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ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

For 3rd Semester B.E. Mechanical Engineering

As per the Latest Syllabus of ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

Dr. G.K. VIJAYARAGHAVAN, B.E., M.Tech., Ph.D.

Adviser,
Dhaanish Ahmed College of Engineering,
Padappai, Chennai, Tamilnadu.
E-mail: haigkv@yahoo.com
Website: wwww. gkvbooks.comm

Dr. S.SUNDARAVALLI, M.Tech., Ph.D.

Visiting Faculty,
Manipal university, Dubai.

LAKSHMI PUBLICATIONS
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Perumbakkam, Medavakkam (P.O),
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Phone: 044 - 49523977, 98945 98598, 96772 21371.
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ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
By Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan & Dr. S. Sundaravalli

First Edition: May 2005

Revised Tenth Edition: May 2014
Fully Revised Fourteenth Edition: June 2018

© All rights are exclusively reserved by the author(s)

No part of this publication can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the author.

ISBN 978-93-831030-7-2

Price: Rs. 430/-

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 Dedicated to
My
Beloved Students
 PREFACE

We are pleased to bring out our fully revised Fourteenth edition of “Engineering
Thermodynamics” for Engineering and Technology studies. This book is written to
serve the needs of under graduate students embarking introductory course in
Engineering Thermodynamics. This book is designed to meet the requirement of
revised syllabus prescribed by the Anna University Chennai, Trichy, Coimbatore &
Tirunelveli for 3rd Semester Mechanical engineering students of its affiliated
colleges.
This book consists of 5 units.

 Unit 1 deals with basic concepts of thermodynamics such as concept of

continuum, microscopic and macroscopic approaches, path and point
functions, intensive and extensive properties, total and specific quantities,
system and their types, thermodynamic equilibrium state, path and process,
quasi-static, reversible and irreversible processes, heat and work transfer,
displacement work and other modes of work, P-V diagram, Zeroth law of
thermodynamics, concept of temperature and thermal equilibrium,
relationship between temperature scales, and new temperature scales. This
unit also deals with first law of thermodynamics applied to closed & open
systems and steady flow process.

 Unit 2 has wide coverage of second law of thermodynamics in which

various topics such as heat reservoir, source and sink, heat engine,
refrigerator, heat pump, statements of second law and its corollaries, Carnot
and reversed Carnot cycles, Clausius inequality, concept of entropy, T-S
diagram, Tds equations, entropy change for pure substance, ideal gases, and
different processes, principle of increase in entropy, applications of II law,
high and low grade energy, available and non-available energy of a source
and finite body, energy and irreversibility, expressions for the energy of a
closed system and open systems, energy balance and entropy generation,
irreversibility, I and II law efficiency are discussed.

 Unit 3 deals with properties of pure substances, phase rule, p-V, p-T, T-V,
T-s, h-s diagrams, PVT surfaces, determination of dryness fraction,
 application of I and II law for pure substances, ideal and actual Rankine
cycles, cycle improvement methods such as reheat and regenerative cycles,
economiser, preheater, binary and combined cycles.

 Unit 4 dealt with ideal and real gasses under which various topics such as
properties of ideal gas, equations of state for ideal and real gases-reduced
properties, compressibility factor and generalized compressibility chart are
discussed. This unit also deals with Maxwell relations, Tds Equations,
difference and ratio of heat capacities, energy equation, Joule-Thomson
coefficient, Clausius Clapeyron equation, phase change processes.

 Unit 5 elaborately discusses various gas mixtures and psychrometry topics

such as mole and mass fraction, Dalton’s and Amagat’s laws, properties of
gas mixture such as molar mass, gas constant, density, change in internal
energy, enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs function, psychrometric properties and
its calculations for air vapour mixtures by using chart and expressions,
psychrometric process such as adiabatic saturation, sensible heating and
cooling, humidification, dehumidification, evaporative cooling and adiabatic
mixing.
Important solved University questions, and two mark questions and answers have
been added at the tail end of each unit which will enable the students to score high
marks in the University examinations. Recent Solved Anna University Question
Papers have been added at the end of this book.

With these features, we sincerely hope that this book would serve as a valuable text
for the students.

Though efforts have been taken aiming at a ‘zero flaw’ content, we do recognize that
mistakes may have inadvertently crept in. We welcome constructive criticisms on any
specific topics of this book.

