HIGH ALTITUDE SUSTAINABLE

ARCHITECTURE | LEH, LADAKH

NAME: SYED KHWAJA ABID

DATE: 15/11/2018

ROLL NUMBER: A/2880/2015

YEAR: 4th SECTION: C

NAME OF GUIDE: MS. KOMIKA WALIA

NAME OF COORDINATOR: PROF. ARPITA DAYAL

 ABSTRACT

The traditional construction in Leh, Ladakh extensively uses earth. It is used in walls,
foundations, roof, as binding material, and as plaster. It is abundantly available everywhere
and thus is cheap. It works exceptionally well in the harsh cold climate as it acts as a good
insulator as well as thermal mass. In the last decade, Leh experienced a boom in tourism and
demand of guest houses and hotels increased rapidly resulting in locals opting for a material
which allows a faster speed of construction, concrete. RCC. frame structures with concrete
block walls grew popular amongst the locals but little did they knew that this material is
unsuitable for the cold climate as it is a good conductor and residents are forced to use
artificial heating to keep the interiors warm at night. There is also a misbelief among the
locals that concrete is stronger than mud although there are several monasteries and palaces
all over Ladakh built with mud and stone standing for several centuries. There arises a need
for a construction material which is suitable for the extremely cold climate and also takes less
time for construction to match the speed of the rapidly growing urban centre.

What is the optimum material and construction technique for Leh, Ladakh?

Leh is also an eco-sensitive region facing climate change and acute water scarcity, therefore
the construction techniques should also focus on energy efficiency. The region experiences a
high amount of solar radiation throughout the year and thus, passive solar strategies can be
easily incorporated in buildings to capture this solar radiation and use it to heat the spaces
inside reducing the amount of extra energy required to artificially heat it. Although many
architects are currently using such techniques, the locals still remain unaware, promoting
the bad construction practices throughout the city. Research needs to be done to find a
construction technique which satisfies the needs of the growing tourist population but is also
environment-friendly.

Keywords: Earth, Concrete, Energy efficiency, Passive solar, Construction technique

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 DECLARATION

The research work embodied in this dissertation titled

High Altitude Sustainable Architecture | Leh Ladakh
has been carried out by the undersigned as part of the undergraduate Dissertation programme
in the Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi,
under the supervision of Ms. Komika Walia.
The undersigned hereby declares that this is his/her original work and has not been
plagiarised in part or full form from any source.

Name of student: Syed Khwaja Abid

Roll No.: A/2880/2015
Date: 15.11.18

(Signature of student) (Signature of guide)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The research paper presented here would not have been possible without the guidance
and support of Prof. Arpita Dayal, coordinator for her relentless pursuit of high academic
standards, the can-do attitude and imbibing professional ethics have helped this project to
meet its completion.

Thanks to Ms. Komika Walia, guide for her continuous support and help in the framing of
this report. She was always available for me whenever I had a doubt.

My parents who supported me for going to Leh, Ladakh and encourage me in every new
learning step I take.

Special thanks to Ar. Rishav Paul, my mentor in Leh who shared with me his knowledge of
Ladakhi architecture and supported me throughout the project whenever I had troubles.

Thanks to Pandurang Sagbhor, with whom I was working with in Leh, for encouraging me to
pick up this topic for my dissertation.

Thanks to my friends in the planning and development team of LEDeG who made my stay in
Leh memorable.

Syed Khwaja Abid

A/2880/2015
School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi

Date: 15.11.18

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CHAPTER OUTLINE

CHAPTER 1: Introduction 9
1.1. Research Question 10
1.2. Aim 11
1.3. Objectives 11
1.4. Scope 11
1.5. Limitations 11
1.6. Research Methodology 12

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review 13

2.1. Vernacular materials and building techniques 13
2.2. Passive Solar basics 14
2.3. Alternative materials: CSEB; Earthen construction 19

CHAPTER 3: The past, present and future of Leh 24

3.1. Past: Vernacular Architecture of Leh; Leh old town; Case study; Pros & Cons 24
3.2. Present: Conventional building techniques in the present times; Shift from
traditional to mordern building materials; Case study; Pros & Cons 31
3.3. Future: Climate Responsive Architecture; Solar Active & Passive
technologies; Case study; Pros & Cons 33

CHAPTER 4: Comparative Analysis of the past, present and future 43

4.1. Carbon footprint and energy efficiency 43

CHAPTER 5: Findings and Recomendations 46

5.1. Achieving higher energy efficiency in buildings 46

CHAPTER 6: Conclusion 48
What is the optimum building material, techniques and technology for Leh,
Ladakh

CHAPTER 7: Bibliography 49

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 HIGH ALTITUDE SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE | LEH, LADAKH

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Leh, the former capital city of the Tibetan Kingdom of Bhutan is a high altitude urban
settlement (11000ft) in the trans-Himalayan region of Jammu and Kashmir, India. In its past,
the city was quite inaccessible due to its remote location, harsh climate, and high passes.
The topography and climate have remained unchanged over the years allowing the valley’s
inhabitants to slowly adapt their lifestyle and architecture according to it with earth being
the primary material for construction along with other locally available materials like stone
and wood. In the last few decades with the construction of better roadways (Leh-Manali
highway and Leh-Srinagar highway) and airport, Leh has experienced a rapid growth in
tourism and economy. This has led to urban sprawl due to the absence of a Masterplan of Leh
city, non-existent building by-laws, and contractors not adhering to building guidelines since
the administration doesn’t keep a strict check on the technically illegal construction. More
and more guest houses and hotels are being built every year to accommodate the increasing
number of tourists and locals have deliberately made the shift from traditional building
materials to modern materials and techniques, namely RCC. frame structures and concrete
blocks for walls. Another reason for the increase in popularity of concrete over earth is the
recent flash floods which occurred in the year 2010 causing a great amount of damage and
trauma leading to a misbelief that modern building materials have more strength and are
likely to have a larger lifespan than traditional building materials.

Rapid urban growth has also led to the inevitable depletion of natural resources, water being
the affected the most. Leh is a cold dessert with an annual rainfall of less than 10mm, the
only source of water for the city is the glacier melt. The renewal rate of water cycle finds
it impossible to match up to the usage rate of water, resulting in depletion of water table
each year. Soon, agricultural production in the Leh valley will decline to such an extent that
villagers will need to migrate to other cities for employment, therefore there is an urgent need
for sustainable architecture which focuses on the judicious use of resources and energy.

‘The only way to build green is to build less’

Although building construction is the culprit for the depletion of natural resources, we still
need to cater to the sizeable floating population that comes to visit the attractions in and
around Leh. A lot of work has already been done in the field of Low Energy Consuming
(LEC) buildings mostly to reduce the amount of heating required in the winters since the

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temperature drops to a frigid -25°C. Research needs to be done on alternative building
materials which can provide comfortable living in such harsh, cold conditions and use lesser
resources and energy or can be reused repeatedly.

This research focuses on analyzing and comparing the material properties and building
techniques of both vernacular and modern architecture in the city of Leh, Ladakh. What are
the problems with traditional building materials and why are people more inclined towards
RCC. and concrete block construction? Is there an alternative building material which
provides enough insulation for the harsh winters, reduces construction time and/or is reusable
and biodegradable? As an emerging urban centre, Leh needs to be more resilient and self-
sustainable or else issues such as urban sprawl, pollution, water scarcity, etc. will rise to an
irreversible extent in the coming years.

1.1. RESEARCH QUESTION

What is the impact of vernacular and contemporary technologies of building construction on
the environment in the context of Leh, Ladakh.

Img 1: Leh-1976

Img 2: Leh-2005 Source: Paul Mirmont Photography

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1.2. AIM
To find the optimal construction material and technology which is adequate for the rising
demands of the city and also doesn’t harm the vulnerable eco-system of Leh, Ladakh

1.3. OBJECTIVES
- Study of vernacular architecture of Ladakh.
- Study of conventional building techniques being followed in the present times in Leh.
- Study of innovative, climate-responsive building techniques in Ladakh.
- Comparative study of the three above mentioned techniques on the basis of the following:
a) Energy efficiency and carbon footprint of the building.

