06 - PaleoHydro Reconstruct

Paleohydrological Reconstruction
Module 6
Paleohydrological Reconstruction Contents i
Contents
1. Objectives 1
2. Techniques 1
2.1 Paleoisotherms 2
2.2 Chemical Zonation 4
2.3 Locating Boiling Zones 4
2.4 Lithological and Structural Control 5
2.5 Post-Depositional Tectonism 5
3 Interpretation 5
3.1 Depth of Erosion 6
3.2 Faulting 10
3.3 Tilting 10
3.4 Overprinting: The Fourth Dimension 11
3.4.1 Prograde Overprinting 12
3.4.2 Retrograde Overprinting 13
3.4.3 Other Overprinting 16
4 Putting it to Work: Building a Predictive Model 18
/conversion/tmp/scratch/457208154.doc\280120\JVL:jsgjr
Revision E: Jun 00: J1217211: A 
Paleohydrological Reconstruction 1
1. Objectives
The objective of paleohydrological reconstruction is to find an ore deposit! It is the

scientific reasoning on which exploration strategy and direction at a prospect scale should
be based. Once an occurrence of hydrothermal mineralisation has been located, the
objective is to develop a model of the hydrothermal system responsible for mineralisation
in time and space, and then use this to predict the location of potentially economic zones.
To do this, it is necessary to determine the directions of fluid flow, the conditions
controlling permeability, and the physico-chemical conditions in the hydrothermal system,
in as much detail as possible. Plotting isotherms is one major tool, but other factors such
as chemical zonation, the location of boiling zones, lithological controls and post-
depositional tectonics need to be taken into account. Paleohydrology is more important in
epithermal deposits than in porphyry deposits, since porphyry deposits spatially vary less
in temperatures both laterally and vertically.
2. Techniques
The foundation of any paleohydrological analysis must be detailed and accurate

description, including geological mapping, and logging of trenches and drillcore,
supplemented by sound investigation of the petrology. Small errors at this stage (for
example, assuming that a trench has reached in situ outcrop when it has not) can lead to
major errors in interpretation. The petrological techniques selected will depend on the
nature of the deposit. They could include several of the techniques available, such as thin
and polished section petrography, XRD analysis, fluid inclusion studies, isotopic and
dating work. Other relevant information may come from assay data, which should include
a range of elements, and not just gold.
Generally, more than one batch of petrology would be carried out as exploration progresses
through surface mapping and trenching to drilling. The first petrology work might identify
the general characteristics of the deposit, and later studies investigate certain aspects (eg.
breccias) in more detail. Petrography will always be the most useful basic technique, but
XRD or PIMA analyses alone, for example, may be a useful supplement for mapping
alteration zonation over a wide area at minimal cost, once the basic mineralogy is
understood. The results from the various techniques should be interpreted as to their
implications regarding the temperature, chemistry, fluid flow channels, and physical
processes during mineralisation, while remembering the limitations of each technique.
Once this process is complete, a picture of the hydrothermal system should become clear.
It may well be apparent that only part of the system has so far been explored. The
question to ask in that case is “What part of the system are we dealing with?”, and “Is it an
upflow or an outflow zone? How deep in the system are we looking?, and Where is the rest
of it?”
2.1 Paleoisotherms
Once the data are available, selected aspects should be plotted on a map. It is important to
take note of the elevation of the samples, especially in shallow systems, because of the
temperatures increased with depth. It is advisable not to present too much data. For
example, with regard to mineralogy, only plot the occurrence of species that have some
geothermometric significance. Thus, it is not necessary to record the occurrence of
secondary quartz. The phyllosilicates are generally the most important phases, but others
such as epidote should also be added.
The nature of the host lithologies needs to be taken into account. For example, if the host
rocks contain detrital illite or primary biotite, then the occurrence of illite on XRD analyses
is not of any significance to the hydrothermal system. Also, a mineral will only form in
rocks that have suitable chemistry; for example minerals like epidote, prehnite and
amphibole will only form where there is sufficient Fe, Mg and Ca, so will be absent from
most quartzofeldspathic lithologies and zones of strong phyllic alteration. However these
minerals may be abundant in interbedded mafic lithologies, so sampling should be
representative, and not too focused on the areas of intense alteration and veining.
Relevant fluid inclusion data should be plotted on the same map. Any apparent mis-
matches between the mineralogical temperatures and the fluid inclusion data should be
investigated. They may be indicating more than one episode of mineralisation, or they may
result from boiling, or the need for a pressure correction to the fluid inclusion data.
A first attempt can then be made at drawing isotherms by contouring between points where
formation temperatures are known (Figure 1). If there appears to be a complex history, it
may be necessary to draw two versions, one representing the early alteration and one
perhaps showing late-stage veins (Figure 2).
I Ad
240° Sm
Ep I Ad 180° Op Crs
Ep I I-Sm Ccd
Ep I Ad
200°
Ser 220° Ka Alu
Ep I
260° 280° I 240°
Ser 300° Ep I l
Gt Amp I
Ep Amp Bt Gt Alu Op
Mt Bt Gt Ep I
Kfs I
Gt Ep Kfs Dk
I 220° Pyp
Ep Ser Ad Ep Ser Ka Alu
Ep I I-Sm 200°
Ep Ser Ccd
Ad I Hll Crs
I-Sm 180°
260°
Ep I Ep I Sm
240° I Ad
k:geo\lec\min\99min\18\ai21
Figure 1: Plotting isotherms based on mineralogy