Our sincere thanks to Mrs. Nirmala Durai, Proprietor of “Lakshmi Publications”

and Publishing Advisor Mr. A. DURAI, B.E. for their involvement to make this
publication successful.
- Authors
 ME8351 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

(Common to Mechanical and Automobile Engineering branches)

UNIT I BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

Basic concepts - concept of continuum, comparison of microscopic and macroscopic
approach. Path and point functions. Intensive and extensive, total and specific quantities.
System and their types. Thermodynamic Equilibrium State, path and process. Quasi-
static, reversible and irreversible processes. Heat and work transfer, definition and
comparison, sign convention. Displacement work and other modes of work .P-V diagram.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics – concept of temperature and thermal equilibrium–
relationship between temperature scales –new temperature scales. First law of
thermodynamics –application to closed and open systems – steady and unsteady flow
processes.

UNIT II SECOND LAW AND AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS

Heat Reservoir, source and sink. Heat Engine, Refrigerator, Heat pump. Statements of
second law and its corollaries. Carnot cycle Reversed Carnot cycle, Performance.
Clausius inequality. Concept of entropy, T-s diagram, Tds Equations, entropy change for
- pure substance, ideal gases - different processes, principle of increase in entropy.
Applications of II Law. High and low grade energy. Available and non-available energy of
a source and finite body. Energy and irreversibility. Expressions for the energy of a
closed system and open systems. Energy balance and entropy generation. Irreversibility.
I and II law Efficiency.

UNIT III PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND STEAM POWER CYCLE

Formation of steam and its thermodynamic properties, p-v, p-T, T-v, T-s, h-s diagrams. p-
v-T surface. Use of Steam Table and Mollier Chart. Determination of dryness fraction.
Application of I and II law for pure substances. Ideal and actual Rankine cycles, Cycle
Improvement Methods - Reheat and Regenerative cycles, Economiser, preheater, Binary
and Combined cycles.

UNIT IV IDEAL AND REAL GASES, THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS

Properties of Ideal gas- Ideal and real gas comparison- Equations of state for ideal and
real gases-Reduced properties-.Compressibility factor-.Principle of Corresponding states.
- Generalised Compressibility Chart and its use-. Maxwell relations, Tds Equations,
Difference and ratio of heat capacities, Energy equation, Joule-Thomson Coefficient,
Clausius Clapeyron equation, Phase Change Processes. Simple Calculations.

UNIT V GAS MIXTURES AND PSYCHROMETRY

Mole and Mass fraction, Dalton‟s and Amagat‟s Law. Properties of gas mixture – Molar
mass, gas constant, density, change in internal energy, enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs
function. Psychrometric properties, Psychrometric charts. Property calculations of air
vapour mixtures by using chart and expressions. Psychrometric process – adiabatic
saturation, sensible heating and cooling, humidification, dehumidification, evaporative
cooling and adiabatic mixing. Simple Applications.

(Use of standard Steam table, Mollier diagram, Psychometric chart and Gas table are
permitted in the examination)
Contents C-1

UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

1.1. Introduction to thermodynamics 1.1

1.2. Thermodynamic properties 1.2
1.3. Microscopic and macroscopic approaches 1.6
1.3.1. Microscopic approach or statistical thermodynamics 1.6
1.3.2. Macroscopic approach or classical thermodynamics 1.6
1.3.3. Comparison of microscopic and macroscopic approaches 1.7
1.4. Thermodynamic systems 1.8
1.4.1. System 1.8
1.4.2. Surroundings 1.8
1.4.3. Boundary 1.8
1.4.4. Universe 1.9
1.5. Types of thermodynamic systems 1.9
1.5.1. Closed system 1.9
1.5.2. Open system 1.10
1.5.3. Isolated system 1.11
1.5.4. Control volume 1.11
1.6. Intensive and extensive properties of a system 1.12
1.7. Total and specific quantities 1.13
1.8. State of a system 1.13
1.9. Path 1.14
1.10. Thermodynamic process 1.14
1.10.1. Quasi-static process 1.15
1.10.2. Reversible process 1.15
1.10.3. Irreversible processes 1.15
1.10.4. Flow process 1.16
1.10.5. Non-flow process 1.16
1.11. Thermodynamic equilibrium 1.16
1.12. Thermodynamic cycle 1.17
C-2 Engineering Thermodynamics

