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(A)Sociology by Paul B. Horton & Chester L. Hunt Sixth Edition:

Three Perspectives of Sociology:

1) Interactionism Perspective:

The interactionism approach refers that the society is based upon interaction between
individuals and among the groups. It is to be noted that this interaction starts through symbol.
These symbols include body language, gestures, signs like yes or no. symbolic type of
interaction lies favorite near GH Mead and Ch. Cooley. So, the interactionism perspective is the
most popular one in the world so far because the meanings of your thoughts can be easily be
exchanged through personal and group interaction. So according to the definition we can
sensibly decide that we can exactly convey our behavior through the interaction in a friendly
manner. Berger and Luck Man had rightly said in their social construction of reality that the
believe, that the objective reality lies among the people because our perception level can easily
perceive it. In this regard, to have reality we interact by talking each other or by signing like
winking or other gestures. The recent integrationist Herbert Blumer and Erving Goff man
emphasize that people don’t respond in a direct way instead they respond to whatever they think
about people to be. In human behavior the reality is not mere that is in your mind it is also that is
out there. So, we according to this approach cannot say that reality is only objective. It is also
subjective in nature.

2) Functionalist perspective:

According to this perspective the society is an organized network of cooperating groups

that are operating in an orderly manner according to set of rules and values shared by the most
members of the society. There is stability and equilibrium in the society because the actions and
reactions in the society are there to make tendency. Let’s have an example of a family to
enumerate the functionalist approach in an easy way. Every person in a family has his or her own
job to do individually but there is a relation of interdependency among the individuals of a
family. In the same way this scenario can be observed when talking about different groups
leaving to gather will be also interdependent for their life to carry on. Let’s go across another
example that a teacher takes half of the time of a day of a child and gets him or her far from
parents and make them teachers, workers, engineers and other professionals. So, here the
behavior is functionally useful. This functionality is the disruption of equilibrium of society. It
can be changed into functional but it takes time. So, functionalist can decide easily that if a
change in a society in a particular way promotes a harmonious equilibrium. It is seen as
functional but if this changed causes disruption. It is said to be dysfunctional and if the society is
insensitive to this change it is called as nonfunctional.
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3) Conflict perspective:

If we looked at the history, conflict theory was never discussed by any sociologist
because every sociologist used to think about the stable society which is not dysfunctional. But,
according to Karl Marx, there existed class conflict in the society and it was the major force
moving the society. The conflict theory believes that the society is held to gather with the power
of dominant groups. The conflict theorists say that harmony and equilibrium of a society is just
an illusion. Because in this society if one is benefiting then it is penalizing the others. So, in this
way the dominant group has command over the people exploited by them. We see in our daily
life there is conflict among the individuals for income, power and on the basis of races, classes,
abilities and even gender. As we are living in a male dominated society, we know that a male has
superiority on women. Similarly a son is considered to be better than a daughter and of which the
live example is a child’s share in an inheritance. Similarly on the basis of gender women is
treated badly. On the other way if we talk about income the head of the institution creates a
difference between in ordinary clerk and himself because of salary. So, in this way the conflict
theory is the most appreciated one because the conflict is everywhere in the society.

(B)Perspectives in Sociology by E. C. Cuff, W.W. Sharock and D.W.

Francis
1) Symbolic interactionism:

Interactionists focus on the subjective aspects of social life, rather than on objective, macro-
structural aspects of social systems. One reason for this focus is that interactionists base their
theoretical perspective on their image of humans, rather than on their image of society (as the
functionalists do). For interactionists, humans are practical actors who continually must adjust
their behavior to the actions of other actors. We can adjust to these actions only because we are
able to interpret them, i.e., to denote them symbolically and treat the actions and those who
perform them as symbolic objects. This process of adjustment is aided by our ability to
imaginatively rehearse alternative lines of action before we act. The process is further aided by
our ability to think about and to react to our own actions and even ourselves as symbolic objects.
Thus, the interactionist theorist sees humans as active, creative participants who construct their
social world, not as passive, conforming objects of socialization.

For the interactionist, society consists of organized and patterned interactions among individuals.
Thus, research by interactionists focuses on easily observable face-to-face interactions rather
than on macro-level structural relationships involving social institutions. Furthermore, this focus
on interaction and on the meaning of events to the participants in those events (the definition of
the situation) shifts the attention of interactionists away from stable norms and values toward
more changeable, continually readjusting social processes. Whereas for functionalists
socialization creates stability in the social system, for interactionists negotiation among members
of society creates temporary, socially constructed relations which remain in constant flux, despite
relative stability in the basic framework governing those relations.
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2) The functionalist perspective:

Functionalism is one of the core perspectives of sociology.  Sociology examines the contexts in
which people live and how these contexts affect them.  In essence, sociology examines the
question of why the world is the way that it is.  Functionalism, along with conflict theory and
interactionism, is one of the major schools of sociological thought, examining society through a
functional framework which stresses that everything, no matter how seemingly strange, out of
place, or harmful, serves a purpose. The functionalist perspective evolved from the work of
Emile Durkheim, though it was shaped by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons during the mid-
20th Century.  According to Bohm, functionalism can be summed up with one simple premise:
"the world is a system of interrelated parts, and each part makes a necessary contribution to the
vitality of the system."

Functionalism holds that everyone and everything in society, no matter how strange it may seem,
serves a purpose.  Crime, for example, is viewed almost universally as a nuisance. 
Functionalists, however, point out that crime serves several purposes.  Crime creates the need for
the employment of police officers, criminal investigators, prosecutors, defense attorneys,
lawmakers and other related fields of work.  If crime were to suddenly disappear from the planet,
hundreds of thousands of jobs related to the existence of crime would no longer be necessary and
everyone in those positions would face unemployment.  It is also suggested that the existence of
crime is functional in its ability to rally families and communities together around a common
purpose.

