Surface Roughness Analysis in Milling of Stainless Steel Under Different Cooling Conditions.

Surface roughness analysis in milling of stainless steel under different cooling conditions
CHAPTER 1
MILLING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Milling Machines
Milling machines were first invented and developed by Eli Whitney to mass produce
interchangeable musket parts. Although crude, these machines assisted man in maintaining
accuracy and uniformity while duplicating parts that could not be manufactured with the use
of a file. Development and improvements of the milling machine and components continued,
which resulted in the manufacturing of heavier arbors and high speed steel and carbide
cutters. These components allowed the operator to remove metal faster, and with more
accuracy, than previous machines. Variations of milling machines were also developed to
perform special milling operations. During this era, computerized machines have been
developed to alleviate errors and provide better quality in the finished product.
Milling-Milling is the process of cutting away material by feeding a work piece past a
rotating multiple tooth cutter. The cutting action of the many teeth around the milling cutter
provides a fast method of machining. The machined surface may be flat, angular, or curved.
The surface may also be milled to any combination of shapes. The machine for holding the
work piece, rotating the cutter, and feeding it is known as the Milling machine. The type of
milling machine most commonly found in student shops is a vertical spindle machine with a
swiveling head. The spindle can be fed up and down with a quill feed lever on the head. Most
milling machines are equipped with power feed for one or more axes. Power feed is smoother
than manual feed and, therefore, can produce a better surface finish. Power feed also reduces
operator fatigue on long cuts.
The Machine Tool – In the present climate many different configurations of machine tool
exist .Some machines have the table/work piece stationary whilst the X, Y and Z axes move
and others may be constructed to allow the work piece/table to be the moving part whilst the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CMRCET Page 1

axes are fixed.
In any condition the X, Y and Z-axes directions are always configured the same.
Figure 1.1 Machine tool
The X-axis is always considered as the longest axis, where X+ will be the table motioning to
the left and X- to the right. The Y-axis moves from front to back of the machine with the
table motioning towards the operator as the Y+(positive) direction and away being the Y-
(negative) direction. The Z-axis where the tool normally is located, has the positive
Z+(positive) axis motioning up and away from the work piece/table and Z-
(negative)direction down towards the work piece/table.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING

Peripheral Milling: In peripheral (or slab) milling, the milled surface is generated by teeth

located on the periphery of the cutter body. The axis of cutter rotation is generally in a plane
parallel to the work piece surface to be machined.
Figure 1.2 Face milling
Face Milling: In face milling, the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation
perpendicular to the work piece surface. The milled surface results from the action of cutting
edges located on the periphery and face of the cutter.
Figure 1.3 Face milling

End Milling: The cutter in end milling generally rotates on an axis vertical to the work
piece. It can be tilted to machine tapered surfaces. Cutting teeth are located on both the end
face of the cutter and the periphery of the cutter body.
Figure 1.4 End milling
1.2.1 Methods of milling

Up Milling: Up milling is also referred to as conventional milling. The direction of the cutter
rotation opposes the feed motion. For example, if the cutter rotates clockwise, the work piece
is fed to the right in up milling.
Figure 1.5 up milling

Down Milling: Down milling is also referred to as climb milling. The direction of cutter
rotation is same as the feed motion. For example, if the cutter rotates counterclockwise, the
work piece is fed to the right in down milling.
Figure 1.6 down milling
The chip formation in down milling is opposite to the chip formation in up milling. The
figure for down milling shows that the cutter tooth is almost parallel to the top surface of the
work piece. The cutter tooth begins to mill the full chip thickness. Then the chip thickness
gradually decreases.
Other milling operations are shown in the figure.
Figure 1.7 Types of milling operations

1.3 WORKING PRINCIPLES OF MILLING MACHINES

The work piece is holding on the worktable of the machine. The table movement controls the
feed of work piece against the rotating cutter. The cutter is mounted on a spindle or arbor and
revolves at high speed. Except for rotation of the cutter has no other motion. As the work
piece advances, the cutter teeth remove the metal from the surface of work piece and the
desired shape is produced.
Figure 1.8 Working principle of milling machine
1.3.1 Principe parts of milling machine

Milling machines can be found in a variety of sizes and designs, yet they still possess the
same main components that enable the work piece to be moved in three directions relative to
the tool. These components include the following:
Base and column - The base of a milling machine is simply the platform that sits on the
ground and supports the machine. A large column is attached to the base and connects to the
other components.
Table - The work piece that will be milled is mounted onto a platform called the table, which
typically has "T" shaped slots along its surface. The work piece may be secured in a fixture
called a vice, which is secured into the T-slots, or the work piece can be clamped directly
into these slots. The table provides the horizontal motion of the work piece in the X-direction
by sliding along a platform beneath it, called the saddle.

Saddle - The saddle is the platform that supports the table and allows its longitudinal motion.
The saddle is also able to move and provides the horizontal motion of the work piece in the
Y-direction by sliding transversely along another platform called the knee.
Knee - The knee is the platform that supports the saddle and the table. In most milling
machines, sometimes called column and knee milling machines, the knee provides the
vertical motion (Z direction) of the work piece. The knee can move vertically along the
column, thus moving the work piece vertically while the cutter remains stationary above it.
However, in a fixed bed machine, the knee is fixed while the cutter moves vertically in order
to cut the work piece.
Arbor - It holds rotating milling cutters rigidly and mounted on the spindle. Sometimes arbor
is supported at maximum distance from support of overhanging arm like a cantilever, it is
called stub arbor. Locking provisions are provided in the arbor assembly to ensure its
reliability.
Figure 1.9 Vertical milling machine

1.3.2 Manual vertical milling machine

The above components of the milling machine can be oriented either vertically or
horizontally, creating two very distinct forms of milling machine. A horizontal milling
machine uses a cutter that is mounted on a horizontal shaft, called an arbor, above the work
piece. For this reason, horizontal milling is sometimes referred to as arbor milling. The arbor
is supported on one side by an over arm, which is connected to the column, and on the other
side by the spindle. The spindle is driven by a motor and therefore rotates the arbor. During
milling, the cutter rotates along a horizontal axis and the side of the cutter removes material
from the work piece.
A vertical milling machine, on the other hand, orients the cutter vertically. The cutter is
secured inside a piece called a collet, which is then attached to the vertically oriented spindle.
The spindle is located inside the milling head, which is attached to the column.
Milling machines can also be classified by the type of control that is used. A manual milling
machine requires the operator to control the motion of the cutter during the milling operation.
The operator adjusts the position of the cutter by using hand cranks that move the table,
saddle, and knee.
The tooling that is required for milling is a sharp cutter that will be rotated by the spindle.
The cutter is a cylindrical tool with sharp teeth spaced around the exterior. The spaces
between the teeth are called flutes and allow the material chips to move away from the work
piece.
The teeth may be straight along the side of the cutter, but are more commonly arranged in a
helix. The helix angle reduces the load on the teeth by distributing the forces. Also, the
number of teeth on a cutter varies. A larger number of teeth will provide a better surface
finish. The cutters that can be used for milling operations are highly diverse, thus allowing
for the formation of a variety of features. While these cutters differ greatly in diameter,
length, and by the shape of the cut they will form, they also differ based upon their
orientation, whether they will be used horizontally or vertically. A cutter

that will be used in a horizontal milling machine will have the teeth extend along the entire
length of the tool. The interior of the tool will be hollow so that it can be mounted onto the
arbor.
Tool materials in common use
 High Carbon Steel: Contains 1 - 1.4% carbon with some addition of chromium and
tungsten to improve wear resistance. The steel begins to lose its hardness at about 250° C,
and is not favored for modern machining operations where high speeds and heavy cuts
are usually employed.
 High Speed Steel (H.S.S.): Steel, which has a hot hardness value of about 600°C,
possesses good strength and shock resistant properties. It is commonly used for single
point lathe cutting tools and multi point cutting tools such as drills, reamers and milling
cutters.
 Cemented Carbides: An extremely hard material made from tungsten powder. Carbide
tools are usually used in the form of brazed or clamped tips. High cutting speeds may be
used and materials difficult to cut with HSS may be readily machined using carbide
tipped tool.
1.4 CUTTING PARAMETERS
As you proceed to the process of metal cutting, the relative ‘speed’ of work piece rotation
and ‘feed’ rates of the cutting tool coupled to the material to be cut must be given your
serious attention. This relationship is of paramount importance if items are to be
manufactured in a cost-effective way in the minimum time, in accordance with the laid down
specifications for quality of surface finish and accuracy. You, as a potential supervisory
/management level engineer, must take particular note of these important parameters and
ensure that you gain a fundamental understanding of factors involved.
Cutting Speed
All materials have an optimum Cutting Speed and it is defined as the speed at which a point
on the surface of the work passes the cutting edge or point of the tool and is normally given

in meters/min. To calculate the spindle Speed required,
Where:
N = Spindle Speed (RPM)
CS=Cutting Speed (m/min)
d = Diameter of Work piece (mm)
Cutting feed: The distance that the cutting tool or work piece advances during one
revolution of the spindle and tool, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some
operations the tool feeds into the work piece and in others the work piece feeds into the tool.
For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured in inches
per tooth (IPT), and multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool.
Spindle speed: The rotational speed of the spindle and tool in revolutions per minute (RPM).
The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of the tool.
Feed rate: The speed of the cutting tool's movement relative to the work piece as the tool
makes a cut. The feed rate is measured in inches per minute (IPM) and is the product of the
cutting feed (IPR) and the spindle speed (RPM).
Axial depth of cut: The depth of the tool along its axis in the work piece as it makes a cut. A
large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the
tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several passes as
the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass.
Radial depth of cut: The depth of the tool along its radius in the work piece as it makes a
cut. If the radial depth of cut is less than the tool radius, the tool is only partially engaged and
is making a peripheral cut. If the radial depth of cut is equal to the tool diameter, the cutting
tool is fully engaged and is making a slot cut. A large radial depth of cut will require a low

feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a
feature is often machined in several steps as the tool moves over the step-over distance, and
makes another cut at the radial depth of cut.
1.5 MILLING CUTTERS
Milling cutters are cutting tools typically used in milling machines or machining centers to
perform milling operations. Special milling cutters are designed to perform special operations
which may be combination of several conventional operations. Standard milling cutters are
the conventional cutters which are classified as given below.
Plain Milling Cutters: These cutters are cylindrical in shape having teeth on their
circumference. These are used to produce flat surfaces parallel to axis of rotation. Plain
milling cutter is shown in Figure 1.5. Depending upon the size and applications plain milling
cutters are categorized as light duty, heavy duty and helical plain milling cutters.
Side Milling Cutters: Side milling cutters are used to remove metals from the side of work
piece. These cutters have teeth on the periphery and on its sides. These are further
categorized as plain side milling cutters having straight circumferential teeth. Staggered teeth
side milling cutters having alternate teeth with opposite helix angle providing more chip
space. Half side milling cutters have straight or helical teeth on its circumference and on its
one side only. Circumferential teeth do the actual cutting of metal while side teeth do the
finishing work. Interlocking side milling cutter has teeth of two half side milling cutter which
are made to interlock to form one unit.
Angle Milling Cutter: These cutters have conical surfaces with cutting edges over them.
These are used to machine angles other than 90o. Two types of angle milling cutters are
available single angle milling cutter and double angle milling cutter.
End Mill: End mills are used for cutting slots, small holes and light milling operations.
These cutters have teeth on their end as well as a periphery. The cutting teeth may be straight
or helical. Depending upon the shape of their shank, these are categorized as discussed

below.
Taper Shank Mill: Taper shank mill have tapered shank.
Straight Shank Mill: Straight shank mill having straight shank.
Shell End Mills: These are normally used for face milling operation. Cutters of different
sizes can be accommodated on a single common shank.
‘T’ Slot Milling Cutters: These are the special form of milling cutters used to produce
„T‟ shaped slots in the work piece. These have cutting edges on their periphery and both
sides.
Fly cutters: Fly cutters are the simplest form of cutters used to make contoured surfaces.
These cutters are the single cutting point cutting tools.
Convex Milling Cutters: These cutters have profile outwards at their circumference and
used to generate concave semicircular surface on the work piece.
Concave Milling Cutters: These milling cutters have teeth profile curve in words on their
circumference. These are used to generate convex semicircular surfaces.
Corner Rounding Milling Cutters: These cutters have teeth curved inwards. These milling
cutters are used to form contours of quarter circle. These are main used in making round
corners and round edges of the work piece.
Thread Milling Cutter: These cutters are designated to mill threads of specific form and
size on the work piece. These cutters may be with parallel shank of tapered shank and mainly
used to make worms.
Top and Reamer Cutter: Top and reamer cutters are the cutters of double angle type, these
are normally used to make grooves and flutes in taps or reamers. Taps and reamers are used
as thread cutting tools for softer material work pieces.
Figure 1.10 Types of milling cutters
1.6 END MILL CUTTERS
1.6.1 Tool geometry

An end mill is a type of milling cutter, a cutting tool used in industrial milling applications. It
is distinguished from the drill bit, in its application, geometry, and manufacture. While a drill
bit can only cut in the axial direction, a milling bit can generally cut in all directions, though
some cannot cut axially. End mills are used in milling applications such as profile milling,
tracer milling, face milling, and plunging.
 Angular Edge - That cutting edge that is a straight line, forming an angle with the cutter
axis. The surface produced by a cutting edge of this type will not be flat as is the case
with a helical cutting edge.
 Axial Run out - The difference between the highest and lowest indicator reading taken at
the face of a cutter near the outer diameter.
 Chamfer - A short relieved flat installed where the periphery and face of a cutter meet.
Used to strengthen the otherwise weak corner.

A -mill size or cutting

diameter B - shank diameter
C - length of cut or flute length
D - overall length
Figure 1.11 Tool geometry of end mill cutter
 Chip Breakers - Special geometry of the rake face that causes the chip to curl tightly and
break.
 Chip Splitters - Notches in the circumference of a Corn cob style End mill cutter resulting
in narrow chips. Suitable for rough machining.
 Core Diameter - The diameter of a cylinder (or cone shape with tapered End mills)
tangent to the flutes at the deepest point.
 Counter bore - A recess in a non-end cutting tool to facilitate grinding.
 Cutter Sweep (Run out) - Material removed by the fluting cutter (or grinding wheel) at
the end of the flute.
 Cutting Edge (A) - The leading edge of the cutter tooth. The intersection of two finely
finished surfaces, generally of an included angle of less than 90 degrees.
 Cutting Edge Angle - The angle formed by the cutting edge and the tool axis.
 Differential pitch cutters - A specifically designed variation in the radial spacing of the
cutter teeth. This provides a variation in tooth spacing and can be beneficial in reducing
chatter. This concept is based on reducing the harmonic effect of the tool contacting the
part in an exact moment of vibration.
 Entrance Angle - The angle formed by a line through the center of the cutter at 90 to the
direction of feed and a radial line through the initial point of contact. As this angle
approaches 90 degrees the shock loading is increased.
 Entrance Angle: Ramp-in - Angle or radius value to enter the cutter into the part surface
 Fillet - The radius at the bottom of the flute, from which core diameter is found.
 Flute - Space between cutting teeth providing chip space and regrinding capabilities. The
number of cutting edges. Sometimes referred to as "teeth" or "gullet". The number on an
end mill will determine the feed rate.
 Weldon Shank - Industry name for a specific type of shank with a drive and location flat.
The flat on the cutter provides positive (non-slip) driving surface to the End mill.
 Tooth - The cutting edge of the End mill.
 Tooth Face - Also known as the Rake Face. The portion of the tooth upon which the tooth
meets the part.
1.7 END MILL TECHNICAL FEATURES

 Back taper - A slight taper resulting in the shank end of the cutting diameter being
smaller than the cutting end. This condition aids not only the plunging or drilling
condition but also tends to compensate for deflection.
 Clearance - Space created by the removal of additional tool material from behind the
relief angle.
 Clearance Angle - The angle formed by the cleared surface and line tangent to the cutting
edge.
o Clearance: Primary (1st angle, 5°-9°) - Relief adjacent to the cutting edge.
o Clearance: Secondary (2nd angle, 14°-17°) - Relief adjacent to cutting edge
o Clearance: Tertiary (3rd) - Additional relief clearance provided adjacent to the

secondary angle.
Figure 1.12 Clearance of End Mill
 Concave - Small hollow required on the end face of an End mill. This feature is produced
by a Dish angle produced on the cutter.
 Convex - An outward projection radius feature on the end face of a Ball mill.
 Dish Angle - The angle formed by the end cutting edge and a plane perpendicular to the
cutter axis. Dish ensures that a flat surface is produced by the cutter.
 Gash (Notch) - The secondary cuts on a tool to provide chip space at corners and ends.
The space forming the end cutting edge, which is used when feeding axially. 
 Gash angle - The relief angle of the gash feature.
 Gash width - The width of the gash feature. The space between cutting edges, which
provides chip space and re-sharpening capabilities. Sometimes called the flute.
 Heel - The back edge of the relieved land. It is the surface of the tooth trailing the cutting
edge.
 Helical - A cutting edge or flute which progresses uniformly around a cylindrical surface
in an axial direction. The normal helical direction is a right direction spiral.
 Helix Angle - The angle formed by a line tangent to the helix and a plane through the axis
of the cutter or the cutting edge angle which a helical cutting edge makes with a plane

containing the axis of a cylindrical cutter.
Figure 1.13 Different angles shown in an end mill

 Hook - A term used to refer to a concave condition of a tooth face. This term implies a
curved surface rather than a straight surface. Hook must be measured at the cutting edge,
making measurement difficult.
 Land - The narrow surface of a profile sharpened cutter tooth immediately behind the
cutting edge,
o (A) Cylindrical - a narrow portion of the peripheral land, adjacent to the cutting
edge, having no radial relief.
o (B) Relieved - A portion of the land adjacent to the cutting edge, which provides
relief.
 Lead - The axial advance of a helical cutting edge in one revolution.
Lead = (Cutter diameter x Pi) / Tangent Helix Angle
 Length of Cut (Flute Length) - The effective axial length of the peripheral cutting edge
which has been relieved to cut.

