Writing Paragraphs - Book PDF

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What is a paragraph? 4a
Moreno 3
they’re rested after a workout, our instructor taught us to work

alternate muscle groups on different days. For example, a
Specific woman might work on her arms and abdomen one day and then
examples to
add interest her shoulders and chest the next day. Because I had had such
trouble lifting my grandmother, I added exercises to strengthen

my legs and back. Another student, who had hurt her neck in
a car crash, added neck-strengthening exercises. Someone
else, planning to be a physical therapist, added finger- and
hand-strengthening exercises.
CONCLUSION: At the end of our 10 weeks of weight training, we had to
Reports
writer’s evaluate our progress. Was I impressed! I felt ready to lift the
personal
progress world. When I started, I could lift only 10 pounds over my head
for 3 reps. By the end of the course, I could lift 10 pounds over my
head for 20 reps, and I could lift 18 pounds for 3 reps. Also, I
could swim laps for 20 sustained minutes instead of the 10 I had
barely managed at first. I am so proud of my weight-training
accomplishments that I still work out three or four times a week.
I am proof that any woman can benefit from “pumping iron.” Not
only will she become stronger and have more stamina, but she
will also feel energetic and confident. After all, there isn’t a
thing to lose–except maybe some flab.
CHAPTER 4
Writing Paragraphs
4a What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that work together to develop a unit of
thought. Paragraphing permits writers to divide material into manageable
parts. When a group of paragraphs works together in logical sequence, the
result is a complete essay or other whole piece of writing.
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4b WRITING PARAGRAPHS
To signal the start of a new paragraph, indent the first line about one-half
inch. Skip no extra lines between paragraphs. Business writing (Chapter 38)
is an exception: It calls for block format for paragraphs, which means you do
not indent the first line but rather leave a double space between paragraphs.
If you’re already double-spacing, then leave two double lines for a total of
four lines.
4b How can I write effective introductory

paragraphs?
An introductory paragraph leads the reader to sense what’s ahead. It sets
the stage. It also, if possible, attempts to arouse a reader’s interest in the
topic.
A THESIS STATEMENT can be an important component in an introduction.
Many instructors require students to place their thesis statement at the end
of the opening paragraph. Doing so disciplines students to state early the
central point of the essay. If an introduction points in one direction, and the
rest of the essay goes off in another, the essay isn’t communicating a
clear message. Professional writers don’t necessarily include a thesis state-
ment in their introductory paragraphs. Most have the skill to maintain a
line of thought without overtly stating a main idea. Introductory paragraphs,
as well as concluding paragraphs (4k), are usually shorter than body
paragraphs (4c).
Be careful not to tack on a sloppy introduction at the last minute. The
introductory paragraph plays too important a role to be tossed off with mere-
ly a few shallow lines. While many writers prefer to write only a thesis
statement as an introduction in an early draft, they always return to write a
complete introductory paragraph after the body—the main part—of the
writing is finished. For a list of specific strategies to use—and pitfalls to
avoid for introductory paragraphs—see Box 4-1 opposite.
Always integrate an introductory device into the paragraph so that it
leads smoothly into the thesis statement. Some examples follow. In this chap-
ter, each example paragraph has a number to its left for your easy reference.
Here’s an introductory paragraph that uses two brief examples to lead into
the thesis statement at the end of the paragraph.
On seeing another child fall and hurt himself, Hope, just nine
months old, stared, tears welling up in her eyes, and crawled to her
mother to be comforted—as though she had been hurt, not her friend.
When 15-month-old Michael saw his friend Paul crying, Michael fetched
1
his own teddy bear and offered it to Paul; when that didn’t stop Paul’s
tears, Michael brought Paul’s security blanket from another room. Such
small acts of sympathy and caring, observed in scientific studies, are
leading researchers to trace the roots of empathy—the ability to share
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How can I write effective introductory paragraphs? 4b
B OX 4 - 1 S U M M A RY
Introductory paragraphs
Strategies to Use
■ Providing relevant background information
■ Relating briefly an interesting story or anecdote
■ Giving one or more pertinent—perhaps surprising—statistics
■ Asking one or more provocative questions
■ Using an appropriate quotation
■ Defining a Key Term
■ Presenting one or more brief examples (4i)
■ Drawing an ANALOGY (4i)
Strategies to Avoid
■ Don’t write statements about your purpose, such as “I am going to
discuss the causes of falling oil prices.”
■ Don’t apologize, as in “I am not sure this is right, but this is my
opinion.”
■ Don’t use overworked expressions, such as “Haste makes waste, as I
recently discovered” or “Love is grand.”
another’s emotions—to infancy, contradicting a long-standing assump-

