ANALYSIS OF EXISTING PENETROMETER TECHNOLOGIES

SARAH R. JERSEY

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Upon entering the battlespace environement an assessment of existing infrastructure may
show that it is of questionable quality. As a result forces will be required to move across
natural and underdeveloped terrain. It is likely that this terrain will include large
obstacles, including 4.5 to 12 ft wide gaps. The Future Force will be required to access
the gap, assess the situation, cross the gap and continue negotiating the terrain with little
if any delay.

Currently the feasibility of crossing a gap is assessed using a mobility model dependent
upon soil type and soil strength. At a minimum these two characteristics must be
obtained to determine if a gap can be traversed. This is of particular concern, as the soils
surrounding a gap are likely to differ from the soils most commonly found in that
particular region, making crossing the gap more difficult to traverse than level surfaces in
the region. For Future Forces to properly assess and defeat a gap a rapid yet reliable
method of soil characterization is required.

EXISTING TECHNOLOGY
Numerous devices exist for characterize subsurface materials. Each engineering
discipline (pavements, geotechnical, agricultural) utilizes a different testing method to
determine soil strength and soil type. As a result the characterization of subsurface
materials varies depending on the purpose of testing. Several commonly used methods
are summarized and investigated for use in gap reconnaissance.

Trafficability Cone
The trafficability cone, also known as the cone penetrometer, is a penetrometer device
that is used to determine the strength of a soil based on the cone index. This type of
device is commonly used in characterization of soils by off road mobility experts and soil
scientists. The trafficability cone consists of a cone penetrometer attached o a proving
ring. A schematic of the trafficability cone is depicted in Figure 1. The cone has a 30˚
apex angle, and a 0.5 in2 base area. It is connected to a 19 in. long, 3/8 in. diameter steel
shaft. The proving ring is attached to the top of the steel shaft. During testing the
penetrometer is pushed into the ground at a slow, steady speed. As the penetrometer is
descends into the ground the soil resistance is measured using the proving ring.
Measurements are performed at six in. intervals beginning at the ground surface. The
cone index (CI), the measure of soil strength, is taken directly from the dial on the
proving ring.

Penetration testing using the trafficability cone requires one operator, although a second
operator can decrease the testing time. A trafficability cone test takes approximately 15
seconds to perform. These test results are highly dependent on operator error. If the
penetrometer needs to be assembled testing time will increase, but can be completed
within 5 minutes.
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) is a soil probe that is commonly used in
transportation applications, particularly in testing base and subgrade soils. The DCP is
used for reconnaissance of soils at shallow depths. The soil layering profile and soil
strength can be interpreted for in situ soils.

The DCP is a dynamic penetrometer consisting of a drop weight that is used to

dynamically drive a cone penetrometer into the ground surface. During testing a 17.6 lb
(or 10.1 lb) drop hammer is allowed to fall through a height of 22.6 in. The lighter
hammer is used for soft soils where the large hammer would push the cone particularly
deep with a single hammer blow. Generally the large hammer is required for granular
materials while the small hammer is used in softer fine grained materials (CBR<10).
These types of soils are more likely to result in mobility problems. As the drop hammer
hits the striker kinetic energy is imparted into the DCP system, and the penetrometer is
pushed into the ground. The depth of penetration with each blow is measured. A
correlation has been established between the penetration depth per blow and the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) based on previous studies. Traditionally the DCP is used
to measure soil properties within the first meter below the ground surface. If needed,
extension rod can be added to investigate deeper soils, but this not recommended.

A DCP test typically takes approximately 15 minutes per test. The test requires two
operators; one operator holds the penetrometer in place lifts and drops the weight, while a
second operator measures and records the depth of penetration per blow. Test time and
accuracy can be improved by using three operators, where one man operates the DCP,
another measures the amount of penetration per blow, and a third operator records the
penetration data. In Figure 2 a DCP test is being performed by three operators on an
aggregate surfaced road.

Automated Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

The Automated DCP (ADCP) is a mechanical device that is somehow automated to
simplify the dynamic cone penetrometer test method. The primary advantage of the
ADCP is that it requires less manpower than the traditional DCP. Two methods of
automation are possible with an ADCP: (1) automation of the data acquisition system,
and (2) automation of the drop hammer mechanism.

