These grippers are called mechanical grippers.

Figure 11-3: Inside diameter gripper.

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 End Effector

 Inside diameter gripper: Figure 11-3 illustrates a typical inside diameter

gripper. Notice that the gripper’s finger pads are mounted on the outside of
the finger. This mounting allows the pads to fit into the inside diameter of the
part that it must lift. The pads are pressed against the inside walls of the
part. The frictional force developed allows the fingers to hold the part
securely when the gripper lifts the part. The two point grip is the best type of
contact for the inside diameter gripper. Another type of the inside diameter
gripper is Captivation, or, flexible gripper; in this type of gripper, shown in
Figure 11-4, the pads of the finger conforms to the inside diameter of the
part. These pads are usually made of polyurethane.

Figure 11-4: Contact for an inside diameter gripper.

 Outside diameter gripper: Figure 11-5 gives the schematic view of an

outside diameter gripper. The gripper is designed so that the finger pads
press against the outside of the component. The pads of the gripper are
made from polyurethane bonded to steel. An outside diameter gripper may
be designed to pick up a family of parts, that is, a group of parts with the
same shapes but with different sizes. One type of the outside diameter
gripper is four-point contact with V-block; shown in Figure 11-6, gives four
points of contacts with the surface of the part. This type of design ensures
that a high coefficient of friction is developed between the fingerpoints and
the parts outside diameter.

Compliance: the final consideration for the mechanical grippers is

compliance. That is, the gripper should be able to lift the part even if the part
is off center.

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Chapter – 11

Figure 11-5: Outside diameter gripper.

Figure 11-6: Four-point contact with Vee blocks.

11.4.1 Gripping Force

The gripping force or the amount of lifting power that a gripper develops depends on
the amount of contact surface between the gripper’s finger and the part. The gripping
force should be sufficient to overcome the gravity – that is, the weight – for the part
that the gripper is to hold.

11.4.2 Drive Systems

Mechanical grippers are generally driven by pneumatic systems or gearing systems.

Figure 11-7 illustrates a pneumatic drive system for a gripper. The air cylinder
develops the action that closes or opens the fingers of the gripper. For this system to
operate, a constant pressure must be applied to the pneumatic cylinder.

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 End Effector

Figure 11-7: Pneumatic cylinder for a gripper.

The parts handled by the gripper can have various weights. Two factors must be
considered in the determination of the weight a gripper will lift:

1. When a part is lifted, the weight of the part will be three times its normal
weight. The additional weight is due to the gravitational pull, g, of the earth:
1g is due to the weight of the part, and 2g is due to the acceleration of the
part.
2. When a part is moved in a horizontal plane, the weight of the part is twice its
normal weight, because of its gravity and acceleration.

11.5 Vacuum Grippers

The vacuum gripper uses a vacuum instead of fingers to lift a part. There are two
types of vacuum grippers, a dual vacuum gripper and a single vacuum cup.

The vacuum cup operates on the principle that a vacuum is created between the cup
and the part. This bond causes the friction. The friction allows the cup to lift a part.
The vacuum gripper has two components: the cups and the vacuum system. The
vacuum cup consists of a flexible rubber-cup and a hard-rubber cup. The cup creates
negative pressure, which in turn, creates the vacuum and the necessary lifting part.
The vacuum system is a pump that generates the suction once the cup is placed on
the part. Two types of vacuum systems can be used to generate the vacuum: a
vacuum pump or a venturi system. The vacuum of a vacuum pump is generated
by a piston driven by an electric motor. The vacuum pump provides high vacuum
pressure at a low cost. The venture system provides high reliability and low cost for
start-up. The holding force of the cup depends on the difference of pressure between

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Chapter – 11

the outside area of the cup and the inside area of the cup multiplied by the effective
area of the cup. For the best possible results from a vacuum system, the designer
should use a large value of pressure difference rather than a large vacuum cup.