tion that infants and toddlers were incapable of these feelings.
—Daniel Goleman, “Researchers Trace
Empathy’s Roots to Infancy”
In paragraph 2, the opening quotation sets up a dramatic contrast with
the thesis statement.
“Alone one is never lonely,” says May Sarton in her essay “The
Rewards of Living a Solitary Life.” Most people, however, don’t share
Sarton’s opinion: They’re terrified of living alone. They’re used to living
with others—children with parents, roommates with roommates, friends
2
with friends, spouses with spouses. When the statistics catch up with
them, therefore, they’re rarely prepared. Chances are high that most
adult men and women will need to know how to live alone, briefly or
longer, at some time in their lives.
—Tara Foster, student
49
4c WRITING PARAGRAPHS
E X E R C I S E 4 - 1 Write an introduction for the three essays informally out-

lined below. Then, for more practice, write one alternative introduction for
each. If you have a peer-response group, share the various written introduc-
tions and decide which are most effective. For help, see 4b.
1. Reading for fun
Thesis statement: People read many kinds of books for pleasure.
Body paragraph 1: murder mysteries and thrillers
Body paragraph 2: romances and westerns
Body paragraph 3: science fiction
2. Cellphones
Thesis statement: Cellphones have changed how some people behave in
public.
Body paragraph 1: driving
Body paragraph 2: restaurants
Body paragraph 3: movies and concerts
Body paragraph 4: sidewalks, parks, and other casual spaces
3. Using credit cards
Thesis statement: Although credit cards can help people manage their
finances wisely, they also offer too much temptation.
Body paragraph 1: convenience and safety
Body paragraph 2: tracking of purchases
Body paragraph 3: overspending dangers
4c What are body paragraphs?

Each body paragraph, which belongs between an introductory paragraph
(4b) and a concluding paragraph (4k), consists of a main idea and support for
that idea. To be effective, a body paragraph needs three characteristics: unity
(4d and 4e), development (4f), and coherence (4g). The sections shown in
parentheses explain how you can achieve each characteristic. Box 4-2 oppo-
site gives an overview of all three characteristics.
Paragraph 3 is an example of an effective body paragraph. It’s from an
essay called “What’s Bugging You?”
The cockroach lore that has been daunting us for years is mostly
true. Roaches can live for twenty days without food, fourteen days with-
out water; they can flatten their bodies and crawl through a crack thin-
ner than a dime; they can eat huge doses of carcinogens and still die of
3 old age. They can even survive “as much radiation as an oak tree can,”
says William Bell, the University of Kansas entomologist whose cock-
roaches appeared in the movie The Day After. They will eat almost any-
thing—regular food, leather, glue, hair, paper, even the starch in book
bindings. (The New York Public Library has quite a cockroach problem.)
They sense the slightest breeze, and they can react and start running in
50
How can topic sentences create paragraph unity? 4c
Characteristics of effective body paragraphs

Unity: Have you made a clear connection between the main idea of the
paragraph and the sentences that support the main idea (4d and 4e)?
Development: Have you included detailed and sufficient support for
the main idea of the paragraph (4f)?
Coherence: Have you progressed from one sentence to the next in the
paragraph smoothly and logically (4g)?
.05 second; they can also remain motionless for days. And if all this isn’t
creepy enough, they can fly too.
—Jane Goldman, “What’s Bugging You?”
Paragraph 3 has UNITY (4d) in that the main idea (stories we’ve heard
about cockroaches are true), stated in the TOPIC SENTENCE (4e), which is also
the first sentence, is supported by detailed examples. It has COHERENCE (4g)
in that the content of every sentence ties into the content of the other sen-
tences. Also, the paragraph coheres—sticks together—by word choices
(repeating they can each time to put the emphasis on the interesting facts)
and with consistent grammar (a different ACTIVE VERB [see VOICE, 8n through
8p] for each example). It has PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT (4f) in that the
details provide support for the main idea.
4d How can I create unity in paragraphs?