Durkheim concluded that crime and deviance serve three major functions for society: deviance
clarifies or reaffirms societal norms, it promotes social unity, and it challenges the status quo.
Deviance can bring into question the status quo, forcing society to rethink previously held norms.
For example, acts perceived as criminal or deviant were critical in shaping the rights movements
for African Americans, women, and homosexuals in the United States.  Without questioning the
traditional way of treating disadvantaged groups, the norms of discrimination and prejudice
could not be broken.

3) Conflict Theory:

Conflict theory is a difficult concept to explain. The theory itself was originally coined by Karl
Marx, though later the theory was adapted and developed by other theorists such as Max Weber.
In order to learn about conflict theory, one must begin with an individual or group. In many
ways, conflict theory really begins with the role that one person or group plays within the larger
social scene. Additionally, theory in conflict states that the whole point of a society is to create
social change. Often, this change occurs through a matter of physical strife and struggle

. There are a few ways that conflict theory can begin to form including:

 Conflict between social classes

 Proletarian versus bourgeoisie
 Capitalism versus socialism
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Clearly, the conflict theory takes a number of things into consideration. While there always
seems to be some sort of struggle between social classes, this is not always the case. Sometimes,
conflict theory can be applied to ideologies including capitalism and socialism. Sometimes,
theory in conflict has to do with the ways in which one group can better its social position. Often,
conflict theory is a physical resistance, but sometimes it’s just a battle of the brains.

You can think of the conflict theory as a sort of trickle-down effect, or as a pyramid. At the top
of the social scene sits the elite. The elite tend to set the laws and rules for the general
population. Most laws and rules of the land usually benefit those that have already been in power
for many years. As soon as the general population begins to rebel against this form of social
order, they will be labeled societal outlaws. While the conflict theory does not seek to support
either side, it does seek to study how those that have power stay in power. In summation, to learn
all about conflict theory is to study how the elite manage to hold onto their position at the top of
the pyramid while they are being challenged by the masses.

(C) http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Three-Major-Perspectives-in-
Sociology.topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html

1) Symbolic interactionism:

The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic interactionism, directs

sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life. What these symbols mean and
how people interact with each other. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max
Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their
world. The American philosopher George H. Mead introduced this perspective to American
sociology in the 1920s.

According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and
then they act according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Speaking dialogues, in
which spoken words serve as the predominant symbols, make this subjective interpretation
especially obvious. The words have a certain meaning for the sender and during effective
communication; they hopefully have the same meaning for the receiver. In other terms, words
are not static things. They require intention and interpretation. Conversation is an interaction of
symbols between individuals who constantly interpret the world around them. Of course,
anything can serve as a symbol as long as it refers to something beyond itself. Written music
serves as an example. The black dots and lines become more than mere marks on the page. They
refer to notes organized in such a way as to make musical sense. Thus, symbolic interactionists
give serious thought to how people act, and then seek to determine what meanings individuals
assign to their own actions and symbols, as well as to those of others.
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Consider applying symbolic interactionism to the American institution of marriage. Symbols

may include wedding bands, vows of life-long commitment, a white bridal dress, a wedding
cake, a Church ceremony, and flowers and music. American society attaches general meanings to
these symbols, but individuals also maintain their own perceptions of what these and other
symbols mean. For example, one of the spouses may see their circular wedding rings as
symbolizing “never ending love,” while the other may see them as a mere financial expense.
Much faulty communication can result from differences in the perception of the same events and
symbols.

2) The functionalist perspective:

According to the functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, each aspect of society is
interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. The government, or state,
provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state
depends to keep itself running. That is, the family is dependent upon the school to help children
grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process,
the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. If all goes
well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not go well, the
parts of society then must adapt to evoke a new order, stability, and productivity. For example,
during a financial recession with its high rates of unemployment and inflation, social programs
are trimmed or cut. Schools offer fewer programs. Families tighten their budgets. And a new
social order, stability, and output occur.

Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus, or cohesion, in which
members of the society agree upon, and work together to achieve, what is best for society as a
whole. Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of two forms:

 Mechanical solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a society
maintain similar values and beliefs and engages in similar types of work. Mechanical
solidarity most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as those in which
everyone herds cattle or farms. Amish society exemplifies mechanical solidarity.
 In contrast, organic solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when the people in a
society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage in varying
types of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized, complex
societies such those in large American cities like New York in the 2000s.

The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists in the
1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner
workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human
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behavior. Among these American functionalist sociologists is Robert Merton, who divides
human functions into two types: manifest functions are intentional and obvious, while latent
functions are unintentional and not obvious. The manifest function of attending a church or
synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part of a religious community, but its latent function
may be to help members learn to discern personal from institutional values. With common sense,
manifest functions become easily apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent
functions, which often demand a sociological approach to be revealed. A sociological approach
in functionalism is the consideration of the relationship between the functions of smaller parts
and the functions of the whole.

3) The conflict perspective

The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on class
struggles, presents society in a different light than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist
perspectives. While these latter perspectives focus on the positive aspects of society that
contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-
changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change,
and believe people cooperate to effect social order; conflict theorists challenge the status quo,
encourage social change, and believe rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and
the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret an “elite” board of regents raising tuition
to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local college as self-serving rather
than as beneficial for students.

Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective
in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain considerable
interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marx's idea that the key conflict in society was
strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the
potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict
theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to
compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the
ever-changing nature of society.

Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory
ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive
aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in
preserving society and social order. In this regard social conflict is found everywhere in the
society and is considered to be the latest and known perspective of the sociology that was
primarily not discussed by sociologists but later Karl Marx gave its concept in detail.