1.12.1. Closed cycle 1.17

1.12.2. Open cycle 1.17
1.13. Point function and path function 1.18
1.13.1. Difference between path and point functions 1.18
1.14. Concept of continuum 1.19
1.15. Concept of temperature and thermal equilibrium 1.20
1.15.1. Temperature 1.20
1.15.2. Thermal equilibrium 1.21
1.15.3. Temperature scales 1.22
1.15.4. Relationship between temperature scales 1.23
1.15.5. New temperature scale 1.24
1.16. Zeroth law of thermodynamics 1.24
1.17. Energy 1.25
1.18. Heat transfer (Q) 1.26
1.19. Work transfer (W) 1.27
1.19.1. Comparison of work and heat transfers 1.29
1.19.2. Displacement work or pdV work or moving boundary work 1.30
1.19.3. Other modes of work 1.31
1.20. p-V diagram 1.39
1.21. Concept of ideal and real gases 1.41
1.22. Characteristic gas equation 1.41
1.23. First law of thermodynamics – Application to
closed systems (cyclic process) 1.42
1.24. Internal energy is a property 1.42
1.25. Solved problems on closed systems (cyclic process) 1.44
1.26. Solved Anna University problems on closed systems (cyclic process) 1.54
1.27. First law of thermodynamics – Application to
closed systems (non - flow processes) 1.67
1.27.1. Constant volume (or) iso-choric process 1.69
1.27.2. Constant pressure or isobaric process 1.70
1.27.3. Constant temperature or iso-thermal process 1.72
Contents C-3

1.27.4. Hyperbolic process 1.74

1.27.5. Reversible adiabatic or isentropic process 1.74
1.27.6. Polytropic process 1.78
1.27.7. Free expansion process 1.81
1.27.8. Throttling process 1.82
1.28. Relation between Cp, Cv and R 1.82
1.29. Important formulae for non - flow processes 1.82
1.30. Solved problems on closed systems (non - flow processes) 1.83
1.31. Solved Anna University problems on closed systems
(non - flow processes) 1.104
1.32. First law of thermodynamics - application to open systems or
control volume 1.126
1.32.1. Types of energy 1.127
1.33. Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) 1.128
1.34. Applications of steady flow energy equation to
various engineering systems 1.130
1.34.1. Boiler (or) Steam Generator 1.130
1.34.2. Condenser 1.130
1.34.3. Nozzle 1.131
1.34.4. Turbine 1.132
1.34.5. Air compressor 1.133
1.35. Important formulae – open systems 1.135
1.36. Solved problems on open systems or control volume for steady flow 1.135
1.37. Solved Anna University problems on open systems for steady flow 1.145
1.38. Unsteady flow equation 1.167
1.38.1. Filling process 1.168
1.38.2. Emptying process 1.169
1.39. Solved problems on unsteady flow process 1.171
1.40. Solved Anna University problems on open systems 1.176
1.41. Two mark questions and answers 1.178
1.42. Solved questions 1.193
1.43. Problems for practice 1.195
C-4 Engineering Thermodynamics

UNIT 2 SECOND LAW AND AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS

2.1. Introduction to second law of thermodynamics 2.1

2.2. Heat reservoir, source and sink 2.2
2.3. Heat engine and its performance 2.3
2.4. Refrigerator and its performance 2.4
2.4.1. Ways to minimize energy consumption in a
domestic refrigerator 2.5
2.5. Heat pump and its performance 2.6
2.6. Statements of second law of thermodynamics 2.6
2.6.1. Kelvin-Planck statement 2.6
2.6.2. Clausius statement 2.7
2.7. Corollaries of the second law of thermodynamics 2.8
2.8. Reversibility 2.9
2.9. Irreversibility 2.10
2.10. Carnot cycle and its performance 2.11
2.11. Reversed Carnot cycle and its performance 2.12
2.12. Carnot theorem 2.14
2.13. Absolute thermodynamic temperature scale 2.14
2.14. Solved problems on heat engines, refrigerators and heat pump 2.17
2.15. Solved Anna University problems on heat engines, refrigerators
and heat pump 2.28
2.16. Clausius inequality 2.58
2.17. Solved problem on Clausius inequality 2.60
2.18. Solved Anna University problem on Clausius inequality 2.60
2.19. Concept of entropy 2.61
2.20. Entropy: A property of the system 2.62
2.21. T-s diagram 2.63
2.22. Tds equations 2.64
2.23. Entropy change of pure substances 2.64
2.24. Entropy change of ideal gas 2.66
Contents C-5