Directions of hydrological flow may then start to become apparent, by comparison with
models of active systems (Figure 3).
Early system
Late vein system
I Ep Samples from host rock and older veins
Ka Alu Samples from late-stage veins I-Sm Sm
240°
Ka Alu
I-Sm I I Op
260°
I Ep I Kfs Sm
Ep Ad 280° Dk
Ep Ser 30 Pyp
0
Bt Gt ° Ser I Ep
Gt Amp Amp Amp Ep Dsp
Ser Ep Ksp Ser Dk
Gt Amp
Kfs Pyp I Ep I
22 0°
Ser Ep
0°
20
Dsp
I Ad Ep Ad I Ep I-Sm
I Kfs Dk
Alu
I Ka Alu
I-Sm
Crs Alu Op
Figure 2: Separating data into two different events
Note: This is the same area as Figure 1
240°
180°
200°
220°
260° 280° 240°
OUTFLOW 300° OUTFLOW
UPFLOW
220°
200°
260°
180°
240°
Figure 3: Interpreting paleo-flow directions
2.2 Chemical Zonation
Indications of fluid chemistry are best obtained from the alteration and vein mineralogy.
One obvious feature to look for is mineralogical indicators of acid fluids (eg. advanced
argillic assemblages). The locations of these zones, including their morphology and
elevation, should be critically examined in the light of knowledge of the mechanisms in
active systems. Are the acid zones in a near-horizontal layer at high elevation, or do they
appear to be restricted to structural zones? Was the acid fluid ascending or descending? Is
a metasomatic gradient away from the vein discernible? Are there indicators of magmatic
volatiles, such as zunyite or tourmaline? Thus we can distinguish between a shallow
lithocap or deeper acid fluids of magmatic origin (or perhaps both), and determine whether
mixing could have played a role in mineralisation.
The assay data represents a significant chemical database that relates to the mineralising
system. Particularly useful information that can be gained from the assay results is the
variation in the Au/Ag ratios (once any supergene effects have been removed). There is
generally a trend of increasing Ag relative to Au going down an outflow, owing to the
tendency of gold to rapidly deposit from hydrothermal solutions. Thus areas with high
Au/Ag ratios should lie closer to the upflow.
Additional information regarding fluid chemistry may be gained from fluid inclusion
freezing (salinity) data. The salinity of hydrothermal fluids decreases according to the
proportion of meteoric water present, and so is generally highest in the upflow region.
However, the changes in salinity with time are likely to be far greater than any changes
along an outflow, so this should only be used for inclusions from a single point in time (eg.
a particular marker zone within a vein system).
The chemical data can be plotted on suitable overlays and compared with the temperature
information. It may assist in establishing where there has been overprinting of one type of
system on another (eg. Figure 2).
2.3 Locating Boiling Zones
The occurrence of boiling zones should likewise be interpreted. Are these in a near-
horizontal layer, or in near-vertical structures? Do they correlate with zones of
hydrothermal brecciation?
Boiling is commonly indicated by mineralogy and fluid inclusions. The mineralogical

