03 - Hi Sulfidation

High Sulphidation Epithermal
Mineralisation
Module 3
High Sulphidation Epithermal Mineralisation Contents i
Contents
1. Epithermal Deposit Classification and Identifying Features 2
2. High Sulphidation Deposits: Introduction 4
3. Characteristics 5
4. Vertical Zonation 8
4.1 Shallow Epithermal High Sulphidation Deposits 8
4.2 Deep Epithermal High Sulphidation Deposits 9
4.3 Porphyry Hosted High Sulphidation Deposits 9
5. Controls on Depth of Emplacement of Mineralisation 10
6. Distinguishing Potential High Sulphidation Mineralisation

from Similar Alteration Produced Above Low Sulphidation
Deposits 11
7. Modern Day Analogues 13
8. Mineralising Processes 14
8.1 Vapour Transport of Metals 14
8.2 Production of Acid 15
8.3 Metal Deposition 15
9. Late Stage Gold Mineralisation 17
10. Supergene Alteration 18
/conversion/tmp/scratch/457208138.doc\280120\IB:jsgjr
Revision D: Jun 00: J1217211: A 
High Sulphidation Epithermal Mineralisation 1
1. Epithermal Deposit Classification and Identifying Features
The term epithermal has been increasingly loosely applied in recent years. There is
however a current usage of terms which is becoming widely accepted and is adopted
herein. This is largely based on the review of White and Hedenquist (1995). Our
definition is that epithermal deposits form at a shallow level (less than about 1000m) under
near hydrostatic conditions in the presence of cool (less than about 300°C) hydrothermal
solutions that had a magmatic heat source.
Two main classes of epithermal gold deposits can be distinguished; they are Low
sulphidation and High sulphidation styles. This terminology is somewhat awkward, and
has been incorrectly abbreviated by some geologists to low or high sulphur or sulphide
deposits. Whilst many high sulphidation deposits have abundant sulphides and free
sulphur, so can parts of low sulphidation deposits. The term sulphidation refers to the
chemical state of the metals in these deposits. The corresponding equivalents of low and
high sulphidation in active hydrothermal systems are meteoric water dominated geothermal
systems and the subsurface parts of magmatic solfataras, which can be regarded as
magmatic water dominated geothermal systems, respectively. Some comparisons are made
between low and high sulphidation types in this module to emphasis the differences.
A number of sub-types of epithermal deposits have been proposed. The more specific
these sub-types get, the progressively less helpful they become as exploration models.
However, two main types of low sulphidation type deposits can be usefully distinguished.
These are Upflow Deposits and Outflow Deposits. In active geothermal systems they
correspond to the upflow portion, usually of those systems occupying basins, and the
outflow portion, usually of those systems formed beneath high relief volcanic centres,
respectively, though this is not a hard and fast distinction (see Lawless et al 1995).
High sulphidation deposits have been subdivided into structural and stratigraphic types,
and into breccia dominated gold-only deposits and copper-gold deposits. However the
occurrence of both structural and stratigraphic styles of deposit overlapping each other at
Furtei in Sardinia, Italy (Ruggieri et al. 1997), and gold-rich breccias found interspersed
with copper-gold mineralisation at Chinkuashih, Taiwan (Tan 1991) indicate that there is
little utility in doing so. In this module, we discuss high sulphidation deposits in terms of
their depth of formation, noting the variations with depth but without creating any new
subtypes.
High sulphidation deposits are also known as acid-sulphate deposits, enargite-gold

deposits, and Nansatsu type deposits. The features of these deposits are summarised and
compared with low sulphidation (or adularia-sericite) deposits in Table 1.
Table 1: Characteristics of acid-sulphate (high sulphidation) and