2.24.1. Expression for change in entropy of ideal gas 2.67

2.25. Applications of change in entropy for different processes 2.69
2.26. Principle of increase of entropy 2.74
2.27. Applications of second law of thermodynamics or applications of
entropy principle 2.76
2.27.1. Transfer of heat through a finite temperature difference 2.76
2.27.2. Mixing of two fluids 2.77
2.27.3. Maximum work obtainable from two finite bodies at
temperatures T1 and T2 2.78
2.28. Absolute entropy 2.80
2.29. Entropy balance 2.81
2.30. Entropy generation 2.81
2.31. Solved problems on entropy 2.82
2.32. Solved Anna University problems on entropy principles 2.92
2.33. High grade and low grade energy 2.114
2.34. Available energy and unavailable energy 2.115
2.35. Availability 2.118
2.36. Irreversibility (I) 2.119
2.37. I and II law efficiency 2.119
2.38. Expressions for energy of a closed systems in terms of availability and
second law efficiency 2.120
2.39. Expressions for energy of an open systems in terms of availability and
second law efficiency 2.121
2.40. Useful work based on the second law of thermodynamics for
non-flow processes 2.123
2.41. Useful work based on the second law of thermodynamics for
flow processes 2.125
2.42. Solved problems on availability, irreversibility and
second law efficiency 2.126
2.43. Solved Anna University problems on availability, irreversibility and
second law efficiency 2.130
2.44. Two mark questions and answers 2.137
2.45. Solved questions 2.150
2.46. Problems for practice 2.152
C-6 Engineering Thermodynamics

UNIT 3 PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE AND STEAM POWER CYCLE

3.1. Properties of pure substance 3.1

3.1.1. Formation of steam and its thermodynamic properties 3.2
3.1.2. Dryness fraction 3.4
3.1.3. Wetness fraction 3.4
3.1.4. Phase rule 3.5
3.1.5. p- v diagram 3.5
3.1.6. p -T diagram 3.8
3.1.7. T-v diagram 3.8
3.1.8. T- s diagram (for water) 3.9
3.1.9. h-s diagram 3.10
3.1.10. p-v-T surface 3.11
3.1.11. Steam tables 3.12
3.1.12. Thermodynamic properties of steam 3.14
3.1.13. Determination of dryness fraction 3.16
3.1.14. Application of first law for pure substances
(Non-flow processes) 3.17
3.1.15. Applications of first law for pure substances (Flow processes) 3.23
3.1.16. Important formulae 3.23
3.1.17. Applications of second law for pure substances (Both
non-flow and flow processes) 3.24
3.1.18. Solved problems on steam properties 3.24
3.1.19. Solved problems on non-flow processes 3.30
3.1.19.1. Solved problems on constant volume process 3.30
3.1.19.2. Solved problems on constant pressure process 3.36
3.1.19.3. Solved problem on hyperbolic process 3.39
3.1.19.4. Solved problem on isentropic process 3.40
3.1.19.5. Solved problems on polytropic process 3.42
3.1.19.6. Solved problems on throttling process 3.46
3.1.19.7. Solved problems on combined isentropic and
throttling process 3.51
Contents C-7

3.1.20. Solved problems on flow processes 3.53

3.1.20.1. Solved problems on boiler 3.53
3.1.20.2. Solved problems on turbine 3.54
3.1.20.3. Solved problems on nozzle 3.56
3.1.21. Solved Anna University problems on thermodynamic processes 3.58
3.2. Steam power cycle 3.81
3.2.1. Standard Rankine cycle 3.81
3.2.2. Actual Rankine cycle 3.86
3.2.2.1. Problems on simple Rankine cycle 3.88
3.2.3. Reheat Rankine cycle 3.101
3.2.3.1. Solved problems on reheat-Rankine cycle 3.103
3.2.4. Regenerative Rankine cycle 3.113
3.2.4.1. Solved problems on regeneration Rankine cycle 3.119
3.2.5. Reheat-regenerative Rankine cycle 3.135
3.2.5.1. Solved problems on reheat-regeneration
Rankine cycle 3.137
3.2.6. Economiser 3.143
3.2.7. Air preheater 3.144
3.2.8. Modern trends in power plant cycle improvement 3.145
3.2.9. Rankine-Rankine coupled cycles 3.146
3.2.10. Combined cycle plants for cogeneration 3.147
3.2.11. Binary vapour cycle 3.148
3.2.12. Combined cycles 3.152
3.2.12.1. Gas turbine-steam turbine plant 3.152
3.2.13. Solved Anna University problems on Rankine cycles 3.154
3.3. Two mark questions and answers 3.197
3.4. Solved questions 3.217
3.5. Problems for practice 3.220
C-8 Engineering Thermodynamics