 Radial Rake angle - The angle made by the rake face and a radius measured in a plane
normal to the axis.
Figure 1.14 Tool terminology
 Rake - The angular relationship between the tooth face or a tangent to the tooth face at a
given point and a reference plane or line. An angular feature ground onto the surface of
an end mill.
o Axial rake - The angle formed by a plane passing through the axis and a line
coinciding with or tangent to the tooth face.
o Effective rake - The rake angle influencing chip formation most is that measured
normal to the cutting edge. The effective rake angle is greatly affected by the
radial and axial rakes only when corner angles are involved.
o Helical rake - For most purposes the terms helical and axial rake can be used
interchangeably. It is the inclination of the tooth face with reference to a plane
through the cutter axis.

o Negative Rake - Exists when the initial contact between tool and work piece
occurs at a point or line on the tooth other than the cutting edge. The rake surface
leads the cutting edge.
Figure 1.15 Rake

o Positive Rake - Exists when the initial contact between the cutter and the work
piece occurs at the cutting edge. The cutting edge leads the rake surface.
 Relief-Space - Provided by removing material immediately behind the cutting edge. Done
to eliminate the possibility of heeling or rubbing.
o Axial angle relief - The angle made by a line tangent to the relieved surface at the
end cutting edge and a plane normal to the axis.
o Axial relief - The relief measured in the axial direction between a plane
perpendicular to the axis at the cutting edge and the relieved surface. Helps
to prevent rubbing as the corner wears.
o Concave relief - The relieved surface behind the cutting edge having a concave
form. Produced by a grinding wheel set at 90 degrees to the cutter axis.
o Eccentric relief - The relieved surface behind the cutting edge having a convex
form. Produced by a type I wheel presented at an angle to the cutter axis.

o End relief - Relief on the end of an end mill. Needed only for plunging cutters and
to relieve rubbing as the result of corner wear.
o Flat relief - The relieved surface behind the cutting edge having a flat surface
produced by the face of a cup wheel.
o Radial relief - Relief in a radial direction measured in the plane of rotation. It can
be measured by the amount of indicator drop at a given radius in a given amount
of angular rotation.
 Tangential rake angle - The angle made by a line tangent to a hooked tooth at the cutting
edge and a radius passing through the same point in plane normal to the axis.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
J.Tlusty, S.Smith and W.R.Winfough [1] studied two techniques using end mills in high-
speed milling, in the first, the top speed and power of the spindle are accepted as fixed, and
the structural dynamics are manipulated by adjusting the tool length so as to take the
advantage of stability lobe effects. Sometimes, lengthening of tool improves the metal
removal rate. The second technique permits the machining of parts with very thin ribs. Tools
with relieved shanks are used to avoid increases in axial depth of cut associated with forced
vibration of the rib. Photographs of parts made with and without such tooling are shown.
PD fuzzy logic controller is designed and implemented by E. Soliman and F. Ismail [2] to
suppress chatter in peripheral milling. The controller selects combination of amplitude and
frequency of spindle speed modulation, online, to keep a chatter indicator, the R-value, close
to the prescribed set point. The controller was successful in suppressing the chatter at certain
operating points. The effect of the control action delay time and the degree of process
instability on the controller performance was addressed through simulations and experiments.
At some operating points the controller resulted in an oscillatory behavior of the process and
R-value fluctuated significantly. Stability lobes were used to explain this phenomenon.
Strategies for enhancing the performance of the controller were proposed.
F. Ismail and E.G. Kubica [3] proposed the maximum quantity of material that can be
removed by the milling operation which is often limited by the stability of the cutting
process, and not by the power available on the machine. Several methods have therefore been
devised to improve the stability of this important machining operation, the most recognized
ones being;
1. Specially designed milling cutters.

2. Spindle speed selection
3. Spindle speed modulation

Specially designed cutters have been demonstrated to improve stability by many authors, but they
have failed to gain wide industrial acceptance since they tend to be application specific, and more
costly than conventional cutters.
Smith and Dilio [4] have described a control strategy for chatter suppression by adjusting the
spindle speed to operate in high stability lobe. Experimentally, they achieved a remarkable
increase in metal removal rates. The main disadvantage of employing this spindle speed
selection method however, is that meaningful stability lobes occur at very high speeds,
beyond most of the available milling machines in industry. The technique of spindle speed
modulation has been investigated by several authors, although the focus here will be mainly
on change in the design of the damper inserted into the tool.
Weck et al [5] attempted to assess the merits of using the spindle speed modulation and for
that matter any other technique for chatter suppression, one needs to detect the onset chatter
reliably. In milling operations, this is not easy task, typically, the boundary between the
stable and unstable conditions is blurred by transients due to tooth impact on cutter run out.
This blurring is amplified drastically when applying certain chatter suppression techniques
like spindle speed modulation method. Therefore it is of extreme importance to have tool
which can accurately diagnose whether the cutting conditions are acceptable or not. In
addition to accuracy, this discriminating tool should not be dependent on cutting parameters.
The limit of stability is defined as the axial depth of cut at which chatter commences.
M. Liang, T.Yeap, A. Hermansyah [6] reported a fuzzy logic approach for chatter
suppression in end milling processes. Vibration energy and the peak value of vibration
frequency spectrum are jointly used as chatter indicators and inputs to the proposed fuzzy
controller. The outputs of the fuzzy controller are the altered machining parameters for
chatter suppression. This approach does not require a pre-selected nominal spindle speed and
has avoided the difficulties in selecting spindle speeds modulation parameters present in
several other spindle speed variation methods. Experimental results show that chatter can be
effectively suppressed by altering spindle speed alone or by simultaneously adjusting feed
and spindle speed. However chatter cannot be suppressed by feed adjustment alone.

Tlusty and Tyler [7] suggested the use of stability lobes to select chatter free spindle speeds.
Once chatter has been detected in their system, the feed was stopped while the chatter
vibrations were analyzed. A new spindle speed was then calculated and invoked, and the feed
was reinstated. While the results reported in the above work were impressive, they did not
offer true online strategies for chatter suppression. They require the stopping the machines,
which may need several commands depending on the part of the geometry and other path. In
addition meaning stability lobes occur at very high speeds which necessitates highly
specialized drives
Lin et al and Engelhardt et al [8] has been demonstrated the technique of spindle speed
modulation to be very effective in suppressing chatter in milling at regular cutting speeds. It
should be noted, that the speed modulation parameters are application specific and may not
be suitable for entire job. The static force variation that results from modulated feed per tooth
could produce undesirable effects where constant speed cutting may suffice. Hence this
technique on its own lacks broad applicability.
Ralston and Ward [9] proposed the use of spindle speed modulation by adjusting the
parameters on-line via feedback control. Owing to the availability of a suitable analytical
model and the inherent non linearity of the chatter phenomenon in milling process, it was
found that the fuzzy logic control approach was well suited for the current investigation.
Applications on fuzzy logic control are expanding rapidly in many fields, yet the reported
applications in the areas of machining and machine tools are very few so far. Zhu developed
a fuzzy logic control to control the surface finish by adjusting the feed rate in plunge
grinding.
Kosuke Nagaya, Jyoji Kobayasi, Katuhito Imai [10] given a method of micro-vibration
control of milling machine heads by use of vibration absorber. The principle used in this
paper is different from that of usual absorber. An auto-tuning vibration absorber is presented
in which the absorber creates anti-resonance state. When anti-resonance is used, the damping
has to be significantly small, so it is difficult to suppress higher modal vibrations. In order to

suppress higher modal modes, an auto-magnetic damper is used. It damps higher modal
vibrations, but it also increases principal vibrations. Then a method of optimal auto-tuning
control is presented in which both principal and higher modal vibrations are suppressed.
Ziegert John C. Stanislaus Charles, Schmitz Tony L. Streling Robert [11] found that the
limiting chatter-free depth of cut in milling is dependent on dynamic stiffness of the tool or
spindle system. A method for increasing the dynamic stiffness by providing additional
damping is demonstrated. The proposed damper is multi-fingered cylindrical insert placed in
an interior bore located inside conventional milling cutters. Spindle rotation forces these
flexible fingers against the inner surface of the tool, bending of the tool during cutting
dissipate energy through friction, leading to improved damping and dynamic stiffness. This
presents an analytical model of the damper, experimental measurements of tool response and
comparison between stable cutting depths using both conventional tool and with the damping
insert.
N.H.Kim, K.K.Choi, J.S.Chen and Y.H.Park [12] proposed a continuum-based shape design
sensitivity formulation for a frictional contact problem with a rigid body using mesh less
method. The contact condition is imposed using the penalty method that regularizes the
solution of variational inequality. The shape dependency of the contact variational form with
respect to the design velocity field obtained. The dependency of the response with respect to
the shape of the rigid body is also considered. It is shown that the sensitivity equation needs
to be solved at the final converged load step for the frictionless contact problem, whereas for
frictional contact case the sensitivity solution is needed at the converged configuration of
each load step because the sensitivity of the current load step depends on that of the previous
load step. The continuum-based contact formulation and consistent linearization is critical for
accurate shape design sensitivity results. The accuracy of the proposed method is compared
with the finite difference result and excellent agreement is obtained for a door seal contact
example. A design optimization problem is formulated and solved to reduce the contact gap
opening successfully in a demonstration of proposed method.

Tony L. Schmitz, John C. Ziegert, Charles Stanislaus [13] predicted that the stable cutting
regions are a critical requirement for high-speed milling operations. In practice, these
predications are generally made using measurement of the tool or spindle. It is known that
significant changes in the system dynamics may occur during high-speed rotation. This paper
describes an experimental method for the prediction of stable cutting regions which reflects
the dynamics of the rotating system. In general stability lobe diagrams are developed by
selecting the cutting parameters, which include the process-dependent specific cutting energy
coefficients, radial immersion, and system dynamics and then carrying out selected
simulation algorithm. In general, the tool point frequency response function is measured
using impact testing, where an instrumented hammer is used to excite the tool point and the
response is measured using appropriate transducer, while the spindle is stationary, or non-
rotating. The under lying assumption here is that the spindle dynamics do not change as the
spindle speed is increased. However, any variation in the tool point frequency response
function with changes in spindle speed will directly translate into errors in the stability limit
predicted by the selected analysis technique. Potential sources fro these variations are
described.
Sridhar et al [14] presented the first detailed mathematical model with time varying cutting
force coefficients.
Minis and Yanushevsky [15], developed a comprehensive analytical method to solve the
model.
Budak and Altintas [16] derived the finite order characteristic equation for the stability
analysis in milling. Fourier series components are used to approximate the time varying
dynamic cutting force coefficients, and chatter free axial depth of cuts and spindle speeds are
derived analytically. In the past, milling process was modeled as a lumped mass system.
They are valid for some kinds of machining processes, such as face milling, etc. For end
milling, the cutter is in the shape of cantilever beam, and the cutting forces are distributed
loads. In order to account for the flexibility, a cantilever beam model is considered for the
better understanding of chatter mechanism.
R.P.H.Faassen, N. van de Wouw, J.A.J.Oosterling, H.Nijmeijer [17], worked for the