A paragraph has unity when the connection between the main idea and its
supporting sentences is clear. Paragraph 3 in section 4c is a good example.
Unity is ruined when any sentence in a paragraph “goes off the topic,”
which means its content doesn’t relate to the main idea or to the other sen-
tences in the paragraph.
4e How can topic sentences create paragraph unity?

A topic sentence contains the main idea of a paragraph and controls its con-
tent. Often, the topic sentence comes at the beginning of a paragraph,
though not always. Professional essay writers, because they have the skill to
carry the reader along without explicit signposts, sometimes decide not to
use topic sentences. However, instructors often require students to use topic
sentences. As apprentice writers, students might have more difficulty writing
unified paragraphs.
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4e WRITING PARAGRAPHS
Topic sentence starting a paragraph

In ACADEMIC WRITING, most paragraphs begin with a topic sentence (shown
here in italics) so that readers know immediately what to expect. Paragraph 4
is an example.
To travel the streets of Los Angeles is to glimpse America’s ethnic future.
At the bustling playground at McDonald’s in Koreatown, a dozen shades
of kids squirt down the slides and burrow through tunnels and race down
4 the catwalks, not much minding that no two of them speak the same lan-
guage. Parents of grade-school children say they rarely know the color of
their youngsters’ best friends until they meet them; it never seems to occur
to the children to say, since they have not yet been taught to care.
—Nancy Gibbs, “Shades of Difference”
Topic sentence ending a paragraph

Some paragraphs give supporting details first and wait to state the topic sen-
tence at the paragraph’s end. This approach is particularly effective for building
suspense or for creating a bit of drama. Paragraph 5 is an example.
Most people don’t lose ten dollars or one hundred dollars when they
trade cars. They lose many hundreds or even a thousand. They buy used
cars that will not provide them service through the first payment. They
overbuy new cars and jeopardize their credit, only to find themselves
5
“hung,” unable even to sell their shiny new toys. The car business is one
of the last roundups in America, the great slaughterhouse of wheeling
and dealing, where millions of people each year willingly submit to being
taken.
—Remar Sutton, Don’t Get Taken Every Time
Topic sentence implied, not stated

Some paragraphs are a unified whole even without a single sentence that
readers can point to as the topic sentence. Yet, most readers can catch the
main idea anyway. Paragraph 6 is an example. What do you think might be a
straightforward topic sentence for it?
The Romans were entertained by puppets, as were the rulers of the
Ottoman Empire with their favorite shadow puppet, Karaghoiz, teller of
a thousand tales. In the Middle Ages, puppets were cast as devil and
angel in religious mystery and morality plays until cast out entirely by the
6 church. For centuries, a rich puppetry heritage in India has matched that
country’s multilayered culture. The grace of Bali is reflected in its styl-
ized, ceremonial rod and shadow puppets. The Bunraku puppets of
Japan, unequaled for technique anywhere in the world, require a puppet
master and two assistants to create one dramatic character on stage.
—Dan Cody, “Puppet Poetry”
52
How can I develop my body paragraphs? 4e
E X E R C I S E 4 - 2 Working individually or with a peer-response group, identify

the topic sentences in the following paragraphs. If the topic sentence is im-
plied, write the point the paragraph conveys. For help, consult section 4e.
A. A good college program should stress the development of high-level
reading, writing, and mathematical skills and should provide you with a
broad historical, social, and cultural perspective, no matter what subject
you choose as your major. The program should teach you not only the most
7 current knowledge in your field but also—just as important—prepare you to
keep learning throughout your life. After all, you’ll probably change jobs, and
possibly even careers, at least six times, and you’ll have other
responsibilities, too—perhaps as a spouse and as a parent and certainly
as a member of a community whose bounds extend beyond the workplace.
—Frank T. Rhodes, “Let the Student Decide”
B. The once majestic oak tree crashes to the ground amid the destructive
flames, as its panic-stricken inhabitants attempt to flee the fiery tomb.
Undergrowth that formerly flourished smolders in ashes. A family of deer darts
8 furiously from one wall of flame to the other, without an emergency exit. On the
outskirts of the inferno, firefighters try desperately to stop the destruction.
Somewhere at the source of this chaos lies a former campsite containing the
cause of this destruction—an untended campfire. This scene is one of many
that illustrate how human apathy and carelessness destroy nature.
—Anne Bryson, student
C. Rudeness isn’t a distinctive quality of our own time. People today would
be shocked by how rudely our ancestors behaved. In the colonial period, a
French traveler marveled that “Virginians don’t use napkins, but they wear
silk cravats, and instead of carrying white handkerchiefs, they blow their
noses either with their fingers or with a silk handkerchief that also serves
9 as a cravat, a napkin, and so on.” In the 19th century, up to about the
1830s, even very distinguished people routinely put their knives in their
mouths. And when people went to the theater, they would not just applaud
politely—they would chant, jeer, and shout. So, the notion that there’s been
a downhill slide in manners ever since time began is just not so.
—“Horizons,” U.S. News & World Report
4f How can I develop my body paragraphs?