adularia-sericite (low sulphidation) type deposits (from
Heald et al. 1987)
Acid-Sulphate Adularia-Sericite
Structural Intrusive centres, 4 out Structurally complex
setting of the 5 studied related volcanic environments,
to the margins of commonly in calderas
calderas
Size: Relatively small Variable; some very
length / width equidimensional large, usually 3:1 or
ratio greater
Host rocks Rhyodacite typical Silicic to intermediate
volcanics
Timing of ore Similar ages of host and Ages of host and ore
and host ore (<0.5 Ma.) distinct (>1 Ma.)
Mineralogy Enargite, pyrite, native Argentite, tetrahedrite,
gold, electrum, and tennantite, native silver
base-metal sulphides. and gold, and base-metal
Chlorite rare. sulphides.
No selenides. Chlorite common.
Mn-minerals rare. Selenides present.
Sometimes bismuthinite. Mn gangue present.
No bismuthinite.
Production data Both gold- and silver- Both gold- and silver-rich
rich deposits, noteworthy deposits, variable base-
Cu production metal
Alteration Advanced argillic to Sericitic to argillic1
argillic ( - sericitic)
Extensive hypogene Supergene alunite.
alunite. Occasional kaolinite.
Major hypogene Abundant adularia.
kaolinite.
No adularia
Temperature 200° to 300°C2 200° to 300°C
Salinity 1 to 24 wt% NaCl eq.3 0 to 13 wt% NaCl eq.
Source of fluids Dominantly meteoric, Dominantly meteoric
possibly significant
magmatic component
Source of Deep-seated, probably Deep-seated, probably
sulphide magmatic derived by leaching
sulphur wallrocks deep in system
Source of lead Volcanic rocks or Precambrian or
magmatic fluids Phanerozoic rocks under
volcanics
1
Could be supergene in some districts.
2
Limited data, possibly unrelated to ore.
3
Salinities of 5 to 24 wt% NaCl eq. are probably related to the intense acid-
sulphate alteration which preceded ore deposition .
2. High Sulphidation Deposits: Introduction
High sulphidation epithermal gold deposits are a shallow manifestation of porphyry