efficiency of milling process, high material removal rate and the surface finish. The process
parameters, determining these rates, are restricted by the occurrence of regenerative chatter.
The milling process is modeled, based on dedicated experiments that show both the material
behavior of the work piece material and machine dynamics. These experiments show that
both the properties and the machine dynamics are dependent on spindle speed. Furthermore,
a method for the prediction of the chatter boundaries is proposed and applied in order to
predict the chatter boundaries as a function of process parameter, such as spindle speed
depth-of-cut, for spindle speed varying material and machine parameters. Finally,
experiments are performed to estimate these chatter boundaries in practice. The modeled
chatter boundaries are compared to the experimental results in order to validate the model
and the stability analysis. The change in the design of end miller will reduce the chatter
vibrations. It is suggested the usage of auto-tuning magnetic damper to suppress higher mode
vibrations. In present work auto-tuning magnetic damper will be replaced by steel insert
dampers to reduce the chatter vibrations and thereby improve the surface quality. This will
enable to design optimum mechanical damper.
Recent investigation performed by Alauddin et al. [18] has revealed that when the
cutting speed is increased, productivity can be maximized, and surface quality can be
improved. According to Hasegawa et al. [19], surface finish can be characterized by various
parameters such as average roughness (Ra), smoothening depth (Rp), root mean square (Rq),
and maximum peak-to-valley height (Rt).
The Present study uses average roughness (Ra) for the characterization of surface
finish since it is widely used in industry. By using factors such as cutting speed, feed rate and
depth of cut, Hashmi and his coworkers [20,21] have developed surface roughness models
and determined the cutting conditions for 190 BHN steel and Inconel 718. EI-Baradie [22]
and Bandyopadhyay [23] have shown that by increasing cutting speed, the productivity can
be maximized, and the surface quality can be improved simultaneously. According to
Gorlenko [24] and Thomas [25], surface finish can be characterized by various parameters.

CHAPTER 3
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Surface finish is also known as Surface texture and surface e commonly shortened to
roughness is a measure of the finely spaced surface irregularities. In engineering, this is what
is usually meant by “surface finish”.
Surface roughness, often shortened to roughness, is a measure of the texture of a

surface. It is quantified by the vertical deviations of a real surface from its ideal form.
If these deviations are large, the surface is rough; if they are small the surface is
smooth. Roughness is typically considered to be the high frequency, short wavelength
component of a measured surface.
Roughness plays an important role in determining how a real object will interact with
its environment. Rough surfaces usually wear more quickly and have higher friction
coefficients than smooth surfaces.
Figure 3.1 Indication of roughness

Roughness is often a good predictor of the performance of a mechanical component,

since irregularities in the surface may form nucleation sites for cracks or corrosion. Although
roughness is often undesirable, it is difficult and expensive to control in manufacturing.
Decreasing the roughness of a surface will usually increase exponentially its manufacturing
costs. This often results in a trade-off between the manufacturing cost of a component and its
performance in application.
The geometrical characteristics of a surface include:
Macro-deviations
Surface waviness and
Micro-irregularities
Figure 3.2 Roughness geometry
The surface roughness is evaluated by the height-Rt and Mean roughness index Ra of the
micro-irregularities.

The parameters used for measuring surface roughness
Surface roughness number

Represents the average departure of the surface from perfection over a prescribed
sampling length,(usually selected as 0.8mm).
Surface roughness number (Ra) is expressed in microns.
Ra= (h1+h2+----+hn)/n
The measurements are usually made along a line, running at angle to the general direction of
tool marks on the surface.
Actual profile, Af
It is the profile of the actual surface obtained by finishing operation
Reference profile, Rf
It is the profile to which the irregularities of the surface are referred to. it passes
through the highest point of the actual profile.
Datum profile, Df
It is the profile, parallel to the reference profile .it passes through the lowest point B
of the actual profile
Mean Profile, Mf
It is that profile, within the sampling length chosen (L) such that the sum of the
material-filled areas enclosed above it by the actual profile is equal to the sum of the material
void area enclosed below it by the profile.
Peak to valley height, Rt
It is the distance from the datum profile to the reference profile.

Mean roughness index, Ra
It is the arithmetic mean of the absolute value of the highest hi between the actual and
meanprofile.
Ra = 1/L ∫x=0 |hi| dx, where L is sampling length.
The roughness may be measured by using any of the following
 Straight edge
 Surface gauge
 Optical flat
 Tool maker’s microscope
 Profilometer
 Profilograph
 Talysurf
Surface texture is analogues to the finger prints left behind by the manufacturing
process. The mechanism of surface generation parameters is influenced by various intrinsic
and extrinsic factors like cutting tool material and its geometry, work material characteristics
and machine tool rigidity etc.
Besides these there are some error factors like vibrations, type of lubricant used etc.
An ideal surface is formed by the repletion of the cutting tool tip profile at intervals of feed
per revolution.
However the actual surfaces generation involves the detachment of material in the
form of chips and some other factors like tool wear, deflection, vibrations and spindle
rotation errors etc. Thus the nature of the surface generated in turning is supposed to be
periodic theoretically while roughness of an actual surface can be regarded as complex and
composed of both periodic and random components.

Figure 3.3 Fish bone diagram with the parameters that affect surface
roughness.
3.1 SURFACE TERMINOGY
Since the dawn of engineering it has been recognized that all surfaces have “texture” but it
was only in the early 1930’s that any attempt was made to characterize them. As the
understanding of surfaces increased (initially it was machined surfaces which were
considered), instruments were developed which enabled a two dimensional profile of the
surface to be measured. From these early measures the combination of identified roughness,
waviness and lay was defined as the texture of the surface. The definitions of all the terms are
provided below.

Surface finish
Surface finish, also known a surface texture or surface topography, is the nature of
a surface as defined by the 3 characteristics of lay, surface roughness and waviness. It
comprises the small local deviations of a surface from the perfectly flat ideal (a true plane).
Surface texture is one of the important factors that control friction and transfer layer
formation during sliding. Considerable efforts have been made to study the influence of
surface texture on friction and wear during sliding conditions.
Surface textures can be isotropic or anisotropic. Sometimes, stick-slip friction

phenomena can be observed during sliding depending on surface texture.
Measurement of Surface Roughness
Figure3.4 Measurement of surface roughness

Surface finish may be measured in two ways: contact and non-contact methods.
Contact methods involve dragging a measurement stylus across the surface; these
instruments are called Profilometer. Non-contact methods include interferometry, confocal
microscopy, focus variation, structured light, electrical capacitance, electron microscopy,
and photogrammetry.
The most common method is to use a diamond stylus Profilometer. The stylus is run
perpendicular to the lay of the surface. The probe usually traces along a straight line on a flat
surface or in a circular arc around a cylindrical surface. The length of the path that it traces is
called the measurement length.
The wavelength of the lowest frequency filter that will be used to analyze the data is
usually defined as the sampling length. Most standards recommend that the measurement
length should be at least seven times longer than the sampling length, and according to
the NY Quist–Shannon sampling theorem it should be at least two times longer than the
wavelength of interesting features. The assessment length or evaluation length is the length
of data that will be used for analysis. Commonly one sampling length is discarded from each
end of the measurement length. 3D measurements can be made with a Profilometer by
scanning over a 2D area on the surface.
The disadvantage of a Profilometer is that it is not accurate when the size of the
features of the surface is close to the same size as the stylus. Another disadvantage is that
Profilometer have difficulty detecting flaws of the same general size as the roughness of the
surface. There are also limitations for non-contact instruments. For example, instruments that
rely on optical interference cannot resolve features that are less than some fraction of the
operating wavelength. This limitation can make it difficult to accurately measure roughness
even on common objects, since the interesting features may be well below the wavelength of
light. The wavelength of red light is about 650 nm while the average roughness, (Ra) of a
ground shaft might be 2000 nm.

The first step of analysis is to filter the raw data to remove very high frequency data
(called "micro-roughness") since it can often be attributed to vibrations or debris on the
surface. Filtering out the micro-roughness at a given cut-off threshold also allows to bring
closer the roughness assessment made using Profilometer having different stylus ball radius
e.g. 2µm and 5µm radii. Next, the data is separated into roughness, waviness and form.
Figure 3.5 The effect of different form removal techniques on surface finish analysis

This can be accomplished using reference lines, envelope methods, digital filters,
fractals or other techniques. Finally, the data is summarized using one or more roughness
parameters, or a graph. In the past, surface finish was usually analyzed by hand. The
roughness trace would be plotted on graph paper, and an experienced machinist decided what
data to ignore and where to place the mean line. Today, the measured data is stored on a
computer, and analyzed using methods from signal analysis and statistics.
Each manufacturing process (such as the many kinds of machining) produces a

surface texture. The process is usually optimized to ensure that the resulting texture is usable.
If necessary, an additional process will be added to modify the initial texture.
The latter process may be grinding (abrasive cutting), polishing, lapping, abrasive
blasting, honing, electrical discharge machining (EDM), milling, lithography, industrial
etching/chemical milling, laser texturing, or other processes.
Figure 3.6 Surface characteristics

Surface
The surface of an object is the boundary which separates that object from another
substance. Its shape and extent are usually defined by a drawing or descriptive specifications.
Profile
The contour of any specified section through a surface.
Roughness
Relatively fine spaced surface irregularities, on a surface by machining and abrasive

operations, the irregularities produced by the cutting action of tool edges and abrasive grains
and by the feed are roughness. It may be considered as being superposed an away surface.
Waviness (Secondary Texture)
The surface regularities, which are of greater spacing than the roughness, on a
machined surface irregularities, may result from machine work deflections, vibrations etc.
Waviness is the measurement of the more widely spaced component of surface

texture. It is a broader view of roughness because it is more strictly defined as "the
irregularities whose spacing is greater than the roughness sampling length". It can occur from
machine or work deflections, chatter, residual stress, vibrations, or heat treatment.
Waviness should also be distinguished from flatness, both by its shorter spacing and
its characteristic of being typically periodic in nature.
There are several parameters for expressing waviness height, the most common being
Wa&Wt, for average waviness and total waviness, respectively. In the lateral direction along
the surface, the waviness spacing, Wsm, is another parameter that describes the mean spacing
between periodic waviness peaks. There are numerous measurement settings which influence
this resultant parameter value, which are mentioned below. One of the most important is
the waviness evaluation length, which is the length in which the waviness parameters are

determined. Within this length the waviness profile is determined. This is a surface texture
profile that has the shorter roughness characteristics filtered out, or removed; it also does not
include any profile changes due to changes in work piece geometry that are either
unintentional (flatness) or intentional (form).
Waviness is included in the ISO standards ISO 4287 and ISO 16610-21 as well as the
U.S. standard ASME B46.1 and it is part of the surface texture symbol used in engineering
drawings.
Parameters
A roughness value can either be calculated on a profile (line) or on a surface (area).