1.4. SCOPE
This research shall focus on the pros and cons of both vernacular and modern building
materials and techniques to figure out why the local population prefers the latter. Moreover,
it will discuss energy-efficient and climate-responsive building techniques and how are they
applicable in the present context of Leh.

1.5. LIMITATIONS
- There is plenty of research on the vernacular architecture of Ladakh but not much on the
present conventional building techniques in Leh, therefore most of the information on modern
architecture would be from my personal experience while interning in Leh as well as reliable
contacts who are working for various organisations in Leh.
- Both the vernacular and modern building techniques have slight variations from valley to
valley in the trans-himalayan region but due to the limited time of my visit, the research is
limited to the city of Leh and a few surrounding areas.
- A second visit to the city is possible but not probable due to the time limitation of the
semester. During my visit I conducted the required case studies and went through important
literature available only in the libraries of LAMO (Ladakh Arts and Media Organisation) and
LEDeG (Ladakh Ecological Development Group).
- Energy efficiency is a vast field of study and cannot be covered fully in an architectural
dissertation. This research will only go through the basic calculations of carbon footprint and
energy used in a building.
- This dissertation shall not go deep into the economic sustainablity of buildings as it is not
possible to accurately calculate and compare construction cost and running cost of buildings
constructed in different periods of time.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Vernacular materials and building techniques:

A Fading Legacy: Ladakh’s Vernacular Architecture

(by Eduardo Paolo Ferrari 2015)

This dissertation is an exceptionally detailed study of the architecture and culture of Ladakh.
The author discusses the vernacular heritage and building methodologies which are essential
to creating the sustainable architecture of the future. The part of the research I am particularly
interested in is the ‘Basic Principles for the Construction of a House’. The chapter describes
principles such as:
- Orientation of the house to capture maximum solar radiation in winters;
- Plan-scheme which adapts itself to the terrain and is feasible with the structural system;
- Construction process using traditional materials and tools;
- Dimensions and shape of rooms.
The house form is derived by the structural system as well as the function of each space
whereas the function is derived from the traditional Ladakhi way of living which the author
experienced first-hand by living with a Ladakhi family in their house and studying the culture
which has been passed on for years. The author further writes about the function of each
space in the house, the most important of them being the Chansa, the fireplace room. The
chansa includes the cooking area, a seating area like a living room, and a traditional firewood
burner called Bhokhari. The room is significantly larger than any other room in the house
and requires a pillar in the centre to support the primary beam. The pillar virtually divides
the room into two parts, separating the cooking/ storing area from the living room area.
The location of the fireplace room (which has no windows except a hole in the ceiling for
the bokhari chimney)in either on the ground floor surrounded by stables or on the first floor
surrounded by storerooms or bedrooms to provide a buffer space which acts as insulation.
The house has a suitable location for each room according to their function and the amount of
thermal comfort it demands. Other spaces in the house include stables, storage rooms, guest
room/Rabsal room, toilet, sun-room, sleeping room, terraces, and prayer room.

The chapter which particularly interests me is ‘House elements and Construction Technology’
which overviews traditional materials and techniques. Earth is the most vital material of
construction, used in sun-dried bricks, as binding material, and for plastering. The selection
of soil depends upon the proportion of its components, following which it mixed with water,
hand moulded and sun-dried to make compressed earth blocks traditionally known as Pakbu.
Wood is the structural material obtained from the two most widely grown trees in Ladakh,

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Poplar for pillars(ka) and beams(dungba) and Willow for purlins(taalu) in the roofing. It is
also used for ornamentation elements such as kaju, the pillar head and the shinsak, a lintel
element over windows. Stone is used mostly in shallow foundations and a few other places
like the coping of the parapet wall and may also be used for flooring. All these materials are
locally available very easily but the locals prefer concrete construction for it provides an
advantage of lesser construction time.
A detailed understanding of traditional building techniques allows us to understand
the Passive Solar Building technology because the underlying principles of both these
methodologies are more or less the same. Ferrari further went on to convert his dissertation
into a book, ‘High altitude houses: Vernacular Architecture of Ladakh’ which I highly
recommend if one is interested in exploring the link between the cultural heritage and
architecture of Ladakh.

2.2. Passive Solar basics

According to the GERES Design manual (2012), Low Energy Consuming (LEC) building
techniques can be adapted to the cold and dry climate of the trans himalayan region to
provide comfortable living conditions even in winters.
There are two main types of LEC constructions family that can be implemented in Indian
Himalayas:
1. Energy Efficient Buildings (EEB): Type of construction that integrates only thermal
insulation.
2. Passive Solar Buildings (PSB): Type of construction that integrates passive solar
architecture with thermal insulation.

1.1. Energy Efficient Building Concept:

When it is not possible to properly collect solar radiation, due to bad building orientation or
obstructions which block the direct sunlight, it is best to equip the building with adequate
thermal insulation. There are two components of EEB construction-
a. Insulation to retain indoor heat and prevent heat loss;
b. Ventilation to supply fresh air to inhabitants.
In order to attain a comfortable room temperature, it is important to supply heat inside
the building. The amount of energy required to heat the building is equal to the difference
between the heat loss (by ventilation and heat infiltration) and heat gain (by solar and indoor
gains) of the building.
Heating Energy Demand = Heat loss - Heat gains
From this equation we can easily understand the strategy of EEC buildings which is to reduce
the heat loss and maximize the heat gains, thus reducing the amount of energy required to
heat up the building i.e. the heating energy demand. As the heating demand decreases, so

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does the heating consumption of the building which results in the increase in the efficiency of
the system. The relation between these three can be derived as-
Heating consumption = Heating Energy Demand / Global Heating System Efficiency

According to the experience of GERES India about energy efficiency in Indian Himalayas-
- PSB techniques can annually save up to 70% of heating energy;
- EEB techniques can annually save up to 45% of heating energy.
Thermal comfort is generally increased in LEC buildings.

2.1. Passive Solar Building Concept:

There are five inter-related components of PSB which make the building energy efficient-
a. Collection and absorption of solar radiation during the day;
b. Storage of heat collected from solar radiation during the day;
c. Release of this heat into the interior of the building during the night;
d. Insulation of the building to prevent heat loss;
e. Ventilation to supply fresh air to inhabitants.

2.2. Passive Solar Basics (GERES India 2012)

2.2.1. Orientation: The most important concept of PSB design is maximizing heat gain
through solar radiations during the daytime in winters. At the same time, collecting too
much radiation during summers may result in overheating. The south face has the highest
potential for solar radiation collection in the winters (40%) whereas in summers the roof has
the highest solar radiation collection and the south face has the least (10%) among all the
sides. So the best option is to orient the longest side of the building towards South to collect
maximum sun energy in the winters. The orientation can further be adjusted according to the
building’s function. If the building is in use during daytime, the South facade can be tilted 10°
towards East; If the building is in use during night time, the South facade can be tilted 10°
towards West; If the building is in use at both day time and night time, the best orientation is
towards perfect South.
Img 3: Percentage of Sun-Radiation recieved
by each face of the building in Ladakh region

Source: Author

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2.2.2. Site Selection: In the winters, almost 90% of the solar radiation reaching the South
facade can be collected between 9 am and 3 pm, therefore it is essential that unobstructed sun
radiation reach the building during this period. There are two types of obstructions:
- Distant obstruction: Mountains or clouds;
- Near obstructions: Surrounding trees or other buildings.
The distance of nearby obstructions shall be at least twice the height of the obstruction so
that solar radiation may reach the building uninterrupted. For example, if there is a single-
storeyed building towards the south of the target building, there should at least be a clear
distance of 20ft between the two structures. In case the buildings are too close and there is
no other alternative, we can provide a skylight on the roof as the solar gains from the South
facade are very limited.
Img 4: Distant Obstructions

Img 5: Nearby Obstructions

Source: GERES India Design Manual 2012

2.2.3. Room layout:

- Rooms that require heating are located along the South facade.
- Rooms that require heating early in the day should be located in the Southeast.
- Rooms which are not used in the day but require heating should be in the Southwest.
- Rooms that do not require heating shall be on the north side to create a buffer zone to reduce
heat loss.
- At the entrance, an airlock should be provided to reduce cold air infiltration.
- The entrance should not be in the direction of the wind or on the South facade.