UNIT 4 IDEAL AND REAL GASES, THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS

4.1. Introduction to ideal and real gases 4.1

4.2. Properties of ideal gas 4.2
4.2.1. Specific heats of ideal gas 4.2
4.2.2. Enthalpy of ideal gas 4.8
4.2.3. Entropy of ideal gas 4.8
4.3. Comparison of ideal gas and real gas 4.10
4.4. Equation of state for ideal gas 4.11
4.5. Properties of real gas 4.14
4.5.1. Intermolecular forces 4.15
4.5.2. Shape factor 4.16
4.6. Equation of state for real gas 4.17
4.7. Enthalpy and entropy of real gases 4.19
4.8. Compressibility factor 4.20
4.9. Reduced properties and principle of corresponding states 4.20
4.10. Generalised compressibility chart 4.21
4.11. Solved problems on ideal and real gases 4.23
4.12. Thermodynamic relations 4.28
4.12.1. Exact differentials 4.28
4.13. Maxwell’s equations 4.32
4.14. Coefficient of volume expansion 4.34
4.15. Isothermal compressibility 4.34
4.16. Ratio of co-efficient of volume expansion () and
isothermal compressibility (K) 4.35
4.17. Energy equations 4.35
4.17.1. Internal energy 4.36
4.17.2. Enthalpy relations 4.36
4.18. Entropy relations (Tds equations) 4.37
4.19. Difference between specific heats 4.39
4.20. Ratio of specific heat capacities 4.43
Contents C-9

4.21. Joule – Thomson coefficient 4.43

4.22. Clausius Clapeyron equation 4.48
4.23. Phase change processes 4.52
4.24. Solved problems on thermodynamic relations 4.52
4.25. Solved Anna University problems 4.55
4.26. Two mark questions and answers 4.68
4.27. Solved questions 4.78
4.28. Problem for practice 4.80

UNIT 5 GAS MIXTURES AND PSYCHROMETRY

5.1. Gas mixtures 5.1

5.1.1. Composition of a gas mixture 5.1
5.1.2. Dalton’s law of partial pressure 5.4
5.1.3. Amagat’s law of partial volume 5.5
5.1.4. Properties of gas mixtures 5.6
5.1.5. Gibbs function 5.8
5.2. Mixing of ideal gases 5.8
5.2.1. Solved problem on mixing of ideal gas mixtures 5.11
5.3. Mixtures of real gases 5.13
5.3.1. Solved problems on mixing of ideal gas mixtures 5.14
5.4. Solved Anna University problems on gas mixtures 5.32
5.5. Psychrometry 5.58
5.6. Psychrometric properties 5.58
5.7. Dalton’s law of partial pressure 5.63
5.8. Psychrometric chart 5.63
5.9. Adiabatic saturation process 5.66
5.10. Solved problems on psychrometry properties 5.69
5.11. Apparatus dew point 5.91
5.12. Psychrometric processes 5.92
 C-10 Engineering Thermodynamics

5.12.1. Sensible heating process 5.93

5.12.2. Sensible cooling process 5.95
5.12.3. Humidification process 5.96
5.12.4. Dehumidification process 5.97
5.12.5. Heating and humidification process 5.98
5.12.6. Cooling and dehumidification process 5.99
5.12.7. Adiabatic mixing of air streams 5.101
5.12.8. Adiabatic evaporative cooling 5.103
5.13. Solved problems on psychrometry processes 5.104
5.14. Solved Anna University problems on psychrometry properties and
processes 5.121
5.17. Two mark questions and answers 5.150
5.18. Solved questions 5.164
5.19. Problems for practice 5.166

Solved Anna University Question Papers Q-1

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