features of boiling include the vein assemblage of quartz + adularia + calcite, and by platy
calcite crystals (which are usually pseudomorphed by quartz). In addition, primary fluid
inclusions comprise both liquid-rich and vapour-rich fluid inclusions, owing to these
having sampled primary fluids that contained both steam and water. Homogenisation of
such populations of liquid and vapour-rich inclusions will yield an anomalously wide
spread of temperatures.
2.4 Lithological and Structural Control
Depending on the type of hydrothermal system, mineralisation will be focused in either

structural or lithological zones. Is there any relationship (positive or negative) between
mineralisation and lithologies, or with major folds or faults? An absence of mineralisation
from certain lithologies may be because they post-date mineralisation, or they were
impermeable or unreactive to the mineralising fluids. A positive correlation of
mineralisation with certain lithologies will indicate that fluids were channelled within those
lithologies, and/or specifically precipitated within those lithologies. The former will result
from high permeability, and the latter from a reactive chemistry (eg. carbonate units).
If mineralisation is structurally controlled, it will be focused into a linear zone or zones

that are generally vertical or near-vertical. It is therefore worth completing detailed
structural mapping around the mineralised zone, with the aim of distinguishing pre-, syn-,
and post-mineralisation structures.
2.5 Post-Depositional Tectonism
The recognition of samples that are apparently anomalous, or an unusual juxtaposition of

features may be indicative of post-depositional tectonic activity. For example, if low
temperature mineralogy is preserved in one part of a prospect, and it is not obviously
overprinting earlier alteration, it may have been downfaulted. Such tectonism may be
significant, as one block may overlie buried mineralisation, or may be uplifted and eroded
to below the level of mineralisation.
3 Interpretation
Every hydrothermal system has its own unique combination of features, and there is no
single textbook model that can be applied to them all. Instead, we must use all of our
geological knowledge and skills to build a four dimensional model of the system(s) that we
are dealing with (eg. Figure 4).
Fossil hydrothermal systems are rarely preserved in a pristine state. Even in active
systems, frequent faulting is the rule, and erosion may lead to overprinting of alteration.
There may also be considerable post-mineralisation tectonism. Distinguishing between
syn- and post-mineralisation tectonism is important, as mineralised zones may have been
concealed by faulting or tilting in the latter case. The amount of post-mineralisation
tectonism can be significant, even in very young deposits. For example, volcanic rocks
containing epithermal mineralisation at Vuda in Fiji have undergone at least 1.8km of uplift
since the Pliocene, and now dip at up to 85°, with large fault displacements.
Distal zone:- temperature right but Note: This is the same area as Figure 1
insufficient fluid flow and boiling to
promote economic mineralisation
High elevation terrain:-
barren lithocap
240°
180° Target possible satelite
200° boiling zones?
220°
260° 240° OUTFLOW
280°
OUTFLOW 300°
UPFLOW
220°
200°
260° 180°
Target concealed boiling zone?

240°
DO
Centre of system:-
W
Now too deeply eroded for economic
UP
N FA
gold mineralisation - but possibly
deeper porphyry target?
UL
T
Figure 4: Modelling the hydrothermal system
3.1 Depth of Erosion
The first step is to estimate the depth of erosion of the system, at the current ground
surface. An approximation can be made on the basis of the alteration mineralogy, and the
boiling-point-for-depth curve. If a vertically extensive set of data is available, the inferred
temperatures can be plotted on a vertical profile, and this compared to a bpd curve at a
suitable scale (Figure 5). But this is rarely the case unless an existing underground mine is
being reviewed, or there is extreme vertical relief as in parts of Irian Jaya. More
commonly only surface and shallow drillhole data are available. In this case, the highest
temperature secondary mineralogy can be used to predict a minimum depth of erosion.
For example, if illite occurs, a minimum temperature of 230°C is indicated, and a