2.2.4. Building Shape: The shape of the building should be such that it provides the required
volume while having the least amount of external surface area possible. More the external
surface area more is the heat loss through those surfaces. The lower the surface area to
volume ratio of the building, lower is the effective heat loss.
Assume the length of the room to be along the South face and the width to be perpendicular
to it, the volume of a room should be limited in such a way that it can warm up in sufficient
time and passive solar techniques can be implemented in this room. The width of the room
should be limited to 14ft and the height should be limited to 8.5ft, whereas the length of the

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room can be as much as we like.

Img 6: Optimal surface to volume ratio

Source: GERES India Design Manual 2012

2.2.5 Fenestration and Shading:

- South facade should have large windows to maximize the solar energy gain during winters.
To reduce the risk of overheating in summers, horizontal overhangs shall be provided over
the openings on South side.
- East and West facades should have limited sized windows to reduce heat loss. Although
these sides are reached by solar radiations, the heat loss at night is much more than the heat
gains at the day through these sides. Solar radiations may also create overheating at the time
of sunrise and sunset in the summers, therefore we need to provide vertical shading devices
on these facades or plant deciduous trees outside which provide shade during summers and
shed their leaves to allow solar gains in the winters.
- The North side is never reached by direct solar radiation, so we should avoid or put very
limited sized windows on this facade to minimize the heat loss as much as possible.

2.2.6. Mechanism of Heat Transfer:

There are three mechanisms of heat transfer.
- Convection: When a moving fluid comes in contact with a surface of higher energy
(warmer), it exchanges calorific energy with the surface and gets warmed up. The amount
of heat transmitted is proportional to the difference of temperature between the fluid and the
solid. Convection may happen within the same fluid when there is a temperature difference
within it. Convection can also be forced, for example by the use of a Trombe wall which
is used to store solar radiation such that the cold air present in the room passes through the
cavity in the wall to get warmed up and then goes back into the room. The working of a
Trombe wall will be explained in detail later.
- Conduction: The transfer of heat within a solid or a fluid due to the vibration of the
molecule with higher energy to the molecule with lower energy through collision is called
conduction. Conduction occurs from the hotter part towards the colder part of the solid/ fluid.
When the sun rays fall on an external wall of the wall, the molecules on the exterior side
absorb the energy and vibrate and collide to pass it on the colder interior part of the wall.
- Radiation: The transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves i.e. without the contact of
materials. The sun’s heat reaches the building through solar radiation. In case of an opaque
object, for example a wall, it absorbs most of the solar radiation and reflects some back.
The absorbed radiation is stored in the wall which is released during the night time into

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the interior of the building. In the case of transparent materials such as glass, most of the
radiation is transmitted through the glass into the room while some of it is reflected back and
only a minute part is absorbed.

Img 7: Optimal surface to volume ratio Source: GERES India Design Manual 2012

2.2.7. Thermal Insulation and Thermal Mass:

Materials with lower thermal conductivity are said to be good insulators. These type
of materials allow less heat transfer through conduction, therefore is used in building
construction to prevent heat loss from the inside of the building during night time. In the case
of Leh, where the climate is immensely cold during winters, thermal insulation is of utmost
importance. The insulation should be implemented on the roof, walls, windows, and floor.
Thermal mass is a material which can store a high quantity of energy and also takes a higher
time to cool off. Such materials should be implemented on the South facade to gain heat
during the daytime and release it to the interior at night. There can be four cases for wall
insulation:
a. Wall without insulation: This wall will store energy during the day but will release most
of it towards the outside at night time. It is not an efficient thermal mass nor does it provide
enough insulation.
b. Wall with inner insulation: Although the wall will collect energy during daytime, all of it
will quickly be lost during night time since there is no way for the thermal mass to radiate
the energy towards the interior of the building. It is not an efficient thermal mass but it does
provide enough insulation.
c. Wall with insulation in the middle or double wall: During the day, the wall collect the solar
energy and during the night most of the heat released is towards the interior of the building
thanks to the layer of insulation preventing heat transfer towards the outside. It is an efficient
thermal mass and provides enough insulation.
d. Thick wall with thin outer insulation: Energy is stored in the thick wall during daytime
and is mostly released towards the interiors at night time. This type of system is suitable in
regions where summers are warm but in Leh, this type of insulation is not enough for the
harsh winters. It is an efficient thermal mass but does not provide enough insulation.

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 Img 8: Wall without insulation Img 9: Wall with inner insulation

Img 10: Wall with insulation in middle Img 11: Wall with outer insulation Source: Author

2.3. Alternative materials: CSEB; Earthen construction

Metamorphosis in Construction Techniques of Trans-Himalayan region of Leh, Ladakh

(Jammu and Kashmir)
(by Gurjot Singh Chawla 2017)

According to the opinion survey executed and documented in this dissertation, almost 75% of
the locals in Leh city rent out their homes during peak tourist season and 34% people prefer a
concrete house over the traditional earth and wood construction. Over the last three decades,
the population of Leh has grown thirteen times its original amount as is continuing to do so
which is mainly because of the boom in the tourism industry and immigrant population from
neighbouring villages which caters to the large tourist population in the summer months. The
municipality is not adequately equipped to handle the pressure on the natural resources of
the valley and there is an acute shortage of infrastructure in the city. Urban sprawl is evident
and ever increasing as the locals build more and more guest houses to accommodate more
tourists. The pure concrete construction which is done mainly to construct faster is not at all
suitable for the harsh winters of Leh. The conductive properties of concrete allow it to cool
down very fast, losing all the indoor heat gains at night time and artificial heating is a must
in such a building. Architecture is a rare profession in Leh where contractors and structural
engineer make plans at minimal rates and sell it to guest house owners. Generalizing these
designs as bad could be a wrong statement but most of them ignore the basic principles of
passive solar building design which is essential in Leh more than anywhere else in India. For
example, the author addresses a hotel which has the biggest glass windows faced towards the
east which is not sufficient to gain enough solar radiation.

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Img 12: Leh 1834 Img 13: Leh 1834-1842 Img 14: Leh 2008

Source: Report on Morphology of Leh town

as cited by Gurjot Singh Chawla 2017

The author has a peculiar liking for earthen construction. It includes construction techniques
like rammed earth, adobe (sun-dried earth bricks), wattle and daub, and cob. All of these are
traditional building methodologies which work efficiently in the summers as well as winters.
Modern building materials discussed in the dissertation are CSEB and cement blocks. There
are several innovative building techniques being used in modern construction in and around
Leh, for example insulation through pashmina wool, a waste byproduct generated at the
pashmina mill which is cheap and effective to trap air bubbles; Trombe wall combined with
double glazing which increase solar heat gain and also works as insulation; Plastic wire mesh
which is laid horizontally after every two feets in a rammed earth wall to strengthen it and
give it a longer life (steel mesh is not used because of its high conductivity); Hollow concrete
blocks which are not sustainable but much more lighter than the typically used concrete
block, and the air inside the block provides insulation.

The greatest resource of this dissertation is the multiple case studies of both traditional
architecture and sustainable modern architecture in Leh, Ladakh. The vernacular
methodologies of construction are adapted according to the climate and the topology but still
has some flaws because of which people make a deliberate choice of switching to modern
materials. Research needs to be done on techniques using these modern materials to make the
architecture more energy efficient and environment-friendly. The author discusses thermal
comfort and compares the vernacular materials to be better than modern materials but does
not give enough data to deduce which methodology is more cost effective and has a lesser
negative impact on the environment.