Once the manipulator has moved the part, it must deposit the part. So, the vacuum
system must also be able to release the vacuum. This release is controlled by the
robot’s program. On command from the robot controller, the vacuum is released, and
the part is deposited in the programmed location.

11.6 Magnetic Grippers

The magnetic gripper employs the effect of a magnetic field being exposed to a
ferrous metal. A dual magnetic gripper is made of an electromagnet. A direct,
constant current flows through the electromagnet, developing a magnetic field. When
the magnetic field of the gripper meets the part, which is made up of ferrous metal, it
induces a magnetic field of opposite polarity into the part. This field causes the
molecules of the ferrous metal to align and develop smaller magnetic field in the part.
These smaller magnetic fields have a polarity that is opposite to the polarity of the
electromagnetic field. Therefore, the two poles of opposite polarity attract each other,
allowing the gripper to lift the part. The magnetic gripper has several special
characteristics, like:

 Lifting capability must be large enough

 The temperature that an electromagnet gripper can handle is about 140ºF.
 The gripper should always make a parallel contact with the part.

The releasing procedure must also be designed for the magnetic gripper. The
release of the part is accomplished by simply reversing the magnetic field through
the electromagnet. The magnetic field is reversed by reversing the current flow
through the magnet. A switching circuit called the controlled drop circuit reverses
the current. The controlled drop circuit also removes any residual magnetism that
has been developed in the ferrous metal part.

11.7 End of Arm Tooling

End-of-arm tooling connected to a manipulator performs work (welding, sealing,

gluing, etc) on a part. The end-of-arm tooling is mounted to the end effector flange. It
requires a safety joint between the tool and the robot manipulator. One of the most
common jobs for end-of-arm tooling is welding. The paths followed by the tool are
developed by the robot’s path control programming.

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 End Effector

Review Questions

Choose the Appropriate Answer

1. Addition of an end effector to the 2. The user of the robotic system must
manipulator will ___________ the size know the weight of the ___________
of the robot’s work envelope. to determine the actual payload.

a. Not effect a. Manipulator

b. Increase b. End effector
c. Decrease c. None of above

3. The magnetic gripper employs the 4. The vacuum system is a ________

effect of a __________ field being that generates the suction once the
exposed to a ferrous metal. cup is place on the part.

a. Electric a. Motor
b. Magnetic b. Cylinder
c. Electromagnetic c. Pump

5. When a part is lifted, the weight of the 6. When a part is moved in a horizontal
part will be ________ time(s) its plane, the weight of the part is twice
normal weight. its normal weight.

a. One a. Equal to
b. Two b. Twice
c. Three c. Thrice

7. Mechanical grippers are generally 8. The human hand has ______ joints in
driven by ____________ systems. each finger and ______ in the thumb.

a. Pneumatic a. Two, three

b. Hydraulic b. Three, two
c. Electric c. Three, three

9. The V-block type design ensures that 10. A ______ is normally attached
a ___________ coefficient of friction is between the manipulator and the end
developed between the finger-points effector to prevent any damage to the

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Chapter – 11

and the parts outside diameter. robot.

a. Low a. Safety joint

b. High b. Wrist flange
c. None of above c. Cup

Fill in the blanks

11. End effectors are classified into two classifications: ___________ and
_______________.
12. The lifting capacity of manipulator is called its ____________.
13. The gripper is composed of two sections: the _________ that grip the part and the
_________ that causes the fingers to open and close.
14. The vacuum of a vacuum pump is generated by a(n) __________ driven by a(n)
___________.
15. Two types of vacuum grippers are _______________ and a ________________.

True False

16. The addition of an end effector to the manipulator will increase the size of the robot’s
work envelope.

17. Captivation or flexible gripper; is the type of outside diameter gripper.

18. The end effector is responsible for moving the manipulator to programmed locations.

19. The release of the part in magnetic grippers is accomplished by simply reversing the
magnetic field through the electromagnet.

20. The venture system pump provides high vacuum pressure at a low cost.

187