You develop a body paragraph by supplying detailed support for the main
idea of the paragraph communicated by your TOPIC SENTENCE (4e), whether
stated or implied. Paragraph development is not merely a repetition of
the main idea, using other words. When this happens, you’re merely going
around in circles. We’ve deliberately created paragraph 10 to show you a bad
example of development. It goes nowhere because all that happens is that
one idea is restated three times in different words. Compare it with the well-
developed paragraph 3 that appears in section 4c.
53
4f WRITING PARAGRAPHS
NO The cockroach lore that has been daunting us for years is

10 mostly true. Almost every tale we have heard about cock-
roaches is correct. The stories about cockroaches have fright-
ened people for generations.
What separates most good writing from bad is the writer’s ability
to move back and forth between main ideas and specific details. To
check whether you are providing sufficient detail in a body paragraph, use the
RENNS Test. Each letter in the made-up word RENNS cues you to remember a
different kind of supporting detail at your disposal, as listed in Box 4-3.
The RENNS Test: Checking for supporting

details
R Reasons provide support.
E Examples provide support.
N Names provide support.
N Numbers provide support.
S Senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, touch—provide support.
Use the RENNS Test to check the quality of your paragraph development.
Of course, not every paragraph needs all five kinds of RENNS details, nor do
the supporting details need to occur in the order of the letters in RENNS.
Paragraph 11 contains three of the five types of RENNS details. Identify the
topic sentence and as many RENNS as you can before reading the analysis that
follows the paragraph.
U.S. shores are also being inundated by waves of plastic debris. On the
sands of the Texas Gulf Coast one day last September, volunteers collected
307 tons of litter, two-thirds of which was plastic, including 31,733 bags,
11 30,295 bottles, and 15,631 six-pack yokes. Plastic trash is being found far out
to sea. On a four-day trip from Maryland to Florida that ranged 100 miles
offshore, John Hardy, an Oregon State University marine biologist, spotted
“Styrofoam and other plastic on the surface, most of the whole cruise.”
—“The Dirty Seas,” Time
In paragraph 11, the first sentence serves as the topic sentence. Sup-
porting details for that main idea include examples, names, and numbers.
The writer provides examples of the kinds of litter found washed up on the
beach and floating offshore. The writer names many specific things: Texas
Gulf Coast, September, bags, bottles, six-pack yokes, Maryland, Florida,
John Hardy, Oregon State University, marine biologist, and Styrofoam. And
the writer uses specific numbers to describe the volume of litter collected
54
How can I write coherent paragraphs? 4f
(307 tons), to give counts of specific items (such as 31,733 bags), and to tell
how far from shore (100 miles) the litter had traveled.
Paragraph 12 contains four of the five types of RENNS. Identify the topic
sentence and as many RENNS as you can before you read the analysis that fol-
lows the paragraph.
Tennyson called it a “flying flame,” Benjamin Franklin termed it a
“sudden and terrible mischief.” In Roman mythology, the god Jupiter
used spiky thunderbolts as letters to the editor when he chose to show
displeasure to the poor mortals below. By whatever name, lightning is a
12 spectacular natural event. Captured in photographs, its grandeur and
beauty are safely petrified in static portraits of primal energy. In reality,
at 24,000 to 28,000 degrees C., it is four times hotter than the surface of
the sun. It can vaporize steel, plough up fields, shatter giant trees, and
scatter live incendiary sparks over vast forests. Each day it kills 20 people.
—Michael Clugston, “Twice Struck”
In paragraph 12, the third sentence is the topic sentence. Supporting
details for the main idea include examples (vaporize steel, plough up
fields, shatter giant trees); the writer also uses names (Tennyson, Franklin)
and numbers (24,000 to 28,000 degrees C., 20 people). Sensory details, given
in images, provide more support (flying flame, sudden and terrible mischief).
E X E R C I S E 4 - 3 Working individually or with a peer-response group, look

again at the paragraphs in Exercise 4-2. Identify the RENNS in each para-
graph. For help, consult 4f.
4g How can I write coherent paragraphs?