minimum depth of erosion of 315m since the deposition of the illite can be inferred (Figure
6a). The occurrence of phases indicating lower temperatures in the same samples is not
relevant, as they could have been deposited later by cooler fluids. But it is necessary to
critically examine the assumptions in this conclusion:
 Illite can be formed at temperatures over 230°C, so the depth of erosion is a

minimum estimate (Figure 6b).
 The fluids may have been two phase, in which case the bpd gradient would have
been much less steep, and the depth of erosion must be greater. This particularly
applies to samples in which there is evidence for boiling. In this case a bpd gradient
is definitely inapplicable (Figure 6c).
 The paleo-piezometric surface may have been at some considerable depth beneath
the ground surface. As we have seen from the example of an active Philippine
system, a depth to the water table of 500 m is not uncommon (Figure 6d).
All of these factors mean that a depth of erosion estimate is always a minimum, and it may
be a gross underestimate.
Temperature, °C
100 140 180 220 260 300 340
Paleosurface
100 Erosion
Present surface
200
I-Sm
300 (FI data
I probably
400 Ep spurious
I due to
500
Depth, m
boiling)
600
Ep
700
bpd
800
Gt
curv
900
e
1000
Bt
1100 Key:
Mineral occurrence with temperature range
1200
Histogram of fluid inclusion data
1300 k:\geo\lec\min\99min\18\ai40a
Figure 5: Comparing mineral geothermometry with bpd profile
Temperature, °C
Paleosurface = 100 140 180 220 260 300 340
Water Table
100
200 Erosion 315m

300
400 Illite occurs at 230°

500
Depth, m
bp
600
d
cu
700
rve
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
k:geo\lec\min\99min\18\ai44a
Paleosurface =
Temperature, °C
100 140 180 220 260 300 340
Water Table
100
200
Depth of
300
erosion:
400 315 - 660m
500
Depth, m
600
700
bpd
800
Illite could have formed anywhere
curv
900 in this temperature range.

e
1000
1100
1200
1300
k:geo\lec\min\99min\18\ai41a
Figure 6: Depth of erosion based on the occurrence of illite

A: Basic assumption
B: Illite formed at more than the minimum temperature
Temperature, °C
Paleosurface = 100 140 180 220 260 300 340
Water Table
100
200
300
Minimum depth of
400 erosion 710m
Two-phase
500 Zone
Depth, m
600
bpd
700
cur
Illite
Ac
800
ve
tu
al
900
tem
pe
1000
ra
tur
1100
e p
1200
rofi
1300
le
Temperature, °C
Paleosurface 100 140 180 220 260 300 340
100
200
300 Depth of
erosion
400 800m
Water Table
500
Depth, m
600
Ac
bpd
700 t ua
l
curv
800 Illite
te
e
m
900
pe
ra
1000
t
ur
e
1100
pro
file
1200
1300
k:geo\lec\min\99min\18\42a
Figure 6: Depth of erosion based on the occurrence of illite

C: Two-phase temperature gradient
D: Water table not at paleosurface
3.2 Faulting
Faulting during mineralisation will not have a great effect on the alteration zoning, though
it may be very important as a mechanism for mineralisation. Faulting after mineralisation
can displace sectors of alteration zoning upwards or downwards. This may be apparent
from the isotherms: do they show samples with high and low temperatures in close
proximity? Faulting should be suspected especially if the temperature gradient implied
between the samples exceeds those that are common in active systems, or if the zone of
dislocation appears to be linear (Figure 7). Quite small fault displacements (a few tens of
metres) may be able to be interpreted from fluid inclusion data, if these are derived from a
consistent zone, eg. a single quartz vein. It is important, though, to ensure that
temperatures of the same age are being compared.
Any hypothesis of faulting developed from the alteration zoning should then be critically
compared with the field data. Is there any field evidence for a fault in the location
predicted? Does the sense of movement fit into the regional tectonic pattern?
18
0° d
te
Up ula
st lt
Po Fau
Down
28 180
°
0°
26 260
0° °
18 24 240
0° 0° °
22 220
0° °
180
°
k:geo\lec\min\99min\18\aj20
Figure 7:
Fault postulated on the basis of displaced isotherms (plan view)
3.3 Tilting
As well as faulting, regional tilting can be important in tectonically active areas such as
island arcs. This can be more subtle and harder to detect than faulting, but is also
important. A post-mineralisation tilt of 15° would cause over 500m of vertical
displacement over a lateral distance of 2 kilometres. If the paleohydrology was being
assessed on the basis of a boiling-point-for-depth gradient, an apparent vertical
displacement of 500m would lead to a possible difference in the placement of isotherms of