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We have now attained a basic understanding of Passive Solar Building design and what kind
of techniques can be implemented in the cold and dry climate of Leh. Research needs to be
done on the properties of traditional and modern building materials to analyse and compare
these materials on the basis of:
- Thermal Conductivity (through which we can also determine their Insulation Level);
- Thermal Mass (Energy storage capacity and time taken to release it).
Leh receives ample sunlight during the whole year and extensive design innovations have
been implemented in the Passive Solar buildings in the region, for example, the SECMOL
campus, LEDeG’s Ecology Hostel, the Druk Padma Karpo school campus. A detailed case
study of any one of these buildings will help us in understanding the efficiency of PSB in the
Ladakh region.
We have studied about design methodologies to make a building energy efficient but we have
still not discussed its materials. A construction material is required which can speed up the
overall process and is environment-friendly as well. Using concrete blocks and RCC. frame
in building construction makes the process much faster but the lifespan of such buildings
is just about 50 years after which it starts to deteriorate. What happens to a building which
starts to fail structurally and can no longer function? It is demolished and a new building
is constructed over it, but what happens to the debris? Although most materials from a
demolition site can be reused or recycled, these practices are not known of in most parts of
the country including Leh, where most of the salvageable debris is dumped into the landfill
at Bomgard. Concrete is reusable but only to a certain extent. It can be crushed to form an
aggregate to be used as a base course for footpaths, driveways, under building foundations,
soak pits, drainage channels, etc. (BRANZ rebri)
Concrete is non-biodegradable, therefore if it not reused it is a great hazard to the
environment. The solution to this issue has been in front of us all along. The traditional way
of building in Ladakh used the Earth as a building material which is much more cheaper,
abundantly available and completely biodegradable. The only problem with rammed earth
construction, the way it was traditionally done is that it is very labour intensive and requires
a lot of time. Another way of using earth as a building material which may not slow down the
construction process is through the use of Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEB) which
will be discussed in detail in the next segment.

Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks (Auroville Earth Institute)

The first attempts to create compressed earth blocks were made in the year 1803 when
architect Francois Cointereaux used hand rammers to compress earth into a small wooden
mould held with the feet. The first steel manual press named Cinvaram was invented in
1950’s for a housing programme in Colombia. Cinvaram could produce denser, stronger and
more water resistant blocks compared to the conventional hand moulded and sun-dried adobe.
Today, advanced machinery is available for producing compressed earth blocks like the

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Auram press 3000 which has 18 types of moulds and can produce about 70 different types of
blocks. Most of the times stabilizers such as cement or lime are added to these blocks, hence
the name Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks.
As of now, very few people in Leh know of this alternative and are using it since the market
and industry is adapted to materials like concrete but LEDeG is producing and marketing
CSEB at the Rural Building Centre at Choglamsar.

1. Soil Identification: A suitable soil for CSEB should have the following proportions-
15% Gravel + 50% Sand + 15% Silt + 20% Clay.
If any one of these components of soil is more than the required amount, the soil will be
suitably called gravely, sandy, silty or clayey. These proportions were also observed by me
while doing soil testing for a rammed earth workshop conducted by LEDeG.

2. Soil Stabilization: There are several stabilizers like chemicals, resins or natural products
but the most commonly used ones are cement and lime. The selection of stabilizer and its
quantity depends upon the soil quality. If the soil is sandy, cement is preferred as a stabilizer
to achieve higher strength quickly but if the soil is more clayey, lime is the preferred
stabilizer which takes a longer time to achieve good strength. The proportion of stabilizer are
as follows- Cement: 3% (min); 5% (avg); No maximum limit;
Lime: 2% (min); 6% (avg); 10% (max).

3. Energy Effectiveness: The pollution emission (Kg of CO2/m2)in the making of CSEB as
stated by Auroville Earth Institute is 2.4 times less than factory made wire cut bricks and 7.9
times less than country fired bricks. The energy consumed (MJ) in its production is 4.9 times
less than wire cut bricks and 15.1 times less than fired bricks.

4. Advantages of CSEB:
- Locally available on site, hence zero transportation cost;
- Bio-degradable material: If a building is destroyed, the soil cement mix will be destroyed in
around 10 to 20 years and all the soil will return to its origin;
- Job creation: It is a simple technology that can be easily taught to unskilled labours;
- Cheaper: Although the cost depends on local material and equipment, CSEB will mostly be
cheaper than fired or wire-cut bricks;
- Reducing imports: No need to import any materials from far away, saving cost and
preventing the pollution that would have happened to transport materials using trucks;
- Flexible production scale: CSEB equipment are available from small-scale manual press to
large-scale motorizes press;
- Energy-efficient and eco friendly;
- Cost-effective

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5. Limitations of CSEB:
- Proper soil identification required;
- High-rise buildings are difficult to do;
- Untrained teams produce bad quality blocks;
- Over-stabilization resulting in extensive costs;
- Under-stabilization resulting in poor quality;
- Low social acceptance as earth is considered to be weaker than concrete in Leh.

CONCLUSION

This literature review covers the construction techniques and building materials which are
currently being used in Leh, Ladakh. It also discusses the vernacular architecture of Ladakh,
its relation to the local culture and its declining popularity in the present context. The need of
the hour is to introduce materials which do not harm the already scarce natural resources and
also speeds up the construction process as per the growing needs of tourism.

Research needs to be done on a complete quantitative analysis of vernacular as well as

modern construction to compare them on the following aspects:
- Impact on the client: The total cost of construction including procurement of material,
transportation to the site and labour;
- Impact on the environment: The amount of energy spent and the carbon footprint of the
entire construction process;
- Life cycle and running cost: Which technique is more cost effective and energy efficient and
what is the lifespan of the building.

This data might be crucial for architects, designers, and engineers to come up with innovative
solutions for construction in an eco-sensitive zone with an extremely harsh climate.

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CHAPTER 3: THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF LEH

3.1. Past: Vernacular Architecture of Leh; Leh old town;

Case study; Pros & Cons

It is impossible to trace back when exactly Leh as a settlement came into existence but
according to Andre Alexander (2007) it emerged as a royal territory for the first time in the
early 15th century, when king Dragpa Bumdey founded two Buddhist temples on the site of
the present city.
In the 16th century, king Tashi Namgyal added a fortified tower and a Buddhist temple at the
Tsemo peak above Leh. The city became a proper royal capital at the turn of the 17th century
when king Senge Namgyal built the Lachen Pelkhar Palace, also today is known as the Leh
Palace, below the Tsemo Gompa and invited affluent Ladakhi families to settle in the fortified
town below the palace.
The first written descriptions of Ladakhi architecture can be found dating around the early
19th century when travelers William Moorcroft and George Treback spent two years (1821-
22) in and around Leh. In their book Moorcroft, Treback (1841) have given a description of
what is today defined as the Leh Old Town houses:
They vary from one to two or three stories in height and some are loftier. The walls
are in few instances wholly, or in part of stone, but in general they are built with large
unburned bricks: they are whitened outside with lime, but remain of the original co-
lour inside. they are usually fumished with light wooden balconies; the roofs are flat,
and formed of small trunks of poplar trees, above which a layer of willow shoots is
laid, which is covered by a coating of straw, and thai again by a bed of earth. In rainy
weather this is a very insufficient defence, as the water soon softens the earth, and
pours down into the apartment: the stairs are formed of rough stones.