The profile roughness parameter (Ra, Rq...) are more common. The area roughness
parameters (Sa, Sq...) give more significant values.
Profile roughness parameters
Each of the roughness parameters is calculated using a formula for describing the
surface. Although these parameters are generally considered to be "well known" a standard
reference describing each in detail is Surfaces and their Measurement.
There are many different roughness parameters in use, but is by far the most
common though this is often for historical reasons not for particular merit as the early
roughness meters could only measure . Other common parameters include , ,

and . Some parameters are used only in certain industries or within certain countries. For
example, the family of parameters is used mainly for cylinder bore linings, and the Motif
parameters are used primarily within France.
Since these parameters reduce all of the information in a profile to a single number,
great care must be taken in applying and interpreting them. Small changes in how the raw
profile data is filtered, how the mean line is calculated, and the physics of the measurement
can greatly affect the calculated parameter. With modern digital equipment it makes sense to

look at the scan and make sure there aren't some obvious glitches that are skewing the values
- and if there are, to re-measure.
Because it is not obvious to many users what each of the measurements really means,
it is helpful to have a simulation tool that lets you "play" with key parameters and see how
well (or badly) surfaces which are obviously different to the human eye are differentiated by
the measures. It is clear, for example that would fail to distinguish between two surfaces
where one is composed of peaks on an otherwise smooth surface and the other is composed
of troughs of the same amplitude. Such tools can be found in app format.
By convention every 2D roughness parameter is a capital R followed by additional

characters in the subscript. The subscript identifies the formula that was used, and the R
means that the formula was applied to a 2D roughness profile. Different capital letters imply
that the formula was applied to a different profile. For example, Ra is the arithmetic average
of the roughness profile, Pa is the arithmetic average of the unfiltered raw profile, and Sa is
the arithmetic average of the 3D roughness.
Each of the formulas listed in the tables assumes that the roughness profile has been
filtered from the raw profile data and the mean line has been calculated. The roughness
profile contains ordered, equally spaced points along the trace, and is the vertical
distance from the mean line to the data point. Height is assumed to be positive in the up
direction, away from the bulk material.
Amplitude parameters
Amplitude parameters characterize the surface based on the vertical deviations of the
roughness profile from the mean line. Many of them are closely related to the parameters
found in statistics for characterizing population samples. For example, is the arithmetic
average of the absolute values and Rt is the range of the collected roughness data points.
The roughness average, , is the most widely used one-dimensional roughness parameter.

Table 3.1 Amplitude parameters
Parameter Description Formula
arithmetic average of absolute

Ra, Raa, Ryni
values
Rq, RRMS root mean squared
Rv maximum valley depth
Rp maximum peak height
Rt Maximum Height of the Profile
Rsk skewness
Rku kurtosis

average distance between the

highest peak and lowest valley in
, where is the
RzDIN, Rtm each sampling length, ASME
number of sampling lengths, and
Y14.36M - 1996 Surface Texture
Symbols is for the sampling length.
Japanese Industrial Standard for

, based on the five highest peaks ,
RzJIS
and lowest valleys over the entire where and are the highest
sampling length.
peak, and lowest valley respectively.
Slope, spacing, and counting parameters
Slope parameters describe characteristics of the slope of the roughness profile.

Spacing and counting parameters describe how often the profile crosses certain thresholds.
These parameters are often used to describe repetitive roughness profiles, such as those
produced by turning on a lathe.
Other "frequency" parameters are Sm, a and q. Sm is the mean spacing between
peaks. Just as with real mountains it is important to define a "peak". For Sm the surface must
have dipped below the mean surface before rising again to a new peak. The average
wavelength a and the root mean square wavelength q are derived from a. When trying to
understand a surface that depends on both amplitude and frequency it is not obvious which
pair of metrics optimally describes the balance, so it is a good idea to do a statistical analysis
of pairs of measurements (e.g. Rz and a or Ra and Sm) to find the strongest correlation.

Table 3.2 Slope, spacing and counting parameters
Parameter Description Formula
the RMS
slope of the
Rdq, R q profile within
the sampling
length
the average
absolute slope
of the profile
Rda, R a
within the
sampling
length
where delta i
is calculated
according to
ASME B46.1
and is a 5th
order Savitzk
y–Golay
smoothing
filter

Bearing ratio curve parameters
These parameters are based on the bearing ratio curve (also known as the Abbott-
Firestone curve.) This includes the Rk family of parameters.
Figure 3.7 Bearing ratio curve parameters
Sketches depicting surfaces with negative and positive skew. The roughness trace is on the
left, the amplitude distribution curve is in the middle, and the bearing area curve (Abbott-
Firestone curve) is on the right.

Fractal theory
The mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot has pointed out the connection between
surface roughness and fractal dimension.
Areal roughness parameters
Areal roughness parameters are defined in the ISO 25178 series. The resulting values
are Sa, Sq, Sz ... At the moment many optical measurement instruments are able to measure
the surface roughness over an area. Area measurements are also possible with contact
measurement systems. Multiple, closely spaced 2D scans are taken of the target area. These
are then digitally stitched together using relevant software, resulting in a 3D image and
accompanying areal roughness parameters.
Flaws
Irregularities, which occur at one place, are at relatively infrequent intervals on the
surface, Eg. A scratch, ridge, hole, crack etc.
Lay
Lay is the direction of predominant surface pattern.
Quality of machined surface is one of the important criteria for judging the
effectiveness of machining. There are many situations where surface roughness on the job is
a primary importance. Though a given material may allow higher cutting speeds or induce
cutting forces, it may not produce good surface finish. Where the finish produced on the part
is a cause for rejection, this consideration has an important bearing on the cost. The higher
the surface finish on a material under a given set of conditions, the better is the
machinability. The major contributors to controlling of surface produced are
 The chip formation process

 The feed and overlap between successive cuts
 The vibrations produced and

 The chip curl
Figure 3.8 Lay formation
3.2 TYPES OF SURFACES
As indicated in the above the surface of an object is the boundary which separates
that object from another substance. The classification of surfaces is described in the fig 3.9.
Surfaces produced in specific ways that deliberately alter surface and sub-surface layers to
give a specific functional performance are called as engineered surfaces.
Non-Engineered Surfaces
Surfaces produced as a direct consequence of the manufacturing process where little

or no attempt is made to influence surface character are called as non-engineered surfaces.
Structured Surfaces
Surfaces with a deterministic pattern of usually high aspect ratio geometric features
designed to give a specific function are called as structured surfaces.

Surface classification
Engineering surface Non engineering surface
Structured Non-structured Random Systematic
Directional Non directional
Figure 3.9 Classification of engineered surfaces
Directional Surfaces
Surfaces with deterministic pattern which exhibits specific directionally are called as
directional surfaces.
Non-Directional Surfaces
Surfaces with a deterministic pattern but without specific directionality are called as
non-directional surfaces.
Un-Structured Surfaces
Surfaces where deliberate attempt has been made impart texture through semi-
control of manufacturing process without achieving a deterministic pattern.

Random Surfaces
Surfaces produced by random and pseudo-random processes are often with specific
intention of removing systematic features. These surfaces are called as Random surfaces.
Systematic Surfaces
Surfaces exhibiting some repetitive features which are a consequence of the natural
constrains of the process by which they have been produced are called as systematic
surfaces.
3.3 FACTORS EFFECTING SURFACE ROUGHNESS
The various factors which Affect surface roughness are broadly classified into
three types. They are
1. Intrinsic factors
2. Extrinsic factors
3. Error factors
3.3.1 Intrinsic Factors
The factors which can be viewed on the surface profile diagram are known as
intrinsic factors.
These factors are feed rate, nose radius, end cutting edge angle and side
cutting edge angle.
Feed Rate
Feed rate is the velocity at which at which the cutter is fed, that is advanced
against the work piece. It is expressed in units of distance per revolution for turning.

Feed rate is dependent on the
 Surface finish desired.

 Power available at the spindle (to prevent stalling of the cutter or work
piece).
 Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (ability to with stand vibration
or chatter).
 Strength of the work piece (high feed rates will collapse thin tubing)
 Characteristics of the material being cut, chip flow depends on material
type and feed rate. The ideal chip is small and breaks free early, carrying
heat away from the tool and work.
When deciding what feed rate to use for certain cutting operation, the
calculation is fairly straightforward for single-point cutting tools, because all of the
cutting is done at one point (done by “one tooth”, as it were ). With a milling
machine or jointer, where multi-tipped-fluted cutting tools are involved, then the
desirable feed rate becomes dependent on the number of teeth on the cutter.
The greater the number of the cutting edges, the higher the feed rate
permissible: for a cutting edge to work efficiently it must remove sufficient material
to cut rather than rub; it must do its fair share of work.
Nose radius
Nose Radius makes the finish of the cut smoother as it can overlap the previous cut
and eliminate the peaks and valleys that a pointed tool produces. Having a radius
also strengthens the tip, a sharp point being quite fragile.
End cutting edge angle
It act as a relief angle that it allows only small section the end cutting to contact the
machined surface and prevent chatter and vibration.