as much as 160°C (Figure 8). The questions to ask are whether the hydrological gradients
implied by the isotherms are consistent, and do they make sense in terms of models of
active systems? If not, the data should be examined to see if there is a systematic trend,
and is so, whether this can be explained by post-mineralisation tilting. Once again, the
inferred displacements should be critically examined to see if they make sense in terms of
the regional tectonics.
Paleos
15° urface
(Orig inally fl
Tilt at)
Centre of system
Present surface
(now flat) 140
160°°
180
200°°
220°
500
240°
260°
500
m
Figure 8:
Effect of post-mineralisation regional tilting. Note that a
spurious lateral temperature gradient is apparent
3.4 Overprinting: The Fourth Dimension
We should not simply assume that all minerals formed at the same time in a stable
hydrothermal system, which after some time suddenly froze and preserved everything
intact. In contrast, most hydrothermal systems are not stable for long (in the geological
sense), and when conditions change, then a new set of reactions will work to produce a new
equilibrium assemblage: this is known as overprinting. Such changes generally affect the
fluid temperature, pH, or chemistry, or possibly all three, and the changes themselves may
be associated with mineralisation.
In a stable hydrothermal system, provided there is sufficient permeability, reactions

between fluids and rocks will eventually produce a secondary mineral assemblage that is in
equilibrium both internally, and with the fluid, at the prevailing conditions. A change in
conditions may be prograde (producing assemblages of higher rank), retrograde (producing
lower rank assemblages) or neither (due to differences in fluid chemistry or state, rather
than temperature or pressure). If overprinting reactions are sufficiently complete, there
may be no remnants of the prior assemblage left. However, usually some minerals are
preserved because they are resistant to alteration or they are enclosed in a resistant
mineral, while others may be recognisable from crystal pseudomorphs. Prior generations
of veining or fluid inclusion data might also indicate that overprinting has occurred.
There are two very good reasons for carefully examining overprinting. Firstly, to isolate
the alteration that represents the system at the time of mineralisation, and secondly because
the process of mineralisation may be closely related to the process that caused
overprinting. So, in addition to plotting temperature, chemistry etc. on maps and cross
sections, we must also consider variations over time, the fourth dimension.
3.4.1 Prograde Overprinting
In hydrothermal systems, prograde overprinting commonly results from a rise in

temperature, though it could also result from deeper burial. A rise in temperature may be
due to heating in response to renewed magmatism (e.g. emplacement of a shallow intrusive
body). If a system is already at or near a boiling point for depth profile, it will not sustain
higher temperatures unless the pressures increase. This can occur if the water level is
raised or permeability is sufficiently low for lithostatic pressures to be contained, even
temporarily. If the water level is already near the surface, more rock must be added before
the water level can be raised. This may occur by the gradual accumulation of material, as
in submarine hydrothermal systems and VHMS deposits, or by sudden accumulation of
material, as in caldera basins.
Renewed magmatism:
With renewed magmatism, the boiling point for depth profile is commonly exceeded, so
catastrophic phreatic eruptions occur at the surface, with hydrothermal brecciation and
boiling at depth. The sudden boiling and loss of gas result in destabilisation of bisulphide
complexes, and deposition of gold and other metals at depth. Overprinting may follow
such an event, but usually takes longer to achieve, occurring after the hydrothermal system
has returned to a stable temperature profile at or below that of boiling point for depth
conditions. This may require elevation of the water table and/or a decline in the heat flux
into the system.
Magmatic activity has been documented in historical times at several active geothermal
systems, including Rotomahana in New Zealand (1886), Suoh in Indonesia (1933), and
Pinatubo in the Philippines (1991). The effects on the hydrothermal system are commonly
overshadowed by the volcanic effects (e.g. Pinatubo), since the phreatic/ phreatomagmatic
eruptions are generally smaller and less spectacular than volcanic eruptions (although at
Rotomahana the reverse was true). Phreatomagmatic eruptions were observed at Suoh in
1933, and the system there still maintains a boiling point for depth profile today. Possible
effects on the geothermal system are illustrated in Figure 9.
At Kelian (Kalimantan), mineralisation coincided with prograde overprinting due to