Another early account of architecture was by Alexander Cunningham of British East

India Company who visited Ladakh in 1846-47 to produce a comprehensive collection of
data about the region. He gives a detailed description of the building materials similar to
Moorcroft and Treback but adds in a few more details about the everyday life of a Ladakhi
family and the spaces in their house. He goes further to also point out flaws in the design
stating that there is only a dim light admitted into the rooms. ‘If supplied with glass windows
and fireplaces, many of these houses would form very comfortable residences; but at present,
they must be wretched habitations for winter.’ (Cunningham 1854)
After India became an independent nation, the Leh-Srinagar and Leh-Manali highways were

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built providing access to the valley and bringing new opportunities in terms of building
materials. These were the years when wood Kashmir and glass from other parts of the nation
reached Leh in a very short period of time. Most of the buildings built during this time were
military cantonments. The city successfully transformed into a service economy, providing
services to Indian army contingents and in the recent years to international and national
tourism. (Alexander 2007)
In-depth research on Ladakh was only possible after 1974 when it became open to foreigners
and tourists. At the staring of this period, most of the studies focused on the religious
architecture but starting from the 21st century, architects, anthropologists, and researchers
began investigating the field of vernacular architecture.

PRIMARY CASE STUDIES

3.1.1. MATHO PALACE:

Vernacular architecture
Img 15: Entrance to Matho
Palace

Source: Author

21 Kilometers from Leh city is a small village named Matho. Up over the hill are Matho
Gompa and the newly built Matho Museum and tower. In the lower wetlands, hiding in plain
sight is the Matho Palace, the former of Kushok Bakula Rimpochee after whom the Leh
airport is named. The Palace is an old, abandoned four storeyed structure made of adobe,
stone and wood. The building is the testimony of how much the vernacular architecture
of Ladakh is resilient to the forces of nature. This case study will explain the vernacular
construction techniques of Ladakh in detail.

Construction techniques are influenced by area as per the availability of materials and

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skilled masons and carpenters. Earth is the major material used in construction as it is easily
available and is highly versatile. Earth is used in walls, foundation (as binding material),
plaster, and for making horizontal surfaces. Stone is used in foundation, over the shinsak and
parapet (as a holding weight). Wood is used for openings, beams and columns, floor slabs,
and decorative elements.

CONSTRUCTION:

The major Phases of Construction are as follows:

1. Collection of materials;
2. Digging and laying foundation;
3. Making walls with openings and lintels;
4. Placing pillars (Ka), primary beams (Dumba), and purlins (taalu) and floors;
5. Fitting of windows and doors;
6. Plaster and Decorations.

Img 16: Stone Foundation uptil plinth level Img 17: Stone Foundation raised around the soak pit
Source: Author

FOUNDATION:
Whether or not a building requires a foundation depend on site conditions. If a house is built
on a rocky hill, masons may directly start building a wall over the sloping surface since the
slopes do not retain moisture from whatever little rainfall happens. If the house is on flatland
like in the case of Matho Palace, it requires foundation uptil plinth level to prevent capillary
action of groundwater. After the digging, undressed stone is laid using mud mortar as binding
element. The larger stones are laid first and the size of stone decreases as the wall rises and
stones are positioned such that they interlock to create stronger foundations. The depth of
foundation depends upon the type of soil. In case of ‘hard soil’, shallow foundations may
work which are 1-2ft deep but in our case, the building is on ‘soft soil’ near a stream and
require a deeper foundation which is 2-3ft for a small house but should be at least 5ft for a

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structure this big. The foundation width was traditionally much wider than contemporary
buildings since the mud walls were much thicker and brick walls built today. The width of
foundations should be 4-5ft.
The presence of water in the soil can be an issue because of the mortar used through which
the water can rise. Dry stones can be laid and interlocked without mortar to prevent any
penetration of water in areas with higher groundwater level.
Img 18: Eastern facade of Matho Palace
showing mud bricks (pakbu) under the
plaster

Source: Author

WALLS:
Earth walls are structural members as well as insulation. For a 4 storeyed structure, the
walls must be thicker to assure the stability of the building. The thickness of the walls also
decreases as we go to higher levels. Partition walls are thinner as they take a lesser load.
Walling of each floor is completed while leaving openings and wooden lintels before floor
laying, therefore scaffoldings aren’t required.
Following are the types of walls:
1. Stone;
2. Sundried mud bricks (pakbu);
3. Rammed earth.
These materials can also be used in combinations with each other.

The Matho Palace walls are made of sundried mud bricks (pakbu). Soil is selected which has
high moisture and clay content. Soil with low clay content or in other words sandy can be
stabilized using cement or chemical stabilizers but these options were not available earlier.
Hay, animal hair or clay (markalag) is added to the mixture to act as binding materials. Soil
with stone content should be avoided. Earth and water are mixed to get a paste which is
molded into a brick and then sundried. This mixture should be perfectly proportioned and
require experienced labour. After sun-drying for 10-15 days, the bricks are cured for 3-5 days
and then layed using mud mortar. Old mud bricks are reusable and can be broken and mixed
with water to obtain the paste.

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Img 19: Larger openings on south facade Img 20: Small opening on the ground floor
and smaller openings on east facade Source: Author

OPENINGS:

In a place with extremely cold weather during winters, openings in a building should be well
planned to maximize the solar radiation captured and minimize the loss of heat from inside
the building. Doors, Windows and Ventilation openings are the major types of openings.
Most of the windows are on the south and east side whereas rooms which do not require
more natural lighting or insulation are positioned on the north and west side of the building.
Smaller windows are provided on the ground floor since its inhabited by cattle, whereas
first floor and above have bigger windows to increase wooden components and reduce wall
volume, in turn, reducing the dead load of walls. Window frames which are made using
purely wooden joinery are prepared in advance and put up in its designated place after wall
construction. Openable wooden shutters are also provided. Poplar wood was made into
planks to make all door and window frames and shutters.
A thick layer of plaster, often painted black is put around the windows on the external facade.
Some architects believe that this is done for some reason other than aesthetics. The black
plaster supposedly heats up faster and creates a pocket of warm air around the opening, thus
heating the air coming inside the building.

Img 21: Shinsak above a window having

5 layers. Black plaster around the opening

Img 22: Yamang stone kept on

site, is used for coping over
lintels and parapet wall

Source: Author

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SHINSAK:

Perhaps the most important decorative element in a Ladakhi building is a Shinsak which is
the elaborate layered woodwork seen above the lintels. In earlier times, shinsak was a symbol
to show a family’s social status as wood was rare and expensive and the wealthier could
afford to build more elaborate and decorative shinsak. Each layer of a shinsak has a name and
a symbolical meaning in Budhhist texts. The whole fixture is pre-fabricated and put up over
the lintel and then covered with a coping of mud and covered with yamang stone. The shinsak
also has an important structural function. Since the walls are thicker than the lintel, the load
needs to be gradually reduced from a wider cross-section to a thinner one. The section of
a shinsak looks like a ‘V’ because over it rests the thick mud wall and below is the thinner
window frame.

DOOR:

Ledge and Batten doors are built using poplar planks where the lasts plank is longer and
curved at the ends and act as a pivot. The frames are constructed similar to windows, are
prefabricated and put up after the wall is constructed.

Img 23: Pillar (ka) on either sides; Capital

(kaju) over the ka; 5 beams (dumba);
Purlins (Taalu) over the dumba; shinsak
over the door frame on the right; Rough
red plaster to cover the shrubs and mud of
the ceiling.

Source: Author

BEAMS AND COLUMNS:

Ladakhi buildings follow a trabeate structural system where primary beams (dumba) are
rested over walls and in case the span exceeds 15-16ft, a column (ka) is put in the middle of
the span. The column capital (kaju) helps in transferring the load from beam to the column.
On the ground floor, the ka stands on a stone base extruded 2-3inches off the ground to
prevent the absorption of moisture from the ground in the wooden column. Wooden elements
are connected with tongue and groove joints which have a better response to earthquakes as
they provide a slight play between two wood elements.

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FLOOR:
The floor consists of the following elements:
1. Beams (Dumba)
2. Purlins (Taalu)
3. Non-rotting hay or shrubs
4. Mud

The above is also the sequence of laying at the time of construction.