DCP devices that have been modified to include an automated data acquisition system
require significantly less manpower than the traditional DCP. A single operator can
perform what was once a two or three man operation. Automation of the data acquisition
system is generally simple, often accomplished using a string potentiometer and a small,
computerized data acquisition system. The string potentiometer measures changes in the
depth of the DCP. The depth of penetration and the number of blows applied are
recorded using the data acquisition system. This data can then be imported into
Windows-based software for analysis. This system cuts labor costs, as well as increases
the accuracy of data collected in the field. DCP data acquisition systems such as this are
commercially available or can be easily built to user specifications in the laboratory.

Automation of the drop hammer mechanism involves a significant increase in the size of
the DCP. As a result of automation the weight of the device increases, typically weighing
in excess of 1500 lbs. A hydraulic or pneumatic system is used to power the lift/drop
mechanism, and 40 blows/minute can be performed, resulting in a significant decrease in
testing time. Typically the penetrometer is mounted on a trailer or the back of a truck. A
trailer mounted DCP is shown Figure 3. As noted previously this device is significantly
larger than the traditional DCP. The use of an automated drop hammer DCP such as this
generally includes an automated data acquisition system, which reduces the manpower
required for testing. Automated drop hammer DCPs are commercially available from
selected vendors in the US and have been built at several research institutions worldwide.

Pocket Penetrometer
The pocket penetrometer is a device used by geotechnical engineers and agronomists to
estimate unconfined compressive strengths of in situ soils. Pocket penetrometers are
extremely small and portable; typically weighing less than one half pound. The
penetrometer is approximately 6 in. long, and fits in a pocket or a small carrying case.
Figure 4 depicts the use of a typical pocket penetrometer.

The pocket penetrometer is a spring-loaded penetrometer. The spring is calibrated

against unconfined compressive strength (typically measured in tons/ft2 or kg/cm2). Prior
to testing the indicator ring is positioned at the top of the barrel. Next the probe is slowly
inserted into the soil until the calibration mark is level with the soil surface. As the probe
is inserted the spring in the upper chamber compresses. The movement of the indicator
ring corresponds to this spring compression. The chamber is marked with unconfined
compressive strengths that have been calibrated with the internal compression of the
spring. The mark at which the indicator ring is located is taken as the unconfined
compressive strength of the soil.

Geotechnical CPT Truck

The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) is a test traditionally used by geotechnical engineers.
In this method a small cone is attached to a rod and pushed into the ground at a rate of 0.8
in. of displacement per second. The penetrometer is attached to a large vehicle that
provides the large jacking forces required during testing. A typical CPT truck is shown in
Figure 5. The cone has a base area of 1.6 in.2, with a diameter of 1.4 in., and a height of
1.2 in., corresponding to a 60˚ apex angle. The cone is attached to a friction sleeve
having a diameter of approximately 1.4 in. The CPT equipment is pushed into the
ground, and has been used to characterize soils to a depth of 100 ft. below the ground
surface.

The tip of the cone is typically instrumented to measure the tip resistance using strain
gauges, while the sleeve above the cone is instrumented to measure the sleeve friction.
These parameters are used to obtain a profile of the variation of soil strength and soil type
with depth. Additional instrumentation has been attached to the cone to obtain additional
data for correlation with other parameters such as porewater pressure, shear wave
velocity (soil stiffness), and soil contamination.

Aerial Penetrometer
The aerial penetrometer is a cone penetration device used to determine the strength
characteristics of a soil. As the name implies, the cone is dropped and allowed to
penetrate into the earth’s surface.