renewed magmatic activity at a waning hydrothermal system. There was little in the way
of mineralogical change, because this event was so short-lived. Evidence remains in the
form of late stage, hot, saline fluid inclusions, a large phreatomagmatic breccia body, and a
large gold deposit (Van Leeuwen et al. 1990). The same mechanism has probably
occurred in many other mineralised systems, but the temperature transient may often be too
temporary to cause significant recognisable overprinting.
Temperature (°C)
100 150 200 250 300 350
0
200
Renewed
400 x
magmatism
600
Accumulation
Depth (m)
of material
800
10% NaCl
1000
(1.7 m)
Pure
1200
Water
1400
4.4% CO2
(I.0 m)
1600 BPD.xls
BPD.xls
k:geo\lec\min\98min\mod1\figbpd.ppt
Figure 9:
Temperature - depth diagram, showing the likely effects of
renewed magmatism and accumulation of material on a fixed
point in a hydrothermal system. Also shown are hydrostatic
boiling point for depth curves for pure water, and 10% NaCl and
4.4% CO2 solutions (from Henley 1985)
Accumulation of material:
Prograde overprinting may also arise from more gradual changes (Figure 9), such as where
the land surface is subsiding, with accumulation of material during the course of
hydrothermal activity, or where there is a rising water table (due to climatic change,
tectonic activity, etc.). Examples are submarine hydrothermal systems, and systems
located within structural basins or calderas in which epiclastic and/or pyroclastic deposits
are accumulating. Although these changes may seem rapid from a human perspective, the
consequent temperature increase is gradual, and will not in itself cause mineralisation.
3.4.2 Retrograde Overprinting
Retrograde overprinting (also known as telescoping) generally results from a temperature

decline. A drop in temperature may be due to gradual cooling of a hydrothermal system at
it wanes. It is thus almost inevitable in fossil hydrothermal systems, and for this reason is
more common than prograde overprinting. During decline of a hydrothermal system, early
minerals are commonly overprinted by a kaolinite-carbonate assemblage (especially the Fe-
Mg carbonates: dolomite, siderite and ankerite). This is because once the system stops
convecting, the peripheral acid bicarbonate fluids that are in equilibrium with these
minerals encroach onto the central dilute neutral chloride fluids.
However, cooling at a given point can also occur following lowering of the water level.
This may be due to climatic change, or the removal of a volume of rock from the surface;
either a gradual loss of material by erosion, or sudden loss due to volcanic eruption or
sector collapse. Volcanic eruptions also have other effects on hydrothermal systems
(including heating), but sector collapses can occur in the absence of recent volcanic
activity.
Sector collapse:
Major sector collapses have been recognised at many active geothermal fields, including
Papandayan in West Java (1772), Muria in Central Java (undated) and Lihir in Papua New
Guinea. Sector collapse structures are often mistakenly identified as calderas. There are
important differences between the two, both in terms of their origins, and their effects on a
hydrothermal system.
A caldera is a large volcanic depression formed by the downward collapse of the

ground surface above a magma chamber during an eruption. Calderas are typically
kilometres to tens of kilometres across. Caldera-forming eruptions produce
pyroclastic deposits, which are generally fine grained and distributed more or less
evenly around the caldera (depending on wind direction and strength at the time of
eruption). The caldera basin itself will be partially to completely infilled with
eruption deposits and slumped material from the caldera walls, so that a point on the
original land surface will be buried. Up to 50% of the erupted pyroclastic material
may fall back into the caldera basin, especially in the largest calderas, where it can
be as much as 5 km thick (Lipman 1984). As an example, the 1883 eruption of
Krakatau ejected some 18km3 of dacitic pyroclastics and produced a caldera
measuring 6 km by 7 km.
A sector collapse is the lateral (outward) collapse of part of a volcano to form a