Side cutting edge angle
It avoids the formation of built up edge, controls the direction of chip flow and
distributed the cutting force and heat produced over large cutting.
3.3.2 Extrinsic factors
The factors which cannot be viewed on the surface profile diagram are known as
intrinsic factors. These include cutting speed, depth of cut, rake angle and work
material properties.
Cutting speed
Cutting speed, depth may be defined as the rate (or speed) that the material
moves past the cutting edge of the tool, irrespective of the machining operation used.
The cutter material, for a given material there will be an optimum cutting speed for
certain set of machining conditions, and from this speed the spindle speed (rpm) can
be calculated. Factors affecting the calculation of cutting speed are:
 The material being machined

 The cutting material
 Economic life of cutter
Cutting speeds are calculated on the assumption that optimum cutting
conditions exists, these include:
 Metal removal rate

 Full and constant flow of cutting fluid
 Rigidity of the machined and tooling setup (reduction in vibration or
chatter)
 Continuity of cut (as compared to an interrupted cut, such as machining
square section material in a lathe)
 Condition of material
Rake angle
Back rake is to help control the direction of the chip, which naturally curves
into the work due to the difference in length from the outer and inner parts of the
cut. It also counteract the pressure against the tool from the work by pulling the
tool into the work.
Side rake along with back rake controls the chip flow and partly counteracts
the resistance of the work to the movement of the cutter and can be optimized to
suit the particular material being cut. Brass for example requires a back and side rake
of 0 degrees while aluminum uses a back rake of 35 degrees and a side rake of 15
degrees.
Depth of cut
Depth of cut is defined the depth up to which the material is removed for
each pass in machining. Depth of cut plays an important role in developing a good
surface.
Work material properties
The properties of material to be machined are of prime importance in

obtaining a good surface. The general properties to be considered in analyzing the
surface finish of the manufactured component are brittleness and ductility.
Ductility
The ability of a material to change shape (deform) usually by stretching along

its length.
Brittleness
The ability of material to break usually by stretching along its length.

3.3.3 Error factors
The factors other than intrinsic and extrinsic factors are included in error factors. The
factors include vibrations cutting fluid used etc.
Cutting Fluid
Cutting fluids are various fluids that are used in machining to cool and
lubricate the cutting tool. There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils,
oil-water emulsion , pastes, gels and mists. They may made from petroleum
distillates, animal fats, plant oils, or other raw ingredients.
Figure 3.10 Symbols of surface roughness
Vibrations
Vibrations refer to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. In case of

turning in a lathe, the machine will be subjected to various such as longitudinal,
transverse and tangential. These vibrations affect the surface finish if component
manufactured.

Specification
In the United States, surface finish is usually specified using the ASME Y14.36M
standard. The other common standard is International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
1302.
3.4 MANUFACTURING
Many factors contribute to the surface finish in manufacturing. In forming processes,

such as molding or metal forming, surface finish of the die determines the surface finish of
the work piece. In machining the interaction of the cutting edges and the microstructure of
the material being cut both contribute to the final surface finish.
In general, the cost of manufacturing a surface increases as the surface finish

improves. Any given manufacturing process is usually optimized enough to ensure that the
resulting texture is usable for the part's intended application. If necessary, an additional
process will be added to modify the initial texture. The expense of this additional process
must be justified by adding value in some way—principally better function or longer
lifespan. Parts that have sliding contact with others may work better or last longer if the
roughness is lower. Aesthetic improvement may add value if it improves the salability of the
product.
A practical example is as follows. An aircraft maker contracts with a vendor to make

parts. A certain grade of steel is specified for the part because it is strong enough and hard
enough for the part's function. The steel is machinable although not free-machining. The
vendor decides to mill the parts. The milling can achieve the specified roughness (for
example, ≤ 3.2 µm) as long as the machinist uses premium-quality inserts in the end mill and
replaces the inserts after every 20 parts (as opposed to cutting hundreds before changing the
inserts).

There is no need to add a Second operation (such as grinding or polishing) after the
milling as long as the milling is done well enough (correct inserts, frequent-enough insert
changes, and clean coolant). The inserts and coolant cost money, but the costs that grinding
or polishing would incur (more time and additional materials) would cost even more than that
obviating the second operation results in a lower unit cost and thus a lower price.
The competition between vendors elevates such details from minor to crucial
importance. It was certainly possible to make the parts in a slightly less efficient way (two
operations) for a slightly higher price; but only one vendor can get the contract, so the slight
difference in efficiency is magnified by competition into the great difference between the
prospering and shuttering of firms.
Just as different manufacturing processes produce parts at various tolerances, they are
also capable of different roughnesses. Generally these two characteristics are linked:
manufacturing processes that are dimensionally precise create surfaces with low roughness.
In other words, if a process can manufacture parts to a narrow dimensional tolerance,

the parts will not be very rough.
Due to the abstractness of surface finish parameters, engineers usually use a tool that has a
variety of surface roughness’s created using different manufacturing methods.
Practical effects
In terms of engineering surfaces, roughness is considered to be detrimental to part

performance. As a consequence, most manufacturing prints establish an upper limit on
roughness, but not a lower limit. An exception is in cylinder bores where oil is retained in the
surface profile and a minimum roughness is required.
Roughness is often closely related to the friction and wear properties of a surface. A surface
with a large value, or a positive , will usually have high friction and wear quickly.
The peaks in the roughness profile are not always the points of contact. The form and
waviness (i.e. both amplitude and frequency) must also be considered.

It affects the productivity of wind generation farms.
3.5 METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE ROUGHNESS
There are two methods used for measuring the finish of machined parts.
1. Surface inspection by comparison methods.
2. Direct instrument measurement.
In comparison methods, the surface texture is assessed by observation of the surface.

The various methods available under comparison methods are Touch inspection, Visual
inspection, Scratch inspection, microscopic inspection, Surface photographs, Micro
interferometer and reflected light intensity.
Direct instrument measurement enable to determine a numerical value of the

surface finish of any surface. Nearly all instruments used are stylus probe type of
instruments can be of two kinds. One type operates on voltage-generating principle. The
second type operates on the carrier-modulating principle. In both these types the output
has to be amplified and amplified output is used to operate a recording or indicating
instrument.
The perimeter is a surface measuring and recording instrument that has found
worldwide acceptance. This acceptance is because of its vast measuring capacity and
its ease of operation. For this reason this instrument is suitable for use both on site
as well as in departments, industries and laboratories.
With its fully digital measurement processing system, the instrument has a
constant optimal degree of measuring precision. The results are recorded using recording
pen. It operates on the basis of tracing principle. i.e., the instrument has a constant optimal
degree of measuring precision. The results are recorded using recording pen. It operates on
the tracing principle. i.e., the surface to be investigated, is scanned by the tracing head
of a micro pick-up moving in a parallel plane of the test surface. The perthometer is
constructed from ultra-modern, high quality electronic components and has fully digital,
automatic, microprocessor controlled measurement evaluation system.
3.5.1 Talysurf instrument
The Taylor-Hobson Talysurf

The Talysurf an electronic instrument working on carrier modulating principle this
instrument also gives the same information as the previous instrument, but much more
rapidly and accurately. This instrument as also the previous one records the static
displacement of the stylus and is dynamic instrument like profile meter.
Figure 3.11 Schematic Layout of Talysurf

The measuring head of this instrument consists of a diamond stylus of about
0.002mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a
motorized driving unit (gearbox), which provides three motorized speeds giving respectively
x 20 and x 100 horizontal magnification and a speed suitable for average reading. A neutral
position in which the pick-up can be traversed manually is also provided. In this case the arm
carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots about the Centre piece of E-shaped
stamping. On two legs of (outer pole pieces) the J5-shaped stamping there are coils carrying
an a.c. current. These two coils with other two resistances form an oscillator. As the armature

is pivoted about the central leg, any movement of the stylus causes the air gap to vary and
thus the amplitude of the original a. c. current flowing in the coils is modulated. The output
of the bridge thus consists of modulation only as shown in Fig 3.11.
This is further demodulated so that the current now is directly proportional to the
vertical displacement of the stylus only. The demodulated output is caused to operate a pen
recorder to produce a permanent record and a meter to give a numerical assessment directly.
In recorder of this statement the marking medium is an electric discharge through a specially
treated paper which blackens at the point of the stylus, so this has no distortion due to drag
and the record strictly rectilinear one.
Now-a-days microprocessors have made available complete statistical multi-trace

systems measuring several places over a given area and can provide standard deviations and
average over area-type readings and define complete surface characterization. These systems
lend themselves to research applications where specialized programming can achieve
autocorrelation, power spectrum analysis and peak curvature.
Stylus
Phonograph needles, though used in some cases are found to be too large and too
heavily loaded. It also causes damage. Diamond styli are used universally. Some of them are
cones of 90° include dangle and tip radius 4-12 urn. A popular stylus with truncated pyramid.
The angle between the faces is 90°. The short edge is parallel to the direction of motion. Thus
this stylus cannot resolve a wavelength shorter than 6 mm, and integrates over a narrow strip
of surface 8 mm wide.
It may be noted that this pick up has finite dimensions, and it is constrained to move
in a nearly vertical plane, relative to the moving pickup. Thus the stylus cannot record re-
entrant features, an unimportant drawback for engineering investigations as re-entrant
structures are absent on most machined surfaces. This stylus will fail to follow peaks and
valley faithfully and produces a distorted record of the surface.

Since the dimensions of the stylus are finite, so also is the load on it. The load is of
the order of 70 mg force. But as the area of contact is too small, the local pressure may be
sufficiently high to cause significant local elastic downward deformation of the surface under
examination.
Figure 3.12 Talysurf
The areas to be considered include
 Capability of the instrument.