Dumba is made of poplar which are long trees with trunks of about 6inch diameter. There
should always be an odd number of Dumbas in a room as the odd numbered beam is
associated with happiness and the alternative even beam is associated with sadness. The count
should always start with happiness and end with it as well. Although, there is also a practical
reason for an odd number of dumbas is that the mason with first lay the middle dumba to
divide the room in two and then further subdivided always keeping them odd in number.
Taalu comes from the willow tree branches which are periodically cut as they grow back
every season. Taalu can be laid diagonally or in patterns which give the space an elegant feel.

PLASTER:

Mud plaster is put on both inner and outer sided of the wall. Mud with higher clay (markalag)
content ie. around 5%, is better for plaster work as it sticks to the wall well and doesn’t easily
crack. Earth can be mixed with hay or animal dung to enhance its stability and insulation.
Plaster is applied in layers, alternatively horizontal and vertical. The thickness of plaster
differs from place to place but is usually around 2inch thick. Dark colour pigment may be
added to the plaster for external walls to absorbs more solar radiation and heat up faster.

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3.2. Present: Conventional building techniques in the present times; Shift from
traditional to modern building materials; Pros & Cons

After the release of the movie 3 Idiots, starring Aamir Khan in 2009, Leh experienced a
boom in national tourism. The floating population of the city increased multiple folds and to
accommodate such a high number of tourists, a high number of guest houses started being
built. Due to the absence of a city Masterplan, the growth was never done in a planned way
leading to building encroachment on roads and traffic congestion. Everyone wanted to build
as many rooms as he or she could in as less time as possible. This was made possible by the
introduction of RCC. construction. The tourism season in Leh lasts for about five months,
starting from April to August. This is also the only time when construction can happen,
therefore the big plus for modern materials was that you could build your entire guest house
in one season and get it up and running by the next. Locals from nearby villages started to
migrate to Leh to buy a piece of land and build a guest house or hotel, soon almost everyone
had a home in Leh where they stayed during the summer and a home in their respective
nearby village where they spent the off-season. Everything happened so quickly that nobody
took a moment to pause and think about the environment or the city.

After the major floods of 2010, a misbelief rose among the locals that the traditional mud
construction is not stronger than concrete. Contractors took advantage of this to use more
concrete which eases the construction process and increases the speed of construction.
Allegedly, there is also a small cut which the construction companies receive as an incentive
to bring concrete to Leh city. The absence of informed architects in the city resulted in many
faulty construction practices visible throughout the new city.

SECONDARY CASE STUDY

3.2.1. HOTEL IN LOWER TUKCHA ROAD

Img 24: Hotel built with mordern construction

materials ie. concrete and glass.

Source: Gurjot Singh Chawla

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The hotel has been constructed using solid concrete blocks for walling with an RCC frame
structure with a glass front facade. The glass facade faces east rather than south which is
optimum as a result of which it cannot capture enough solar radiation during the evening
and the interiors are not warm enough in the nights. The hotel management is forced to use
artificial heating which does not only consumes a lot of wealth but is also harmful to the
environment.

3.2.2. HOUSE IN SANKAR ROAD

Img 25: House in Sankar Road

Source: Gurjot Singh Chawla

Although the form and spaces inside a house have been retained over the centuries, the
element which has changed is the material of construction. RCC. frame construction with
solid concrete blocks are inappropriate for such cold and harsh climates and it is a good
conductor and retain much of the radiation which it absorbs during the day. Most residents
migrate to their respective villages and spend the winters there when their businesses close
down in the off-season months.

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3.3. Future: Climate Responsive Architecture; Solar Active & Passive
technologies;
Case study; Pros & Cons

Currently, several NGOs like Tibetan Heritage Fund (THF) are working towards restoration
of traditional structures in the Old Town. Another NGO called Ladakh Ecological
Development Group (LEDeG) is currently working on Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), particularly SDG-6 (Clean water and sanitation) and SDG-11 (Sustainable cities and
communities). These SDGs define the liveability index of the city which is a scoring system
for cities set by the European Union to assess the compare the standards of living in various
cities around the world.

PRIMARY CASE STUDIES

3.3.1. MATHO MUSEUM AND TOWER:

Contemporary building using traditional materials & techniques

Img 27: View of Matho Gompa from Matho

Palace

Img 26: The newly built Matho museum(left) and tower(right) Source: Author
attached to the Matho Gompa

The newly built but not yet open Matho Museum and Tower painted in the colours of the
Budhhist flags are on the top-most point in Matho. When I reached the place, the finishing
and carpentry works were underway. We climbed onto the roof of the tower which provides
a spectacular view of the whole valley and found 3 women painting a large compass on the
floor that marked the direction of nearby villages. The building was designed by a French
lady named Kelly (One of the three women) who was not an architect by profession but when
asked how did she manage to construct a building without any help, she said and I quote ‘It
was not that difficult’.
The building is built as per the same techniques discussed in the previous case study but the
only difference is seen in the quality of woodwork since today we have various machines for

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our aid. The museum is a three storeyed structure whereas the tower is 4 stories high.

Img 28: Staircase, Matho tower ground floor Img 29: Inside the Matho museum, traditional
elements made with mordern machinery Source: Author

Img 30: Matho tower roof Img 31: Intricate wooden jali, Matho museum

Img 32: Window and Shinsak Img 33: Wooden staircase made using only wooden joinery
Source: Author

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3.3.2. DRUK PADMA KARPO SCHOOL:
Mordern, climate-responsive architecture

Img 34: Site Plan Source: ARUP foundation, documentation of

Druk Padma Karpo School

14km from Leh city is a town named Shey where the Druk Padma Karpo School is situated.
This is the famous ‘Rancho School’ where some of the ending sequence shots of the film ‘3
Idiots’ were filmed. The school’s system is a good example of how education can be made
more participatory and interesting for children. Furthermore, the architecture of the school
inculcates the same values in students as the buildings use little or no energy from the grid
and manages and treat all the waste produced on site.
The construction of the school started around 20 years ago and the whole campus was built in
stages. The recent flood affected some blocks of the campus very badly. The flood came from
the north with great force and destroyed the south-east corner of the campus. Since then, the
ARUP foundation has been working on the reconstruction of these blocks to their original
shape but using better joinery details which will help the structure be more resilient to future
floods and earthquakes.
This case study will cover the various passive and active solar techniques used in various
blocks of the school.

Most of the building blocks are timber frame structure with a stone cavity walls on the
north side having no openings and Trombe walls on the south facing side. Wood has been
extensively used in the project and therefore I think that this technique is not economically
and ecologically sustainable. The huge timber sections used are not the locally available
poplar but are transported from Srinagar or Manali.

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CLASSROOMS:

The classrooms are big halls with a thick stone wall on the north side and trombe wall on the
south. Being such a big space it requires more natural light and therefore, skylights have been
provided in the ceiling.
The skylights are kept open in the summers allowing cross-ventilation for the air entering
from the trombe wall windows and the hot air escaping through the skylights.
The skylights are closed in the winters when the trombe walls are used for capturing
maximum solar radiation to heat up the class and this heat cannot escape from anywhere
since all openings are closed.
The north wall has three parts; the outermost is the stone wall, in the middle is the air cavity
acting as insulation and the innermost is the mud wall which traps heat and slowly releases it
on the inside. The thermal performance of these buildings as per Connor McGrath, the chief
structural engineer of ARUP foundation, is that when the temperature is 2-3 C outside, it is
12-13 C inside.

Img 35: Section of a classroom Source: ARUP foundation, documentation of

Druk Padma Karpo School

RESIDENTIAL BLOCKS:

The residential blocks are long linear blocks, all kept in an east-west aligning orientation
where the north wall is a stone cavity wall along which the corridor runs and the south wall
is a trombe wall along the rooms such that all rooms have trombe wall openings which the
students have to regulate periodically to trap hot air in the trombe wall cavity and release
it into the room. The partition walls are made of plyboard since we don’t require a lot of
insulation in the partitions.
After the recent floods, extra care is taken in joinery details so that the debris doesn’t fall on
and hurt the children.