A paragraph has coherence when its sentences relate to each other, not only
in content but also in choice of words and grammatical structures. A coherent
paragraph conveys continuity because the sentences follow naturally from one
to the next. Techniques for achieving coherence are listed in Box 4-4, with the
section that offers a complete explanation shown in parentheses.
Techniques for achieving coherence

■ Using appropriate transitional expressions (4g.1)
■ Using pronouns when possible (4g.2)
■ Using deliberate repetition of a key word (4g.3)
■ Using parallel structures (4g.4)
■ Using coherence techniques to create connections between
paragraphs (4g.5)
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4g WRITING PARAGRAPHS
4g.1 Using transitional expressions for coherence

Transitional expressions are words and phrases that signal connections
among ideas. Transitions are bridges that lead your reader along your line
of thought. They offer cues about what follows. Commonly used transition-
al expressions are listed in Box 4-5.
A L E R T: In academic writing, set off a transitional expression with

a comma, unless the expression is one short word (23g).
Vary your choices of transitional words. For example, instead of always

using for example, try for instance. Also, when choosing a transitional word,
make sure it correctly says what you mean. For example, don’t use however
in the sense of on the other hand if you mean therefore in the sense of as a
result. The three brief examples below demonstrate how to use transitional
expressions for each context.
COHERENCE BY ADDITION
Woodpeckers use their beaks to find food and to chisel out nests. In
addition, they claim their territory and signal their desire to mate by
using their beaks to drum on trees.
Transitional expressions and the relationships

they signal
addition also, in addition, too, moreover, and, besides,
furthermore, equally important, then, finally
example for example, for instance, thus, as an illustration,
namely, specifically
contrast but, yet, however, nevertheless, nonetheless,
conversely, in contrast, still, at the same time, on the
one hand, on the other hand
comparison similarly, likewise, in the same way
concession of course, to be sure, certainly, granted
result therefore, thus, as a result, so, accordingly
summary hence, in short, in brief, in summary, in conclusion,
finally
time first, second, third, next, then, finally, afterward,
before, soon, later, meanwhile, subsequently,
immediately, eventually, currently
place in the front, in the foreground, in the back, in the
background, at the side, adjacent, nearby, in the
distance, here, there
56
How can I write coherent paragraphs? 4g

COHERENCE BY CONTRAST
Most birds communicate by singing. Woodpeckers, however, communi-
cate by the duration and rhythm of the drumming of their beaks.
C O H E R E N C E B Y R E S U LT
The woodpecker’s strong beak enables it to communicate by drumming
on dry branches and tree trunks. As a result, woodpeckers can commu-
nicate across greater distances than songbirds can.
Paragraph 13 demonstrates how transitional expressions (shown in

bold) enhance a paragraph’s COHERENCE. The TOPIC SENTENCE is the final
sentence.
Before the days of television, people were entertained by exciting

radio shows such as Superman, Batman, and “War of the Worlds.” Of
course, the listener was required to pay careful attention to the story if
all details were to be comprehended. Better yet, while listening to
the stories, listeners would form their own images of the actions taking
place. When the broadcaster would give brief descriptions of the Mar-
tian space ships invading Earth, for example, every member of the
13 audience would imagine a different space ship. In contrast, television’s
version of “War of the Worlds” will not stir the imagination at all, for
everyone can clearly see the actions taking place. All viewers see the
same space ship with the same features. Each aspect is clearly defined,
and therefore, no one will imagine anything different from what is seen.
Thus, television can’t be considered an effective tool for stimulating the
imagination.
—Tom Paradis, “A Child’s Other World”
4g.2 Using pronouns for coherence

Pronouns—words that refer to nouns or other pronouns—allow readers to
follow your train of thought from one sentence to the next without boring
repetition. Without pronouns, you would have to repeat nouns over and
over. For example, this sentence uses no pronouns and therefore has need-
less repetition: The woodpecker scratched the woodpecker’s head with the
woodpecker’s foot. In contrast, with pronouns the sentence can be: The
woodpecker scratched its head with its foot. Paragraph 14 illustrates how
pronouns (shown in bold) contribute to COHERENCE.
The funniest people I know are often unaware of just how ticked off
they are about things until they start to kid around about them. Nature
14 did not build these people to sputter or preach; instead, in response to
the world’s irritations, they create little plays in their minds—parodies,
cartoons, fantasies. When they see how funny their creations are, they
also understand how really sore they were at their sources. Their anger
57
4g WRITING PARAGRAPHS
is a revelation, one that works backward in the minds of an audience: the

audience starts out laughing and winds up fuming.
—Roger Rosenblatt, “What Brand of Laughter Do You Use?”
4g.3 Using deliberate repetition for coherence