Historically aerial penetrometer testing has been performed from freefall conditions. The
penetrometer is dropped from a known height, and the impact at the ground surface is
measured. The impact is generally measured in terms of the depth of penetration,
although alternative measurements such as soil deformation bowl dimensions may be
performed to assess the amount of penetration. The aerial penetrometer measures soil
strength in a manner to similar to the method used with the trafficability cone and the
pocket penetrometer, using the compression a stiff spring contained within the
penetrometer as a measure of the soil strength. As the cone penetrates into the ground
surface, the resistance of the soil to the penetrometer is measured by the compression of
the spring. The depth of penetrometer impact and the amount of spring compression are
measured. Laboratory studies have been undertaken to correlate the amount of
penetration and the spring compression to specific soil resistances.

ANALYSIS OF BASIC PENETROMETER REQUIREMENTS

Soil characterization in the theatre of operations must be performed quickly while
retaining a reasonable amount of accuracy. The penetrometer must be lightweight and
rugged. Sensors attached to the penetrometer should be capable of measuring
characteristics related to soil strength, soil type, and moisture content.

Several requirements have been defined for the penetration testing of soils around gaps.
Based on historical experiences in mobility testing soil must typically be characterized to
a depth of 18 in. at a gap crossing site. With current mobility modeling capabilities the
penetrometer should have a sensitivity of 1 psi, allowing for the differentiation of layered
of soils of variable strengths.

Heavily loaded FCS vehicles are likely to be limiting case in the field. The unsurfaced
nomograph can be used to determine the CBR required for operation of a vehicle on soils.
This nomograph is based on research using aircraft operation, but can be used to estimate
surface vehicle requirements. Based on this historical data, a typical armored FCS
vehicle with tire pressures on the order of 90 psi with 6 kip equivalent single wheel load
will require a minimum strength of 2.5 CBR to complete one coverage. The curve
relating the desired number of coverages to the required minimum CBR for vehicle
operation is shown in Figure 5. An increase in coverage will result in an increase in
required CBR. This relationship is logarithmic, with larger increases in required strength
for an increase in coverage at low levels of vehicle coverage than at high levels of vehicle
coverage.
After determining that the soil is capable of supporting the vehicle based on the minimum
required CBR calculated above, it must also be determined if the soils layer thickness is
adequate. Using unsurfaced roadway criteria published by Chou (1998), a curve relating
required soil thickness versus soil strength is calculated for the desired number of
coverages. Figure 7 depicts this relationship for at several coverage levels for this
specific FCS vehicle. At a given CBR a decrease in coverages results in a decrease in
required soil thickness, while a decrease in CBR at a specific coverage level results in an
increase in required soil thickness. Due to the logarithmic nature of the CBR larger
increases in required thickness occur at lower values of CBR. As a result, it is critical that
the penetrometer adequately define soils in this region at the lower CBRs.

ANALYSIS OF EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES

The existing penetrometer technologies are all adequate for the functions for which they
were designed. Many of these technologies have definite advantages in gap
reconnaissance, however they are do not have the potential to meet all of the
requirements for soil reconnaissance in the theatre of operations.

Trafficability Cone
The trafficability cone has many advantages for military soils reconnaissance. The
primary advantage is the historical data surrounding the trafficability cone. The mobility
model used to determine the trafficability of a gap is based on data taken over the course
of the last 50 years with trafficability cones. The primary problem associated with using
a trafficability cone in the field for soils reconnaissance is the variability associated with
operator error. Fifty different operators may perform cone penetrometer tests in the same
location yielding fifty completely different results. Automation of the penetrometer is
possible, however automated devices are not currently available commercially. It is
likely that the automated version, much like the ADCP would be too large and delicate to
move accross the gaps it is characterizing.

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

The DCP is considered reasonably accurate for site reconnaissance and has been widely
used within the Department of Defense (USACE, USAF). The DCP device is relatively
inexpensive, on the order of $2K per device and is available through several commercial
vendors. It is lightweight and rugged. As mentioned previously a relatively well-
accepted correlation between soil strength (CBR) and DCP penetration ratio exists. The
primary problems associated with the DCP include manpower and size limitations. The
use of a standard DCP in gap reconnaissance requires too much manpower for practical
application in the field. The automated DCP appears to be an excellent alternative, but it
is likely that the size and weight associated with the automated DCPs currently available
will be unable to access gap sites.