 The measuring environment.
 The component and its set-up
 Data acquisition and analysis
The measuring system

Performance of a profiling instrument depends on the optimal balance of a number of

features; the most important of which are gauge linearity, datum straightness, gauge
resolution and noise floor. Poor performance in any one of these area will produce a poor
result, however good the others may be.
A good assessment of an instrument is to measure an inclined glass flat. Any
deviation from a straight line indicates inaccuracies of the form measurement capability of
the system.
It is vitally important to obtain a good calibration prior to the measurement to set the
gain and linearity of the gauge. The quality of the calibration artefact is also important
because any errors will be passed through to the measurement results on the actual
component.
The ease and speed of the Handy surf calibration offers significant benefits. Accurate
calibrations can be made as frequently as necessary, with excellent repeatability between
operators.
The measurement environment
The instrument should be isolated from physical factors that are likely to affect the
measurement, the most obvious being vibration and temperature change. Positioning
Instrument in the glare of an outside window facing a busy road is not usually good practice.
Air movement can also considerably affect result. In particular instruments should be used
for optimum results. Also remember the changing the stylus will upset the physical
conditions of the instrument system by introducing both a mechanical stimulus changing the
stylus) and a heat source (the Operator) close to the extremely sensitive gauge.
Setting up the component
Having ensured that the instrument is ready, attention needs to be given to setting
component. For example, it is important to correctly level and crest (where appropriate) the
component and to take the measurement as symmetrical about the gauge Centre as possible.

In that way the same part of the gauge range (the central and most linear part) is being used
across the component.
Measurement uncertainty is influenced by the nature of the work piece itself. Indeed
it must be noted that one of the main contributors to uncertainty is the component itself,
where surface texture and other imperfections such as dirt or damage caused by mishandling
can affect the overall form measurement.
3.5.2 Principle
Figure 3.13 Principle of talysurf
A profile measurement device is usually based on a tactile measurement principle. The

surface is measured by moving a stylus across the surface. As the stylus moves up and down
along the surface, a transducer converts these movements into a signal which is then
transformed into a roughness number and usually a visually displayed profile. Multiple
profiles can often be combined to form a surface representation.
Surface roughness values are measured for different approach angles at a particular
parameter.

CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
4.1 EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND PROCEDURE
Experimental work was conducted on vertical milling machine. AISI 316 austenitic stainless
steel block is used as the work piece material. Solid carbide end mill tool is used as cutting
tool. In this project speed and cooling conditions are chosen as influencing parameters.
For the present experimental studies AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel is machined using
carbide end milling cutter under nine different speeds and three cooling conditions which
include one dry condition and two wet conditions i.e., using water and soluble oil as coolants.
The present study has been done through the following plan
a) Checking and preparing the milling machine ready for performing the machining
operations.
b) Fixing the work piece in the clamp and tool in the tool holder.
c) Performing machining operation on the work piece at different speeds and cooling
conditions.
d) Measuring the surface roughness with Talysurf.
e) Data collection.

Table 4.1 Experimental conditions

CUTTING SPEEDS 40 72 100 125 225 310 385 685 960
FEED 45mm/min
DEPTH OF CUT 0.5 mm
COOLING Air Water Soluble oil

CONDITIONS
4.2 WORK MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS

The dimensions of the work piece are 250×100×20 mm.
Table 4.2 Chemical composition of AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel
ELEMENT Wt.%
C 0.08
Mn 2.0
Si 0.75
P 0.045
S 0.03
Cr 18.0
Mo 3.00
Ni 14.00
N 0.10

AISI 316 grade austenitic stainless steel contains 16% to 18%chromium and 11% to
14% nickel. 316 have molybdenum added to the nickel and chrome of the 304. AISI 316
stainless steel has molybdenum, which gives it more corrosion resistance. Type 316
stainless steel is often used in heavy gauge welding applications because the risk of
pitting, cracking and corrosion is reduced.
Table 4.3 Physical properties of AISI 316 austenitic stainless steels

PROPERTY VALUE
Density 8.00 gm/cm³
Melting 1375°C -1400°C

point
Modulus of elasticity 193 GPa
Electrical resistivity 0.074×106 Ω.m
Thermal conductivity 16.3w/mk at 100°C
Thermal expansion 15.9 x10-6/k at

100°C
Table 4.4 Mechanical properties of AISI 316 austenitic stainless steels

PROPERTY VALUE
Tensile Strength (MPa) 515
(Min)
Yield Stress 0.2% of (MPa) 205
(min)
Stress Elongation Proof (%50mm) (min) 40
Hardness in Rockwell B (HR B) ( max) 95
Brinell Hardness (max) 217

316 stainless steel is now typically used in
 Food processing equipment

 Chemical and petrochemical equipment
 Laboratory benches & equipment
 Coastal architectural paneling
 Coastal balustrading
 Boat fittings
 Chemical transportation containers
 Heat exchangers
 Mining screens
 Nuts and bolts
 springs
 Medical implants
Corrosion Resistance
Grade 316 has excellent corrosion resistance when exposed to a range of corrosive
environments and media. It is usually regarded as “marine grade” stainless steel but is not
resistant to warm sea water. Warm chloride environments can cause pitting and crevice
corrosion. Grade 316 is also subject to stress corrosion cracking above around 60°C.
Heat Resistance
316 has good resistance to oxidation in intermittent service to 870°C and in continuous
service to 925°C. However, continuous use at 425-860°C is not recommended if corrosion
resistance in water is required. In this instance 316L is recommended due to its resistance to
carbide precipitation. Where high strength is required at temperatures above 500°C, grade
316H is recommended.
Fabrication
Fabrication of all stainless steels should be done only with tools dedicated to stainless steel
materials. Tooling and work surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned before use. These
precautions are necessary to avoid cross contamination of stainless steel by easily corroded
metals that may discolor the surface of the fabricated product.
Cold Working
Grade 316 is readily brake or roll formed into a variety of parts. It is also suited to stamping,
heading and drawing but post work annealing is recommended to relieve internal stresses.
Cold working will increase both strength and hardness of 316 stainless steel.
4.3 VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE
In the present project vertical milling machine is used to make slots on the work piece. It is
as shown in the figure 4.1
Figure 4.1 Vertical milling machine

4.3.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE
Table 4.5 Specifications of vertical milling machine
NAME DESCRIPTION
MAKE MASTER
MODEL SUNRISE SG-2
WORKING MODEL 1050×250mm
DISTANCE FROM SPINDLE CENTER TO 125mm

UNDERSIDE OF OVER SUPPORT
LONGITUDINAL FEED 600mm
CROSS FEED 230mm
VERTICAL FEED 450mm
SPINDLE SPEED 40-960 RPM
ARBOUR 25.4mm
SPINDLE BORE ISO-40
SPINDLE SPEED 40,72,100,125,225,310,385,685,960 RPM
FED RATE 18mm/min,29mm/min,45mm/min

4.4 TALFSURF
The Taylor-Hobson Talysurf is used to measure the roughness of the machined surface.
Figure 4.2 Talysurf
Procedure
 Attach the detector to the talysurf unit carefully
 Calibrate the talysurf by using the standard sample of known Ra value in calibration
mode
 Arrange the talysurf detector over the surface to be tested
 Start the talysurf by pressing the start/stop button.
 For one forward and return run of the stylus the display unit displays the measurement of
roughness of the surface in microns

4.4.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF TALYSURF

Table 4.6 specifications of talysurf
NAME DESCRIPTION
DETECTION METHOD DIFFERENTIAL INDUCTANCE
METHOD
MEASURING RANGE 350µm(-200 µm+150 µm)
STYLUS MATERIAL DIAMOND
TIP RADIUS 5 µm
SKID CURVATURE RADIUS 40 mm
MEASURING FORCE 4 mN
DETECTOR DRIVE RANGE 21 mm
TRAVERSING SPEED MEASUREMENT 0.25 mm/s
AC ADAPTER RATING 12V, 3.5A
SUPPLY VOLTAGE 100V TO 240V
BUILT-IN-BATTERY (NI-H) 15 Hrs. MAXIMUM

CHARGING HOURS
AUTO SLEEP 5 MINUTES
4.5 SOLID CARBIDE END MILL CUTTER

The end milling of the work pieces is performed by using a vertical milling machine with
solid carbide end mill of 4 flute, 12mm diameter with 30mm flute length and 75mm overall
length and is at shown in the figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 solid carbide end mill cutter
4.6 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

End milling of AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel was performed on a vertical milling
machine using a solid carbide end mill cutter of 12mm diameter of 30mm flute length and
75mm overall length at a feed of 45mm/min, depth of cut of 0.5mm at nine different speeds
of 40rpm, 72rpm, 100rpm, 125rpm, 225rpm, 310rpm, 385rpm, 685rpm, 960rpm at three
different cooling conditions, which include one dry and two wet conditions. In wet
conditions water and soluble oil are used as coolants.
Cooling conditions
 Dry condition
 Water

 Soluble oil
The most common, cheap and effective form of cutting fluid consisting of oil droplets
suspended in water in a typical ratio water to oil 30:1. Emulsifying agents are also added to
promote stability of emulsion. For heavy-duty work, extreme pressure additives are used. Oil
emulsions are typically used for aluminum.
After machining with the different cutting conditions, the surface roughness was measured
using surface measuring instrument (SURFTEST) SJ-301 or talysurf and the values were
tabulated.