large debris flow (Figure 10), and may or may not be associated with an eruption.
Sector collapses may be up to several kilometres across. They produce coarse
epiclastic sector collapse deposits that extend out as a fan on one side of a volcano.
Following sector collapse and lateral removal of the collapsed material, a point
originally at depth will be exposed at the surface. For example, in 1980 a sector
collapse removed 2.3 km3 of material during the eruption of Mt. St. Helens, leaving
a large amphitheatre with a steep back slope (Voight et al. 1981).
Cross sections through sector collapse

cones and collapse calderas
A B
Normally faulted
down-dropped block
Bezymianny Trapdoor caldera
Collapse along
St. Helens
outward-dipping faults
Bandai Caldera subsidence

on vertical faults
Iriga Collapse into a small

vent during eruption
Simple downsag or
Galunggung flexure without faulting
Figure 10:
k:geo\lect\min\99\mod02\Afig2.ppt
A: Cross sections of composite cones that have undergone
sector collapse (from Siebert 1984), and B: Schematic cross
sections through different types of calderas (from Wohletz and
Heiken 1992, after Walker 1984)
A sector collapse above a hydrothermal system will suddenly reduce the confining
pressure, which may result in hydrothermal brecciation, boiling and mineralisation. The
effects are similar to those of renewed magmatism, but with a different mechanism;
decreased confining pressure, rather than increased temperature (Figure 11). A sudden
pressure decrease can have the same effect on a hydrothermal system as sudden heating,
pushing the system beyond boiling point for depth conditions. However, in this case the
temperature will decrease rather than increase (though more slowly than the pressure
decreased), causing retrograde overprinting. In contrast, caldera collapse is likely to result
in prograde overprinting.
An example of mineralisation that can be attributed to the effects of sector collapse and
retrograde overprinting is the giant Ladolam gold deposit on Lihir Island (PNG). Here
there was a porphyry system, with potassic alteration and incipient Au-Cu mineralisation
forming at depth beneath a clay-altered volcanic pile. A massive sector collapse of the
weak clay-altered material exposed the top of the porphyry system. The sudden large
pressure drop that occurred during this collapse resulted in massive brecciation and
boiling, so that epithermal mineralisation was superimposed on the porphyry system
(Moyle et al. 1990). Several features indicate that Lihir is a sector collapse, rather than a
caldera, including exposed monzonitic intrusives and high temperature overprinted by low
temperature alteration within the “caldera”. Furthermore, rather than producing
pyroclastic deposits, coarse epiclastic debris flow deposits extend tens of kilometres
offshore to the northeast (Herzig et al. 1994).
Temperature (°C)
100 150 200 250 300 350
0
Sector collapse
200
Erosion,
cooling,
tectonics Renewed
400
Gradual
x
magmatism
cooling
600 Accumulation
of material
Depth (m)
Caldera
800
collapse
10% NaCl
1000
(1.7 m)
Pure
1200
Water
1400
4.4% CO2
(I.0 m)
1600 BPD.xls
BPD.xls
k:geo\lec\min\98min\mod1\figbpd.ppt
Figure 11:
Temperature - depth diagram, showing the likely effects on a
hydrothermal system of sector collapse, caldera collapse, gradual
cooling and erosion/cooling/tectonic activity
Erosion, cooling or tectonic activity:

Many hydrothermal systems are located in areas of active uplift and tectonism, and it is
possible for a system to be uplifted and eroded to considerable depth over its lifetime.
Gradual changes due to slow uplift or declining temperatures in a waning hydrothermal
system will produce retrograde overprinting, or telescoping, as discussed by Sillitoe
(1994a). Such telescoping due to gradual uplift will generally not cause mineralisation,
but sudden pressure changes accompanying tectonic activity might. Mineralisation and
retrograde overprinting at Porgera (PNG) could result from repeated sudden pressure
fluctuations associated with tectonic activity during uplift and erosion of a mesothermal
system.
3.4.3 Other Overprinting
Overprinting may reflect changes in fluid chemistry, or changes from liquid-dominated to

vapour-dominated conditions. For example, many high sulphidation systems evolve into
low sulphidation systems as the surrounding groundwaters are heated and begin to convect,
producing a meteoric water dominated system. However, these changes in themselves are
not likely to cause mineralisation, except where they are associated with processes such as
boiling or mixing of different fluids. Mineralisation in such systems is generally related to
one or other state of the system, rather than to the process of overprinting. For example, at
Masupa Ria (Indonesia), high and low-sulphidation epithermal systems are superimposed,
but mineralisation is principally associated with the low-sulphidation event (Thompson et
al. 1994).
4 Putting it to Work: Building a Predictive Model
The final step in the process, once a picture of the hydrothermal system has been erected, is
to ask where in the system mineralisation is likely to have occurred. Obviously a
knowledge of ore grades is very helpful in this process: all available data should be
examined. By comparison with models of active hydrothermal systems, it may be possible
to determine how the observed mineralisation fits into the hydrothermal system, and thence
to predict where more/larger/richer deposits occur. Unless the model can be used for
prediction, then it is of no value to locating an economic deposit!
The target zones for epithermal mineralisation may well not be the most central, hottest
part of the hydrothermal system, as this may be eroded below the epithermal level.
Similarly in porphyry deposits, the central pluton itself may not carry the highest grades.
Better mineralisation may be encountered on the flanks, or within a certain temperature
zone away from the main intrusive.

06 - PaleoHydro Reconstruct

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

06 - PaleoHydro Reconstruct

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Paleohydrological Reconstruction

4 Putting it to Work: Building a Predictive Model 18

The objective of paleohydrological reconstruction is to find an ore deposit! It is the

The foundation of any paleohydrological analysis must be detailed and accurate

Figure 1: Plotting isotherms based on mineralogy

Figure 2: Separating data into two different events

Note: This is the same area as Figure 1

Figure 3: Interpreting paleo-flow directions

2.2 Chemical Zonation

2.3 Locating Boiling Zones

Boiling is commonly indicated by mineralogy and fluid inclusions. The mineralogical

2.4 Lithological and Structural Control

Depending on the type of hydrothermal system, mineralisation will be focused in either

If mineralisation is structurally controlled, it will be focused into a linear zone or zones

2.5 Post-Depositional Tectonism

The recognition of samples that are apparently anomalous, or an unusual juxtaposition of

Target concealed boiling zone?

Figure 4: Modelling the hydrothermal system

3.1 Depth of Erosion

For example, if illite occurs, a minimum temperature of 230°C is indicated, and a

 Illite can be formed at temperatures over 230°C, so the depth of erosion is a

Figure 5: Comparing mineral geothermometry with bpd profile

200 Erosion 315m

400 Illite occurs at 230°

900 in this temperature range.

Figure 6: Depth of erosion based on the occurrence of illite

Figure 6: Depth of erosion based on the occurrence of illite

displacement of 500m would lead to a possible difference in the placement of isotherms of

3.4 Overprinting: The Fourth Dimension

In a stable hydrothermal system, provided there is sufficient permeability, reactions

3.4.1 Prograde Overprinting

In hydrothermal systems, prograde overprinting commonly results from a rise in

At Kelian (Kalimantan), mineralisation coincided with prograde overprinting due to

3.4.2 Retrograde Overprinting

Retrograde overprinting (also known as telescoping) generally results from a temperature

A caldera is a large volcanic depression formed by the downward collapse of the

A sector collapse is the lateral (outward) collapse of part of a volcano to form a

Cross sections through sector collapse

Bezymianny Trapdoor caldera

Bandai Caldera subsidence

Iriga Collapse into a small

Erosion, cooling or tectonic activity:

3.4.3 Other Overprinting

Overprinting may reflect changes in fluid chemistry, or changes from liquid-dominated to

4 Putting it to Work: Building a Predictive Model

You might also like