mineralisation. They occur at structurally higher levels than porphyry mineralisation in
what has been called the porphyry lithocap. The lithocap consists of residual silica and
pyrite rich advanced argillic and argillic alteration and is usually very much larger (10’s of
km2) than the area of high sulphidation mineralisation (< 1 km2). In three dimensions a
porphyry lithocap is a mushroom shaped alteration zone with a large cap and a thin stalk
(Figure 1).
Usually only the “stalk” of the mushroom is mineralised, but mineralisation can be
distributed laterally by the dictates of shallow hydrology, in which case the cap may be
asymmetric. The stalk and its immediate outflow will contain stronger silicification with
more advanced argillic alteration than the cap and contain higher temperature and more
diverse mineralogy. The identification of a lithocap is the first stage in exploring for high
sulphidation deposits. Finding the mineralisation within the lithocap is the second stage;
similar geological tools can be used for both.
Breccia hosted
HS mineralisation
1 km
Massive Sulphide
Volcanic pile
Porous silica Subvolcanic basement
Lithocap
Propylitic Alteration Porphyritic stock
Phyllic Alteration
Potassic Alteration
Figure 1:
An idealised model of a porphyry lithocap (adapted from Sillitoe, 1995)
3. Characteristics
These deposits are also known as enargite-gold deposits, acid-sulphate deposits and
Nansatsu type deposits (Figure 2). Yanacocha in Peru is an example of a major deposit.
These deposits form at temperatures from 170 to 330°C from low to moderate salinity acid
fluids that have been produced by the condensation of magmatic volatiles into shallow
groundwaters. The vertical interval of mineralisation rarely exceeds 400m; large deposits
such as Lepanto may be as much as 3 km long, but most deposits are much smaller.
Figure 2:
High sulphidation epithermal gold deposit (after Bonham 1989)
They consist of quartz with subordinate barite (particularly in their shallower parts) and
the high sulphidation sulphosalts enargite-luzonite (more rarely stibio-luzonite and
famatinite) and tennantite-tetrahedrite, plus FeS2 species that include pyrite, marcasite and
melnikovite. Covellite, chalcocite and occasionally bismuthinite are also found (Table 4).
The ore minerals are the enargite-luzonite and gold, and more rarely gold tellurides and
acanthite.
The most common form is as near-vertical but not necessarily planar crosscutting zones of
silicification, and they are found particularly in porphyritic volcanic domes and in breccia
pipes. However, where pyroclastics or other porous fragmental rocks are the host rock, the
deposits will mainly follow the geometry of the host. As the host is usually young material,
it will be close to flat-lying and the result is tabular deposits. Where there are intercalated
porous fragmentals and lava flows, the deposit will form in the fragmentals giving a
mushroom-like form; this is the case for Nansatsu type deposits. Flat-lying deposits that
follow pre-existing stratigraphy are of considerable economic interest. This is because
they can be more amenable to open pit mining and are more susceptible to widespread
supergene alteration with an improvement in their metallurgical properties.
Hydrothermal breccias are common and those with silicified matrices are a common host to
mineralisation, although the mineralisation may be pre-brecciation and contained in the
clasts. Later breccias with rock flour matrices are less well mineralised.
The deeper a deposit forms, the greater the degree of structural control, with deep deposits
hosted in pre-volcanic basement in dilatant structures as near vertical planar bodies. The
shallow (<500 m) formed deposits are usually the most gold-rich, and some shallow
deposits are silver-rich as well. The deeper deposits become more copper rich and can be
telescoped onto underlying porphyry mineralisation. This does not necessarily imply that
there is a continuity of gold-rich to copper rich-mineralisation at depth, as some gold-rich
deposits have been found to be rootless with respect to copper mineralisation.
The silicification takes the form of “vuggy” fine grained residual quartz produced by acid
leaching. Unless there is a low sulphidation overprint, chalcedony is rare. Residual silica
can be distinguished from silica directly deposited from solution in thin section, by the
occurrence of primary zircon and the presence of titanium oxides. The so-called "vuggy”
silica rock which is in fact usually more porous than vuggy is produced by intense acid
leaching, whence virtually everything but silica has been leached away. This is best
developed in porphyritic rocks where the groundmass is silicified and the phenocrysts
leached to leave pits. This texture is an important exploration guide because it is in this
and the immediately surrounding rock that mineralisation is concentrated. It needs to be
distinguished from other forms of silicification found in these deposits. Granular porous
silicification sometimes containing native sulphur and cinnabar can occur above the level
of mineralisation, and originally formed above the water table. Massive silica can be
found round the edges of the deposit and will also be unmineralised unless there is later
brecciation.
The enargite-luzonite occurs early after the intense acid leaching and silicification. In the
richest deposits, which are usually breccias, the enargite-luzonite can occur mainly as
breccia clasts. Gold and gold tellurides can be found in or associated with the enargite-
luzonite. Later stage quartz, pyrite, tennantite-tetrahedrite, barite and gold may make up
the matrices of such breccias and in some, particularly the richest deposits, occur as late
cross-cutting veins or stockworks. In some of the biggest deposits (eg. Lepanto and El
Indio), the majority of the gold is in the late stage silicification and represents a low
sulphidation overprint to earlier high sulphidation mineralisation. However, such a low
sulphidation overprint is not universal and there are economic deposits that lack the
overprint such as Yanacocha in Peru and Nena in PNG. These are generally of lower
grade than deposits with an overprint.
Barite occurs late in the deposition series and usually shallow in the deposit, filling pores
and fractures with an open-space deposition texture. It can host bonanza mineralisation:
for example a 51.7kg boulder from the Summitville deposit contained 17wt% gold.
The mineralised breccias and silicified zones are enclosed in advanced argillic alteration
with a quartz, alunite and pyrite zone directly surrounding the mineralisation, which is in
turn enclosed in an argillic assemblage of quartz, kaolinite and pyrite alteration which is
enclosed in regional propylitic alteration. A smectite zone can be found between the
kaolinite and the regional propylitic alteration. The smectite occurs as a non-equilibrium
phase and hence does not necessarily indicate low temperatures. These alteration zones are
gradational with minor kaolinite in the alunite zone and minor alunite in the kaolinite zone.
Dickite, the higher temperature polymorph of kaolinite, is also found. This is found more
commonly in the alunite zone or in deeper argillic zones. Pyrophyllite is also found in
deeper advanced argillic zones but frequently has a dickite or kaolinite overprint. The
regional propylitic alteration is characterised by the presence of chlorite and, at deeper
levels of exposure, epidote.
Paleosurface Style Alteration Sulphides Metals