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 VALUES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN DRY CONDITION
AISI 316 Austenitic stainless steel is machined on a vertical milling machine at a feed of
45mm/min, depth of cut of 0.5mm, at speeds of 40rpm, 72rpm, 100rpm, 125rpm, 225rpm,
310rpm, 385rpm,685rpm,960rpm in dry condition. After machining the values of surface
roughness were measured using Surf test SJ-301 and values are tabulated and are as shown in
the table 5.1.
Table 5.1 values of surface roughness for end milling of stainless steel in dry
condition
S.NO SPEED(PRM) SURFACE ROUGHNESS(Ra)
1. 40 7.17
2. 72 3.12
3. 100 3.32
4. 125 4.01
5. 225 3.11
6. 310 3.16
7. 385 3.02
8. 685 2.91
9. 960 2.77

SPEED VS. SURFACE ROUGHNESS

8
7
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
SPEED
Figure 5.1 Variation of surface roughness for end milling of stainless steel in dry
condition
It can be inferred from the graph, that at low speeds the value of surface roughness is initially
high and as the speed rate increases the value of surface roughness decreases and again
increases a peak value. It is due to increase in vibrations and to formation of built-up edges.
As the speed is further increased the value of surface roughness decreases and reaches a
constant value.

5.2 VALUES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN WET CONDITIONS

USING WATER AS COOLANT
310rpm, 385rpm,685rpm,960rpm in wet condition using water as coolant. After machining
the values of surface roughness were measured using Surf test SJ-301 and values are
tabulated and are as shown in the table 5.2.
Table 5.2 values of surface roughness for end milling of stainless steel in wet conditions
using Water as coolant
1. 40 3.27
2. 72 2.88
3. 100 3.15
4. 125 3.01
5. 225 2.93
6. 310 2.43
7. 385 2.31
8. 685 2.19
9. 960 2.02

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
3.5
3
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
SPEED
Figure 5.2 Variation of surface roughness for end milling of stainless steel in wet
condition using water as coolant
constant value. When compared to the values of surface roughness in dry condition the
values of surface roughness in wet condition using water as coolant are relatively low. Here
water acts as both coolant and lubrication and it decreases the friction between the tool and
the work piece.

5.3 VALUES OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN WET CONDITION

USING SOLUBLE OIL AS COOLANT
310rpm, 385rpm,685rpm,960rpm in wet condition using soluble oil as coolant. After
machining the values of surface roughness were measured using Surf test SJ-301 and values
are tabulated and are as shown in the table 5.3.
Table 5.3 values of surface roughness for end milling of stainless steel in wet conditions
using soluble oil as coolant
1. 40 3.93
2. 72 2.74
3. 100 3.44
4. 125 3.32
5. 225 2.49
6. 310 1.82
7. 385 1.73
8. 685 1.65
9. 960 1.52

SPEED VS. SURFACE ROUGHNESS

4.5
3.5
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
SPEED
Figure 5.3 Variation of surface roughness for end milling of stainless steel in wet
condition using soluble oil as coolant
constant value. When compared to the values of surface roughness in dry condition and wet
condition where water is used as coolant the values of surface roughness in wet condition
using soluble oil as coolant are relatively low. Here soluble oil acts as both coolant and
lubrication and it decreases the friction between the tool and the work piece.

5.4 COMPARISION OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN DIFFERENT

COOLING CONDITIONS
DRY
8 WATER
SOLUBLE OIL
7
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
1
0 200 400 600 800 1000
SPEED
Figure 5.4 Comparison of surface roughness in different cooling conditions

CONCLUSION
The machinability of AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel when subjected to milling operation
using solid carbide end milling tool was studied and surface finish at different cooling
conditions were investigated.
From the results of the experiment, better surface finish was obtained when soluble oil was
used as coolant followed by water. However in dry condition where surrounding air was used
as coolant, highest surface finish was obtained which was about 4.01µm to 7.17µm. It is
because the cooling air does not provide any lubrication and thus the friction between the
tool and work piece cannot be reduced.
For stainless steel ,the surface finish decreases with increase in cutting speed, but further
increase in cutting speed causes increase in surface finish. At very low cutting speeds, dis-
continuous chip formation occurs which gives poor surface finish. As the cutting speed
increases, the chip formation becomes less continuous and the surface finish improves. With
further increase in cutting speed, a continuous chip with built up edge occurs so that the
surface roughness deteriorates again reaching a peak roughness. Further increase of cutting
speed reduces the size of built-up edge until a continuous chip is formed and the surface
roughness approaches a steady value.

REFERENCES
1. J.Tlusty, S.Smith and W.R.Winfough (1967): “Machine Tool structures-Vol.1:stability
Against Chatter”, Pergamon Press.
2. E. Soliman and F. Ismail.(1965): “Theory of self-excited machine tool chatter”,Journal of
Engineering for Industry,Vol.87-4.pp.447-454
3. F. Ismail and E.G. Kubica (1963): Proceedings of the Interational research in production
engineering Conference, Pittsburgh, Pa.pp.465
4. Smith and Dilio 1965): “Machine tool Vibration”,Blackieand sons
Ltd.Glasgow,Scotland.enerative Machine Tool Chatter”
5. Weck et al,(1958), “Theory of Renerative Machine Tool Chatter”, The Engineer,
Vol.205.
6. M. Liang, T.Yeap, A. Hermansyah: “Active suppression of chatter in peripheral milling
Part 1.A statistical indicator to evaluate the spindle speed modulation method”,
Intrational Journal of Advanced manufacturing technology 12(4)(1996)236-245.
7. Tlusty and Tyler: “Active suppression of chatter in peripheral milling Part 1.A statistical
indicator to evaluate the spindle speed modulation method”, Intrational Journal of
Advanced manufacturing technology (1995) 10:299-3102.
8. Lin et al and Engelhardt et al: “Vibration control of milling machine by using auto
turning magnetic damper and auto turning vibration absorber”, Interational Journal of
Applied electromagnetics and Mechanics 16(1-2)(2002) 111-123.
9. Ralston and Ward [1946], Koenisberger and Tlusty [1967] and Merit [1965] on stability
lobe diagrams.
10. Kosuke Nagaya, Jyoji Kobayasi, Katuhito Imai: “Prediction of regenerative chatter by
modeling and analysis of high speed milling”, International Journal of Machine Tools
and Manufacture 43 (14) (2003) 1437-1446.
11. Ziegert John C. Stanislaus Charles, Schmitz Tony L. Streling:”Finite element modeling
and stability analysis of chatter in end milling machining”. Transactions of the Canadian
society for Mechanical Engineering 27 (3) 2003 205-221.

12. N.H.Kim, K.K.Choi, J.S.Chen and Y.H.Park”A general formulation of milling processing
equation. Contribution to machine tool chatter research-5, ASMEJ.of Engr. for Industry,
90 317-324.
13. Tony L. Schmitz, John C. Ziegert, Charles Stanislaus: “A new theoretical approach for
the prediction of machine tool chatter” ASMEJ.of Engr. for Industry, 115, 1-8.
14. Sridhar et al “Analytical prediction of stability lobes in milling” Annals of the CIRP, 44,
357, 362, (1995).
15. Minis and Yanushevsky “chatter suppression by adaptive speed modulation”
International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 37 (3) (1997) 355-369.
16. Budak and Altintas Metallbearbeitung, Werkstoffcchnik and Machinenbau 47 (5) (1957)
224-225.
17. R.P.H.Faassen, N. van de Wouw, J.A.J.Oosterling, H.Nijmeijer Frictional chatter in
orthogonal metal cutting, Philosophical Transcations of Royal Society of London 359
(A)(2001) 713-738.
18. Recent investigation performed by Alauddin et al. (1967): “Machine Tool structures-
Vol.1:stability Against Chatter”, Pergamon Press.
19. Hasegawa et al. 1965): “Theory of self-excited machine tool chatter”,Journal of
Engineering for Industry,Vol.87-4.pp.447-454
20. Hashmi (1963): Proceedings of the Interational research in production engineering
Conference, Pittsburgh, Pa.pp.465
21. coworkers 1965): “Machine tool Vibration”,Blackieand sons
Ltd.Glasgow,Scotland.enerative Machine Tool Chatter”
22. EI-Baradie 1958), “Theory of Renerative Machine Tool Chatter”, The Engineer, Vol.205.
23. Bandyopadhyay “Active suppression of chatter in peripheral milling Part 1.A statistical
Advanced manufacturing technology 12(4)(1996)236-245.
24. Gorlenko “Active suppression of chatter in peripheral milling Part 1.A statistical
Advanced manufacturing technology (1995) 10:299-3102.

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and auto turning vibration absorber”, Interational Journal of Applied electromagnetics
and Mechanics 16(1-2)(2002) 111-123.

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Surface roughness analysis in milling of stainless steel under different cooling conditions

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CMRCET Page 1

axes are fixed.

Figure 1.1 Machine tool

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING

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Figure 1.2 Face milling

Figure 1.3 Face milling

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Figure 1.4 End milling

1.2.1 Methods of milling

Figure 1.5 up milling

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Figure 1.6 down milling

Other milling operations are shown in the figure.

Figure 1.7 Types of milling operations

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1.3 WORKING PRINCIPLES OF MILLING MACHINES

Figure 1.8 Working principle of milling machine

1.3.1 Principe parts of milling machine

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Figure 1.9 Vertical milling machine

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1.3.2 Manual vertical milling machine

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1.4 CUTTING PARAMETERS

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in meters/min. To calculate the spindle Speed required,

N = Spindle Speed (RPM)

CS=Cutting Speed (m/min)

d = Diameter of Work piece (mm)

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1.5 MILLING CUTTERS

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Taper Shank Mill: Taper shank mill have tapered shank.

Straight Shank Mill: Straight shank mill having straight shank.

Figure 1.10 Types of milling cutters

1.6 END MILL CUTTERS

1.6.1 Tool geometry

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A -mill size or cutting

Figure 1.11 Tool geometry of end mill cutter

1.7 END MILL TECHNICAL FEATURES

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Figure 1.12 Clearance of End Mill

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containing the axis of a cylindrical cutter.

Figure 1.13 Different angles shown in an end mill

Lead = (Cutter diameter x Pi) / Tangent Helix Angle

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Figure 1.14 Tool terminology

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Figure 1.15 Rake

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1. Specially designed milling cutters.

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