Following are some interesting joinery details that help in making the building more safe in
case of a natural disaster:

a) Intersection of Primary beam and stone wall:

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Since the timber frame and the stone wall are two separate materials, they will move
differently at the time of an earthquake. This may prove to be an issue as the stone wall
shakes and breaks the primary beam resting on it. If the primary beam breaks down, the
whole roof will come down. To prevent this the primary beam is tied to the stone wall using
steel rods fixed to gazette plate which are bolted to the primary beam and the external side of
the stone wall.

Img 36: Structural Engineer, Connor McGrath

explaining the joinery detail to us

Source: Author

b) Base of Pillars:

The wooden pillar is tied to the plinth beam’s reinforcement bars using a ‘U’ shaped gazette
plate. A small piece of plastic is kept in between the pillar and the Beam to prevent any
capillary action of water from the ground to the wood. At the time of the recent floods, the
base of columns were completely destroyed due to the seeping of water inside the building.

Img 37: Base of a pillar showing the gazette

plate and the piece of plastic coming out from
the sides

Source: Author

c) Chicken wire mesh inside the wall:

A chicken wire mesh was stuck to the inner side of the mud walls and covered with plaster. In
case of an earthquake, if the wall cracks the chicken wire mesh will prevent the debris from

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falling inside the building and the people inside will remain safe.

Img 38: Detail of chiken wire mesh

Source: Author

d) small steel rods through the secondary beam:

Traditionally, the secondary beam is just rested over the primary beam using a lap joint but it
might be unsafe in case of an earthquake when the secondary beam may shake and slide off
the primary beam and crash down. To prevent this, small steel rods were inserted through the
secondary beams that go 2-3inches deep into the primary beam as well holding both of them
together.

Img 39: Detail showing the rectangular pri-

mary beam and the circular secondary beams
resting on it.

Source: Author

DINING HALL:

The dining hall is a big communal space. The kitchen is on the north side of the block and on
the other side are three entrances. Big skylights in the ceiling provide plenty of natural light
into the hall. On the backside of the block are the four huge solar cookers with the help of
which food is prepared without using any fuel or electricity.

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 Img 41: Joinery detail of the timber framing

Source: ARUP foundation, documentation of

Img 40: Exploded view of Dining Hall Druk Padma Karpo School

TOILETS:

The school has traditional dry toilets for students. Ground was dug to make two soak pits
under one toilet so that one pit can be used for half a year and the other for the other half.
The toilets have small ventilator windows on the outside of which is a metal sheet wall
painted with a dark colour which heats up the air in the cavity between the wall and the metal
sheet. The warm air rises resulting in air circulation and ventilation of the toilet without any
exhausts.

Img 42: Metal sheet wall behind the toilets Img 43: Section of toilet wall

Source: Author

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SECONDARY CASE STUDY

3.3.3. QUITO, ECUADOR

Img 44: Location of Quito, Ecuador

Source: Google Maps

The capital city of Ecuador, Quito is an isolated settlement at 9350ft above sea level on the
eastern slopes of Pichincha, an active volcano in the Andes mountain range. Being the second
highest capital city in the world, the climate of Quito is cold but pleasant with two major
seasons: dry (June-September) and wet(October-May). Because of its high elevation, Quito
receives a great amount of solar radiation over the year which may be tapped to produce and
conserve energy in buildings.

Quito was founded by the Spanish in 1534 and is a centre of some of the best preserved
colonial architecture of that era. In the city centre, one can find churches, convents and
houses built with earthen bricks and covered with stucco. Most of the colonial monuments
of the city are a product of interactions between the colonizers and the inhabitants, who also
provided labour and experience in the construction. (Webster 2013)

After the colonial and colonial revival period, there was a general feeling of hesitation for
trying modern style of architecture. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, people started using
RCC. for construction but due to the pressure of conservative elite such contemporary works
were covered with neoclassical or colonial detailing. The negative view of modernism began
to shift in the 1940s and neoclassical and colonial traits were stripped off giving way to a
modern, rationalist architecture. There was very little direct connection of Quito to the rest
of the world, books were scarce or arrived much later, therefore most of the influence came
from students who were able to travel abroad to bring back the experience of works of Le
Corbusier, Gropius and the Bauhaus.

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 Img 45: Exterior stairway, Church of San Francisco,
Quito

Source: Hernan L. Navarrete

At the starting of the 1950s construction increased which increased the economic stability of
the city. This boom carried on through the 1970s.

A similar movement was started by the new generation of architects again in the 2000s using
the idea of ‘evolved modernism’ both in concept and using the locally used materials for cost
and resource efficiency.

3.3.4. ENTRE MUROS HOUSE

Architects: David Barragan, Pascual Gangotena

Location: Quito DC, Ecuador
Built in: 2008

Text description provided by the architects.

‘The wish to set up, the search for living in harmony with nature, the need of
autonomy for each one of the three members of the family, the low budget
(understood as the optimization of resources and spaces) and the phrase: “There is
always another way of doing things and another way for living”, settled by her, were
the starting point for the design.’ - al bordE Arquitectos

In the hillside of Ilalo volcano, far from the city the Entre Muros House is set with adobe
walls of different heights to make divisions in the roof and the spaces inside. The project is a
good example of cost and resources management in construction. The major element, mud is
abundantly locally available cutting down on transportation costs of materials. The furniture
is built into the thick adobe wall. The architecture aims to highlight the natural material used
while not harming the environment in any way. The gray water is processed and used for
irrigation and solar water heaters are used instead of electric heaters. The thick walls act as
both good insulation and thermal mass and also absorb dampness inside the house.

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 Img 46: (left) Construction of
adobe walls

Img 47: (right) Interior space

Source: Archdaily

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CHAPTER 4: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PAST, PRESENT
AND FUTURE

4.1. Carbon footprint and energy efficiency

4.1.1. What is Carbon Footprint?

It is defined the total amount of greenhouse gases produced that is directly or indirectly
caused by human activities. The greenhouse gases are referred to as carbon since it is the
major constituent. It is usually measured in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide. Every day
to day activity a generates carbon footprint, driving your car, heating your house using oil,
coal, timber or electricity and even consuming food. There is a certain embodied energy in
each product that we use which energy was used in the production and transportation of said
product before its consumption.
In terms of building construction, the major carbon footprint is generated during
transportation of materials, electricity and fuel used for construction as well as by the labours
and contractors, disposal of waste, and other miscellaneous activities. Furthermore, carbon
footprint is also generated after the construction completes in the form of electricity used for
appliances, heating, etc. as well as the fuel consumed by the employees.
Since carbon emissions occur in some amount as a product of any activity, it is almost
impossible to calculate the carbon footprint of a building during construction although we
can determine which construction techniques produce more emissions than other according to
where the materials are being transported from, what types of machinery are used, and how
much time is taken for construction. I shall discuss further about the calculation of carbon
footprint in the coming chapter.

4.1.2. Defining the emissions

There are three ‘scopes’ for considering and calculating carbon emissions:
- Scope 1 covers the direct impact caused by owned assets such as vehicles, appliances and
fuel used on-site.
- Scope 2 covers energy which you don’t directly produce but consume such as electricity
and natural resources.
- Scope 3 covers the impact of human activities of the employees/ residents of a building.
This includes their vehicles, air travel, waste, food and miscellaneous activities.
One must consider the scope they wish to cover before the calculation of carbon footprint.
Usually, scope 1 and 2 are considered since it is easier to measure their usage and there is not
much variation in consumption over the year.

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4.1.3. How to calculate carbon footprint?

Energy consumed in any forms has a rate of carbon emission. To calculate the total emission
simply multiply the quantity of energy consumed annually by the rate of emission. As per
carbonfund.org, a few standard rates of emissions are as follows:
- Electricity
On average, electricity sources emit 0.0005925 metric tons CO2 per KWh. These emissions
go way higher when artificial heating is used in the context of Leh.
- Natural Gas
On average, there are 0.00548 metric tons of CO2 per 1 therm of natural gas.
- Heating Oil
On average, there are 0.01015 metric tons of CO2 per gallon of home heating oil.
- Vehicles
Unleaded gasoline emits 0.00891 metric tons of CO2 per gallon.