“Porous Silica”
Mercury
Marcasite/Melnikovite
Shallow
Epithermal
Bornite-digenite-chalcocite
Enargite-luzonite
Disseminated/veinlet
Quartz-dickite-pyrophyllite
Massive Sulphide
“Vuggy Quartz”
Quartz-alunite
Copper
Covellite
Silver
Gold
Deep
Epithermal
Quartz-sericite
Porphyry
Hosted
Figure 3:
Vertical zonation in high sulphidation deposits (adapted from Sillitoe, 1999)
4. Vertical Zonation
There is a pronounced vertical zonation to high sulphidation deposits. This ranges from
gold (and silver) rich deposits formed near the surface down to copper rich deposits formed
as overprints on intrusives in the porphyry environment. We will concentrate on the
shallow deposits because they are economically more important (being gold rich and
enargite poor). However, it is important to be able to identify these as such and to
recognise the deeper deposits. Three broad groups can be recognised; shallow epithermal,
deep epithermal and porphyry hosted deposits. The main aspects of zonation are
summarised in Figure 3.
Ignimbrite Dacite dome Ignimbrite
500m
Sub-volcanic basement
Major structure
Disseminated Au-
Porous silica
Ag mineralisation
Au-Enargite in Quartz-Alunite
vuggy quartz alteration
Quartz-Kaolinite
alteration
Figure 4:
Schematic model of a shallow high sulphidation epithermal deposit
(adapted from Sillitoe, 1999)
4.1 Shallow Epithermal High Sulphidation Deposits
Mineralisation can be found in these deposits from the paleo-watertable down to 500m,
although the vertical extent of the deposits rarely exceeds 400m (Figure 4). They tend to
have disseminated mineralisation with limited amounts of luzonite-enargite and
consequently low copper contents. Although luzonite (being the lower temperature
dimorph) would be expected to dominate, this is not always the case. Pyrite and its
polymorph marcasite, and melnikovite are abundant, with the latter two of importance in
identifying the deposit as shallow. They can have very distinctive colloform habits.
Covellite, sometimes associated with native sulphur, is also found. Gold occurs as high
fineness grains in the luzonite-enargite and the iron sulphides or in quartz in association
with the sulphides. Some shallow deposits can be silver-rich, with acanthite inclusions in
the enargite-luzonite. Tellurides may also be important ore minerals.
Although near vertical structures are important as feeder zones, shallow deposits can be
strongly lithologically controlled, with poorly welded ignimbrites being a common host
rock. Bedded tuffs and epiclastics (including lacustrine sediments) can also be good hosts.
Silicification dominates with porous silica (that can contain cinnabar and native sulphur)
overlying and flanking mineralisation that is hosted by vuggy quartz that may contain
barite. Lower grade mineralisation may also be found in the quartz-alunite alteration halo.
Kaolinite is most commonly found in surrounding alteration but dickite and pyrophyllite
may also be found. The more strontium and barium rich members of the APS mineral
group such as svanbergite are most common in shallow deposits.
4.2 Deep Epithermal High Sulphidation Deposits
These have depths of formation from 500 to 1000m with vertical intervals of
mineralisation up to 400m. They tend to occur as massive sulphides with abundant
enargite-luzonite and contain both significant copper and gold. Pyrite is the dominant iron
sulphide and covellite is less common. Less fine gold is found in association with the
enargite-luzonite. Dilatant structures are the most common host to mineralisation, with
limited lithological control. Although vuggy quartz is still the main host for mineralisation,
silicification is less abundant and dickite and pyrophyllite more common in the alteration
halo than in the shallow deposits.
4.3 Porphyry Hosted High Sulphidation Deposits
These are found at depths of greater than 1000m and may continue down to 2000m. They
are most commonly found telescoped onto porphyry bodies as a result of strong uplift and
erosion or sector collapse of the overlying volcanic pile. Mineralisation occurs in veinlets
and disseminations, frequently as an overprint on earlier porphyry mineralisation.
However, it is not uncommon for there to be very similar barren advanced argillic
alteration that has leached out copper mineralisation. Although enargite is still found,
bornite, digenite, covellite and chalcocite may dominate. Copper dominates although some
gold-rich deposits are known. There is strong structural control over the mineralisation.
Quartz-sericite with pyrophyllite and diaspore are the important alteration minerals and
alunite is less common than in shallower deposits.
5. Controls on Depth of Emplacement of Mineralisation
Estimated depths of emplacement of high sulphidation deposits range from very near
surface to down to 1500m, with a zonation between shallow gold-rich and deeper copper-
rich deposits. There need not be any continuity between the deposits because the base of a
deposit will be at the point of condensation of the magmatic volatiles. If the point of
condensation is deep, a deep deposit will form, and if the point of condensation is shallow,
a shallow deposit will form. As the deposits reach thickness of up to 400m, there must
either be some continued upward transport of mineralised fluid or a change in the point of
condensation with time. The latter may correspond to a decrease in pressure of the injected
magmatic volatiles with time.
If there is a large, highly permeable groundwater aquifer present from near surface to
depth, there will be abundant water to condense the volatiles, and the point of condensation
will be deep. If however permeability is low at depth but there is a perched shallow
groundwater aquifer, the condensation point will be within the perched aquifer. Note that
vapours can move through areas of low permeability much more easily than water. Such a
transition from low permeability at depth to perched aquifers is common in dacitic flow-
dome complexes with pyroclastic sequences where the sub-volcanic basement is an older
poorly permeable lithology. These types of centres are thus the most favourable for
producing shallow gold-rich mineralisation. Larger andesitic stratovolcanoes on the other
hand can host large groundwater aquifers, thus favouring deeper, less gold-rich deposits.
6. Distinguishing Potential High Sulphidation Mineralisation from Similar