Pocket Penetrometer
Advantages of the pocket penetrometer include its speed, size, and cost. Many
penetrometers can easily be brought into the theatre of operations via airlift operations
using very little cargo space. The pocket penetrometer is a quick test. The test can be run
in under a minute, and multiple tests may be performed successively within five to ten
minutes. Pocket penetrometer costs are typically on the order of $50 per unit and are
readily available commercially. The pocket penetrometer is not a feasible alternative
because pocket penetrometer measurements characterize the strength at the soil surface,
and are not be an indicator of soil strength below the surface. This is particularly true in
regions having a desiccated surface layer covering a soft deposit. To obtain the necessary
measurements, excavation of surficial soils and measurement of unconfined compressive
strength at 6 in. intervals would be required. This effort would be too come consuming
for the small amount of extra data obtained.

Geotechnical CPT Truck

There is a plethora of data that has been previously obtained using geotechnical CPT
trucks, making the CPT an excellent alternative in terms of worldwide soil data.
However, the size, testing time, and cost associated with the CPT exclude the CPT from
gap reconnaissance alternatives. Because of the large test depths and strong soils
typically tested during cone penetration testing the CPT truck is a large vehicle.
Typically, these trucks weigh on the order of 30 tons in order to create the necessary
jacking force to perform the CPT. CPT trucks utilize standard tire, making off road
testing a problem. At a rate of 2 cm/second a 30 m sounding requires 25 minutes to run
the test, without including delays for data recording and the addition of push rods to
extend the cone deeper into the ground, far exceeding the time required to perform most
other conventional penetrometer tests. If a CPT truck is able to access a sight the
mobility of a future force vehicle is not likely to be a problem.

Aerial Penetrometer
There are two primary problems associated with this method of soil reconnaissance. The
first problem associated with this method is the dropping of the penetrometer. The exact
drop location is uncertain. As a result there is a certain amount of risk associated with the
soil type at the drop site relative to the actual site used to cross the gap. Also, in the
theatre of operations the flare method will result in informing the opposition of our
potential gap crossing location. The second problem associated with the aerial
reconnaissance method is the accuracy. Generally testing has been performed under
idealized conditions. Penetrometers are dropped from a known height, under mild winds
into soils of a known type (clay vs. granular). In the field aerial cones will need to be
dropped from a helicopter. There can be no control over wind speeds or direction,
making testing and test interpretation more difficult. Additionally, commercially
available devices are not currently available on the market, making this technology leap
more arduous.

Summary
Historically, accurate soil reconnaissance methods require bulky, heavy equipment and
the manpower of several people for testing and recording data. Prior to application in the
existing mobility models an experienced professional must analyze this data to obtain soil
strength values.

A new rapid testing, autonomous system is required to adequately characterize soil type
and soil strength in the battlespace environment. This system must robust in order to
withstand the conditions likely to be found in the battlespace environment, yet
automateable in order to remove the soldier from the reconnaissance element. It must be
capable of measuring both soil type and soil strength, with a sensitivity of approximately
1 psi in terms of soil strength. The soil strength must be particularly sensitive at lower
strengths where large changes in required thickness occur at small changes in soil
strength. Those products available in the commercial sector cannot currently meet these
needs.
Figure 1 Schematic of trafficability type standard cone penetrometer.

Figure 2 Strength testing of constructed soils using a DCP.

 Figure 3 A trailer mounted automatic DCP.

Figure 4 Strength testing of a soil sample using a pocket penetrometer.

Figure 5 A traditional geotechnical cone penetration truck is jacked in preparation for running a
cone penetration test.
 14
Required Minimum CBR for Vehicle Operation (%)

12

10

0
1 10 100 1000 10000

Number of Vehicle Coverages

Figure 6 Relationship between number of vehicle coverages desired and required CBR for to maintain vehicle operation.
 20
1Coverage 200 Coverages
500 Coverages 1000 Coverages
18

16

14
Required Soil Thickness (in.)

12

10
t
8

0
1 10 100
Existing CBR (%)

Figure 7 Relationship between required soil thickness and soil strength at various coverage levels using CBR equation from unsurfaced roadways
criteria (after Chou, 1989).