A key word is a strong word that’s central to the main idea of the paragraph.
Repetition of a key word is a useful way to achieve COHERENCE in a para-
graph. The word usually appears first in the paragraph’s TOPIC SENTENCE (4e)
and then again throughout the paragraph. The idea of key-word repetition is
to keep a concept in front of the reader.
Use this technique sparingly to avoid being monotonous. Also, limit your
selection of a key word to one or at the most two words. The shorter a para-
graph, the more likely a repeated key word will seem repetitious, and the less
likely it’ll be effective. In a longer paragraph, however, the repetition of a key
word can be effective. Paragraph 15 contains repeated words (shown in
bold) closely tied to the concept of emotions, making the paragraph more
coherent.
Emotions are, technically speaking, chemical impulses to act. The
root of the word emotion is motere, the Latin verb meaning “to move,”
plus the prefix e which means “away,” suggesting a tendency to act is
15 implicit in every emotion. One of the primary functions of emotion is
to warn us of danger. Goleman refers to this warning process as an
“emotional alarm.” When you experience an emotional alarm, like an
unexpectedly loud noise, the emotional part of your brain takes over the
analytical part of your brain, and you react.
—Carol Carter and Lynn Quitman Troyka,
Majoring in the Rest of Your Life
4g.4 Using parallel structures for coherence

Parallel structures are created when grammatically equivalent forms are
used in series, usually of three or more items, but sometimes only two (see
PARALLELISM, Chapter 18). Using parallel structures helps to give a para-
graph coherence. The repeated parallel structures reinforce connections
among ideas, and they add both tempo and sound to the sentence.
In paragraph 16, the authors use several parallel structures (shown in
bold): a parallel series of words (the sacred, the secular, the scientific); paral-
lel phrases (sometimes smiled at, sometimes frowned upon); and six parallel
clauses (the first being banish danger with a gesture).
Superstitions are sometimes smiled at and sometimes frowned
16 upon as observances characteristic of the old-fashioned, the unen-
lightened, children, peasants, servants, immigrants, foreigners, or back-
woods people. Nevertheless, they give all of us ways of moving back and
58
How can I write coherent paragraphs? 4g
forth among the different worlds in which we live—the sacred, the

secular, and the scientific. They allow us to keep a private world also,
where, smiling a little, we can banish danger with a gesture and
summon luck with a rhyme, make the sun shine in spite of storm
clouds, force the stranger to do our bidding, keep an enemy at
bay, and straighten the paths of those we love.
—Margaret Mead and Rhoda Metraux, “New Superstitions for Old”
4g.5 Creating coherence among paragraphs

The same techniques for achieving COHERENCE in a paragraph apply to
showing connections among paragraphs in a piece of writing: transitional
expressions (4g.1), pronouns (4g.2), deliberate repetition (4g.3), and parallel
structures (4g.4).
Example 17 shows two short paragraphs and the start of a third. The
writer achieves coherence among the paragraphs by repeating the key word
gratitude and the related words grateful, thankful, and thank and by using
them as a transition into the next paragraph. The writer also uses
PARALLELISM within the paragraphs in this example.
To me, gratitude and inner peace go hand in hand. The more gen-
uinely grateful I feel for the gift of my life, the more peaceful I feel.
Gratitude, then, is worthy of a little practice.
If you’re anything like me, you probably have many people to be
thankful for: friends, family members, people from your past, teachers,
17 gurus, people from work, someone who gave you a break, as well as
countless others. You may want to thank a higher power for the gift of
life itself, or for the beauty of nature.
As you think of people to be grateful for, remember that it can be
anyone—someone who held a door open for you, or a physician who
saved your life. . . .
E X E R C I S E 4 - 4 Working individually or with a peer-response group, locate the