It is difficult to manually calculate the carbon footprint, therefore there are several carbon
footprint calculators online which one can use for free to determine the annual carbon
emissions during the lifespan of a building. Although, to calculate the net carbon footprint
of a building we must also consider the emissions at the time of construction. It is almost
impossible to accurately calculate carbon emissions at time of construction since there are
a lot of variables but we can guess which construction method uses more energy as per the
machinery and tools required as well as where the materials are coming from.

4.1.4. Schematic Comparison of the 3 types of construction techniques in Leh

As per our learnings from the case studies in the previous chapter, we can now compare the
types of construction techniques namely vernacular, conventional and climate responsive
architecture on the basis of the parameters defined in this chapter.
I shall score each method of construction on the basis of the following parameters:
1. Energy consumption - Transportation, Electricity & Fuel, Natural resources
2. Time taken for construction
3. Cost of construction
4. Running cost

The scoring of each parameter shall be out of 5, where 1 is the least possible consumption
and 5 is the maximum. Energy consumption represents the carbon emission both, during
construction and running usage of the building. These scores are done assuming there is
a building to be constructed of the exact same scale using the three different techniques.

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Vernacular technique is assumed to be rammed earth construction with local mud and timber
as a structural member. Conventional technique uses RCC frame structure with solid concrete
blocks for walls. Climate-responsive technique is assumed to be RCC frame structure with
CSEB for walls and also using various passive and active solar techniques. These scores
are as per my personal experience and learnings of working in Leh. The lesser the score,
the lower is the energy consumption, time taken and cost, hence the better the construction
technique.

Table 1: Comparison of three types of construction techniques

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CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As per the schematic comparison of the three construction techniques we have found that
vernacular construction has the least amount of energy consumption since all materials are
locally available and minimum fuel, electricity and water is required at time of construction.
The time taken for construction is maximum as it is a long process which requires skilled
labours. Cost of construction is minimum as it is assumed that mud used is from the site
itself. It does require regular maintenance which adds up to the running cost.
Conventional construction consumes the most amount of energy during and after the
construction. Time taken for construction is least. Cost of construction is lesser than climate-
responsive technique but the running cost is way higher since it usually requires artificial
heating.
Climate-responsive construction has moderate energy consumption for transportation and
resources since some of the materials need to be transported to site from outside Leh such as
concrete and glass and CSEB requires water for curing just like concrete blocks. Construction
time is slightly more than conventional but significantly lesser than vernacular technique.
The initial cost of construction is more than conventional but the running cost is significantly
lesser as it requires minimum or no artificial heating.
The construction technique with the least score is supposed to be the most suitable in the
context of Leh but as we see the score of vernacular and climate-responsive architecture
is tied, therefore it is safe to say that the use of climate-responsive techniques is better for
the present scenario where lesser construction time is much needed to meet the growing
demands of the city. It is not a 100% sustainable alternative but significantly reduces energy
consumption and saves natural resources.

5.1. Achieving higher energy efficiency in buildings

After calculating your carbon emissions, the next step is to come up with strategies to reduce
these emissions. It is impossible for a building to have a zero carbon footprint but there are
many ways to reduce energy consumption at the time of construction as well as afterward.
- Transport:
Construction- Locally available materials can be used to eliminate the fuel used and carbon
emitted for transporting it to the site, eg. mud, stone and wood.
Running usage- Employees can be encouraged to carpool or use public transport.
- Electricity and fuel:
Construction- Construction techniques can be used which require lesser energy for machinery
and tools.
Running usage- Active and passive solar techniques ensure that minimum external energy

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is required as it maximizes capture of natural light and solar radiation which is essential in
extreme cold climate of Leh.
- Natural resources:
Construction- Materials and techniques can be used which reduce the use of water on site.
Concrete construction requires a huge amount of water for mixing as well as curing and is
therefore not recommended in Leh where water is scarce. Rammed earth construction is a
technique which requires very less amount of water.
Running usage- Judicial consumption of water by residents is important as more and more
guest houses install flush toilets each year rather than the traditional dry toilet.

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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

What is the optimum building material, techniques and technology for Leh,
Ladakh?

We have now gained a basic knowledge of the construction methods and materials being used
in Leh, Ladakh over the century starting from the traditional architecture to the techniques
being currently used. The comparison of the three construction techniques gave us a clear
picture of the pros and cons and their suitability in the present context.

Material
The optimum material for construction in Ladakh will always be mud. It is abundantly
available everywhere, is cheap and has good insulation and thermal mass. To optimize the
strength of mud it can be used to make compressed stabilized earth blocks which is as strong
as the conventional brick but has better insulation. Using mud in such a way also increases
construction speed as blocks are made using Aurum press and even a manual press can easily
produce more than 500 bricks per day.
Concrete is not a bad material but the way it is used in Leh is. Extensive use of concrete in
all building elements is unsuitable for the cold climate but it can certainly be used for RCC.
frame structure which immensely increases the construction speed.

Techniques
The best of both materials, mud and concrete can be combined to make buildings which are
easier and faster to construct and are also climate-responsive. To increase the passive solar
abilities of mud, techniques of collection, storage, release, and insulation can be applied
which have been discussed in detail in passive solar basics.
Building orientation, opening sizes and placement, shading and zoning of internal spaces are
basics which should be considered at the planning stage of any building in order to receive
maximum solar radiation during the day and retain the heat at night.

Technology
There are several active and passive solar techniques which should be used in a place like
Leh which receives a high amount of solar radiation and is extremely cold. Some of them
are trombe wall, cavity wall, green-house attached to wall, insulation, and solar active space
heating. These technologies are already being used by organizations like Secmol and LEDeG
and can easily be used with CSEB. These technologies ensure that maximum solar radiation
is captured and used to heat the interiors as a result of which minimum energy is required for
artificial heating which in turn reduces the running cost.

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CHAPTER 7: Bibliography

- Chawla, G.S. 2017, Metamorphosis in Construction Techniques of Trans-Himalayan region

of Leh, Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir)
- Ferrari, E.P. 2015, A Fading Legacy: Ladakh’s Vernacular Architecture
- Moorcroft, W. , Treback, G. 1841, Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the
Punjab, in Ladakh and Kashmir; in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara Vol. 1, London,
p. 315-318
- Cunningham, A. 1854, Ladak, physical, statistical, and historical. With notices from
surrounding countries, London, p. 313-314
- Alexander, A. 2007, Towards a Management Plan for the Old Town of Leh, Berlin, p. 31-48
- GERES India 2012, Design Manual for the Integration of Low Energy Consumption
Techniques in Domestic Housing and Public Buildings: In cold regions of Jammu & Kashmir
and Himachal Pradesh states, India, p. 7/36-38/36
- Auroville Earth Institute, ‘Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks’, viewed on 3 June 2018,
<www.earth-auroville.com/maintenance/uploaded_pics/cseb.pdf >
- BRANZ rebri, ‘What Materials Can be Recycled?’, viewed on 25 july 2018, <https://www.
branz.co.nz/cms_display.php?sn=105&st=1&pg=12643>
- Ferrari, E.P. 2015, High altitude houses: Vernacular architecture of Ladakh
- Webster, S. 2013, The Secret Lives of Buildings in Colonial Quito, Construction History,
Vol. 28, No. 3 (2013), pp. 21-46
- Brizuela, J. Glenda Puente’s “modernism in quito” featured on docomomo us, April 21,
2015, viewed on 13 September 2018. <http://cartanews.fiu.edu/glenda-puentes-modernism-
in-quito-featured-on-docomomo-us/>
- Carbonfund.org, ‘HOW WE CALCULATE’, viewed on 25 October 2018, < https://
carbonfund.org/how-we-calculate/>

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