Alteration Produced Above Low Sulphidation Deposits
The major difference between systems of this type and meteoric water dominated systems
(Figure 5) in which low sulphidation epithermal gold deposits form, is that the acid fluids
in them are condensed magmatic volatiles that have a more complex chemistry, and may
carry gold. In meteoric water dominated systems the (secondary) acid fluids are
descending and will only cause gold deposition where they mix with other neutral primary
fluids. It is therefore important to establish whether zones of advanced argillic alteration
have been formed by primary acid-sulphate-chloride water in a magmatic water dominated
system or from secondary acid-sulphate fluids overlying a meteoric water dominated
system. Unfortunately, these two very different types of fluid can form very similar-
appearing rocks. The deposits are rich in pyrite and hence can undergo severe supergene
alteration that can obscure the original alteration zonation.
Figure 5:
Schematic diagrams of (a) volcano-related hydrothermal systems
showing possible steam-heated, magmatic hydrothermal, and
magmatic steam environments of acid sulphate alteration, and
(b) steam-heated environment of acid sulphate alteration
overlaying a near-neutral hydrothermal system with adularia-
sericite-type mineralisation driven by a deep magmatic heat
source. Bold arrows indicate fluid flow (modified from Henley
and Ellis 1983)
Clues as to the nature of the alteration system can be gained from:
 Oxygen and sulphur isotope ratios in the alunite (Figure 6): The systematics of this
are discussed by Rye et al. (1992). It may also be possible to estimate the
temperature of formation in this way as well as the fluid origin.
 Mineralogical textures: Very coarse, massive alunite zones in veins are restricted to
primary acid sulphate fluids. However, these fluids can also be responsible for
widespread partial replacement of the host rocks, so the latter texture cannot be
taken as diagnostic of secondary fluids. Supergene alunite where fine grained can
have a porcellaneous texture and when coarse grained can be bladed.
 Associated mineralogy: Barite and zunyite are of importance as these can be

recognised in hand specimen. Other diagnostic minerals include topaz, dumortierite,
rarely fluorite and the APS (Aluminium-Phosphate-Sulphate) mineral group, which
includes woodhouseite, svanbergite, goerceixite, plumbogummite and goyazite.
Deeper, more base-metal-rich mineralisation is accompanied by advanced argillic alteration

characterised by the presence of diaspore and pyrophyllite. Older deposits can be subject
to low grade regional metamorphism, where the kaolinite has been converted to
pyrophyllite, for example Pueblo Viejo in the Dominican Republic.
20
15
10
5
 O
18
-5
-10
-15
-20
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
34
 S
Figure 6:
Oxygen and sulphur isotope systematics for alunite
7. Modern Day Analogues
Possible modern day analogues of high sulphidation epithermal deposits that have been
investigated to depth are Biliran Island (Lawless and Gonzales 1982) and Alto Peak (Reyes
et al. 1993), in the Philippines (Figure 7). The geological sampling from geothermal wells
drilled in these two was not as complete as in mineral prospects. Whilst no high
sulphidation mineralisation was identified, and much of the drilling was to depths below
where such mineralisation could be expected to occur, some useful data was obtained from
the drilling of these systems. The identification of these systems as modern day analogues
of high sulphidation epithermal gold deposits is based on two main points. Advanced
argillic alteration containing the more exotic mineralogy diagnostic of formation by
magmatic volatiles is present; and the chemistry of the waters produced from wells is that
which has been inferred from fluid inclusions and mineralogical studies of high
sulphidation deposits.
Features of Alto Peak are a shallow degassing intrusive which produces a central vapour
core surrounded by a two phase zone enclosed in groundwaters. This is essentially
identical to the model of Henley and McNabb (1978) for the formation of Cu-porphyry
deposits (Module 2). The zone at 200 to 300°C where gas-rich fluids are indicated
matches the environment of high sulphidation deposits.
W DANGLOG
ALTO PEAK
AP-5D AP-1D AP-2D E
BINAHAAN
50°
10
Elevation (km)
Pressure (Mpa)
100°
0°
15
n
0° tio 20
20 di lu
p 150
e °
0° De
25
30
0°
30 20
0°
0°
0°
35 0°
30 25
0°
0°
35
60
0°
40 40
50
0°
Bicarbonate waters Acid sulphate waters Degassing rock

Chloride waters Gas -rich fluids Crystallising magma
Two-phase fluid
Figure 7:
Alto Peak hydrothermal system (after Reyes et al. 1993)
8. Mineralising Processes
8.1 Vapour Transport of Metals
In these systems, emplacement of a shallow intrusive has permitted the venting of a

significant quantity of magmatic volatiles to a shallow level, at a higher temperature and
without nearly as much neutralisation through water-rock interaction or dilution by
groundwater as in a meteoric water dominated hydrothermal system. The fact that the
degassing is taking place at a shallow level means that the released volatiles are more acid
and oxidised than volatiles released at greater depths and pressures (Fournier 1999). There
would appear to perhaps be less potential for systems of this type to cause extensive
porphyry mineralisation, as the volatiles are not retained in and around the porphyry body.
However, consideration of the size of these deposits in comparison to the total amount of
gold in a porphyry deposit and the potentially very high metal flux through a volcanic
centre indicates that this is not the case. It is whether or not the metals are trapped that is
the important point.
As these deposits are forming from magmatic volatiles venting from a porphyry intrusive,
this requires that the metals be transported from the intrusive to the near surface as
vapours. Evidence for vapour transport of Cu and Au comes from a number of sources.
Chemically, copper is known to form volatile Cl complexes at high temperatures (Henley
and McNabb 1978) and it is possible that gold does the same (Gammons and William-
Jones 1997), but gold can also be transported as a volatile sulphide complex. Arsenic, a
necessary constituent of the enargite-luzonite has the volatile species arsine AsH3.
Geological evidence includes the existence of gold-rich sublimates from very hot (800°C)
superheated fumaroles in magmatic solfataras (eg. Vergasova et al. 1982, Kavalieris
1994), and gold crystals forming in fumarolic precipitates (Taran et al. 2000). In the latter
case, gold crystallised in a silica tube over a narrow temperature range of 550-600°C from
gases that initially discharged at 800°C. Fumarolic gas condensates from this volcano
(Colima, Mexico) had gold concentrations of 0.1 to 0.5ppm, though other volcanoes had
up to 5ppm. Elevated concentrations were measured for several other elements, including
As.
Cu and Au have recently been identified in vapour inclusions from the Grasberg Cu-Au
porphyry deposit (Ulrich et al. 1999). Both brine and vapour inclusions were analysed by
ICP-MS using laser ablation. The brine inclusions have a similar Cu/Au ratio to the
deposits as a whole, with concentrations of Cu up to 1wt% and Au up to 1 ppm. Similar
Cu concentrations were found in vapour inclusions, along with up to 100 ppm gold and
significant amounts of As that averaged 190 ppm, with equivalent salinities of 7wt%. If
such vapours are not trapped, but are vented from a porphyry, such a chemistry matches
that needed to form a high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit. Gold is present at a much
higher concentration than in low sulphidation deposits, thus accounting for the percentage
gold bonanzas found in some high sulphidation deposits, such as Chinkuishih in Taiwan.
Therefore, there is little problem in transporting gold from depth in vapour, but its
occurrence in fumarole sublimates suggests that the problem is in trapping it.
8.2 Production of Acid
Analysis of high temperature magmatic fumaroles indicates that they contain HCl and SO 2
along with HF. To form an acid solution requires that they are condensed into water and
the SO2 must disproportionate. At temperatures over 300°C, hydrochloric and sulphuric
acid are weak acids and disproportionation is limited. To obtain the strong acids necessary
to produce the intense acid alteration implies that there must have been an extensive
groundwater aquifer present with sufficient input of cold water to condense the volatiles
and drop the temperatures enough for strong acids to form.
Hydrochloric and minor hydrofluoric acid will be present as undissociated species in the
magmatic vapour. They are very soluble in water and are easily condensed. HCl is a
stronger acid than sulphuric acid at high temperatures, and hence is important early on in
the formation of these deposits. Upon condensation and cooling, HCl can form the initial
very acid solution that produces the initial intense alteration. A major consequence of the
rock reaction is that leaching of the rock and formation of low molar volume alteration
products such as quartz strongly enhances permeability, allowing a greater ingress of
cooling waters with time, and thus favouring the entrapment process. Higher molar
volume alteration products such as kaolinite form around the area of the leaching and
decrease permeability and hence localise the zone of high permeability and focus the
mineralisation.
8.3 Metal Deposition
The advanced argillic alteration in these deposits is observed to predate the mineralisation,
and this is likely to represent alteration by the earliest hotter HCl-dominated acid rich
fluids in which the metals are still soluble. For example, enargite is soluble in hydrochloric
acid, a major condensate species:
Cu3AsS4 + 3H+ + 3HCl + H2  3CuCl + As3+ + 4H2S (1)

(enargite)
Similarly gold will be soluble in the oxidised acid chloride waters and will not deposit until
the solution starts to neutralise. In addition, since early on in the formation of the deposit
the vapours will be the hottest, much of the groundwater will be boiled off, condensation
will be imperfect, and metals lost to the atmosphere.
The reaction of most interest as the vapours become cooler with time with regard to
retention of metals is the disproportionation of sulphur dioxide when it reacts with water:
4SO2 + 4H2O  H2S + 3H2SO4 (2)
This reaction is favoured at lower temperatures, and with some neutralisation causes
enargite deposition by increasing the amount of H2S present. The effect of enargite
deposition is to decrease the amount of H 2S present and by producing H2 to reduce the
solution. As gold is most likely to be transported as a sulphide complex in the vapour it is
also likely to be dissolved in the condensate as a sulphide complex. As the condensate is
still acid (although not very acid at the time of deposition) the most likely complex is
Au(HS)° (Benning and Seward 1991). If the deposition of enargite is considered (see
equation 1), H2 is produced and H2S consumed, driving equation 3 strongly to the right, to
destabilise the gold complex, producing gold deposition, and thus explaining the gold-
enargite association.
Au(HS)° + 1/2H2  Au + H2S (3)
Deposition of FeS2 can have a similar effect as this also produces H 2 and consumes H2S.
Any gold chloride complexes present will also be destabilised by H2.
9. Late Stage Gold Mineralisation
In some deposits, notably El Indio and Lepanto, the majority of the gold is late stage. At
El Indio it is in quartz veins that have accompanying sericitic alteration, whereas at
Lepanto it is in a post-enargite deposition breccia matrix. This mineralisation may be
produced by a late stage convective system around the porphyry centre where hydrological
conditions allow. However, it may also be produced from the degassing of deeper parts of
the same porphyry body or from a later deep intrusion. This deeper degassing supplies a
more neutralised fluid due to a combination of a greater degree of rock reaction and
because volatile release at high pressures produces less acid volatiles (Fournier 1999).
Detailed dating at Lepanto (Hedenquist et al. 1998) supports the late stage high gold
mineralisation being part of the same mineralising system. The presence of low
sulphidation gold veining nearby at the Victoria deposit also suggests late stage convection.
However, at El Indio there may be as much as a three to five million year gap between the
two types of mineralisation (Kay and Mpodozis, 1999).
It is almost inevitable that the magmatic water dominated systems which produce high
sulphidation deposits will evolve into meteoric water dominated systems with time, and so
produce a low sulphidation style of overprinting. An exception might be where there is
very little groundwater, and this (together with the shallow level of exposure) might explain
the absence of low sulphidation mineralisation in the arid Yanacocha district.
10. Supergene Alteration
The abundance of pyrite and the absence of neutralising minerals (since the rock has
already been altered by acid) mean that very acid supergene solutions can form from high
sulphidation deposits. The main effect is to dissolve out the sulphosalts, thus reducing
environmental problems in the disposal of tailings and increasing the leachability of gold,
which mainly stays in place. Supergene transport of gold requires that either there is a
source of chloride to form gold chloride complexes in the acid solution or the solution is
partially neutralised such that gold thiosulphate complexes can form.
In arid climates (unless saline groundwaters are present) where there is little neutralisation
of the acid supergene solution the gold is left behind and there is a small amount of
enrichment as the result of the removal of other material. The remaining iron oxide silica
ore is however very amenable to heap leaching. As a result even low-grade ores can be
economically worked, an important factor for deposits lacking a late stage overprint.
Where there is high rainfall it is possible that there could be some neutralisation to allow
thiosulphate complexes to form, and the gold could be leached and the leachate percolate
down to be near the top of the water table where reduction and further neutralisation to
cause gold deposition. Such deposits with gold enrichment at the water table have been
identified. However, at the Nena deposit in PNG, where there is heavy rainfall, the gold is
still retained in the upper oxide cap.

03 - Hi Sulfidation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

03 - Hi Sulfidation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

High Sulphidation Epithermal

1. Epithermal Deposit Classification and Identifying Features 2

2. High Sulphidation Deposits: Introduction 4

6. Distinguishing Potential High Sulphidation Mineralisation

7. Modern Day Analogues 13

10. Supergene Alteration 18

1. Epithermal Deposit Classification and Identifying Features

High sulphidation deposits are also known as acid-sulphate deposits, enargite-gold

Table 1: Characteristics of acid-sulphate (high sulphidation) and

2. High Sulphidation Deposits: Introduction

High sulphidation epithermal gold deposits are a shallow manifestation of porphyry

Porous silica Subvolcanic basement

Propylitic Alteration Porphyritic stock

Paleosurface Style Alteration Sulphides Metals

Ignimbrite Dacite dome Ignimbrite

4.1 Shallow Epithermal High Sulphidation Deposits

4.2 Deep Epithermal High Sulphidation Deposits

4.3 Porphyry Hosted High Sulphidation Deposits

5. Controls on Depth of Emplacement of Mineralisation

6. Distinguishing Potential High Sulphidation Mineralisation from Similar

Clues as to the nature of the alteration system can be gained from:

 Associated mineralogy: Barite and zunyite are of importance as these can be

Deeper, more base-metal-rich mineralisation is accompanied by advanced argillic alteration

Oxygen and sulphur isotope systematics for alunite

7. Modern Day Analogues

Bicarbonate waters Acid sulphate waters Degassing rock

8.1 Vapour Transport of Metals

In these systems, emplacement of a shallow intrusive has permitted the venting of a

8.2 Production of Acid

8.3 Metal Deposition

Cu3AsS4 + 3H+ + 3HCl + H2  3CuCl + As3+ + 4H2S (1)

4SO2 + 4H2O  H2S + 3H2SO4 (2)

Au(HS)° + 1/2H2  Au + H2S (3)

9. Late Stage Gold Mineralisation

10. Supergene Alteration

You might also like