coherence techniques in each paragraph. Look for transitional expressions,
pronouns, deliberate repetition, and parallel structures. For help, consult 4g.
A. Kathy sat with her legs dangling over the edge of the side of the hood. The
band of her earphones held back strands of straight copper hair that had
come loose from two thick braids that hung down her back. She swayed
with the music that only she could hear. Her shoulders raised, making
circles in the warm air. Her arms reached out to her side; her open hands
18 reached for the air; her closed hands brought the air back to her. Her arms
reached over her head; her opened hands reached for a cloud; her closed
hands brought the cloud back to her. Her head moved from side to side;
her eyes opened and closed to the tempo of the tunes. Kathy was motion.
—Claire Burke, student
59
4h WRITING PARAGRAPHS
B. Newton’s law may have wider application than just the physical world. In the
social world, racism, once set into motion, will remain in motion unless acted
upon by an outside force. The collective “we” must be the outside force. We
must fight racism through education. We must make sure every school has
19 the resources to do its job. We must present to our children a culturally
diverse curriculum that reflects our pluralistic society. This can help students
understand that prejudice is learned through contact with prejudiced people,
rather than with the people toward whom the prejudice is directed.
—Randolph H. Manning, “Fighting Racism with Inclusion”
E X E R C I S E 4 - 5 Working individually or with a peer-response group, use

RENNS (4f) and techniques for achieving coherence (4g) to develop three of
the following topic sentences into paragraphs. When finished, list the
RENNS and the coherence techniques you used in each paragraph.
1. Newspaper comic strips reflect current concerns in our culture.
2. The contents of trash in the United States says a great deal about US
culture.
3. Dramas on television tend to have several common elements.
4. Part-time jobs can be very unappealing.
5. Time management is a lifesaver for college students.
4h How can I arrange a paragraph?

When you choose a paragraph arrangement during DRAFTING, you order its
sentences to communicate the paragraph’s message most clearly and effec-
tively. Later, during REVISION, experiment with other arrangements to see
how else your sentences might be arranged for greatest impact. You may find
sometimes that only one possible arrangement can work. For example, if
you’re explaining how to bake a cake, you want to give the directions in a par-
ticular order. At other times, you may find that more than one arrangement
is possible. For example, if you’re writing about solving a problem and there-
fore using the problem-to-solution arrangement, you might also use the
technique of ordering from least to most important—or its reverse. Box 4-6
opposite lists the most common ways to arrange a paragraph.
E X E R C I S E 4 - 6 Working individually or with a peer-response group, re-

arrange the sentences in each paragraph below so that it flows logically. To
begin, identify the topic sentence, use it as the paragraph’s first sentence,
and continue from there. For help, consult 4h.
PARAGRAPH A
1. Remember, many people who worry about offending others wind up living
according to other people’s priorities.
60
How can I arrange a paragraph? 4h
Ways to arrange sentences in a paragraph

■ By time
■ By location
■ From general to specific
■ From specific to general
■ From least to most important
■ From problem to solution
2. Learn to decline, tactfully but firmly, every request that doesn’t contribute
to your goals.
3. Of all the timesaving techniques ever developed, perhaps the most effec-
tive is the frequent use of the word no.
4. If you point out that your motivation isn’t to get out of work but to save
your time to do a better job on the really important things, you’ll have a
good chance of avoiding unproductive tasks.
—Edwin Bliss, “Getting Things Done: The ABC’s
of Time Management”
PARAGRAPH B
1. After a busy day, lens wearers often don’t feel like taking time out to clean
and disinfect their lenses, and many wearers skip the chore.
2. When buying a pair of glasses, a person deals with just the expense of the
glasses themselves.
3. Although contact lenses make the wearer more attractive, glasses are eas-
ier and less expensive to care for.
4. However, in addition to the cost of the lenses themselves, contact lens
wearers must shoulder the extra expense of cleaning supplies.
5. This inattention creates a danger of infection.
6. In contrast, contact lenses require daily cleaning and weekly enzyming that
inconvenience lens wearers.
7. Glasses can be cleaned quickly with water and tissue at the wearer’s
convenience.
—Heather Martin, student
EXERCISE 4-7 Working individually or with a peer-response group, deter-

mine the arrangements in these paragraphs. Choose from time, location,
general to specific, specific to general, least to most important, and prob-
lem to solution. For help, consult 4h.
61
4h WRITING PARAGRAPHS
A. A combination of cries from exotic animals and laughter and gasps from
children fills the air along with the aroma of popcorn and peanuts. A hungry
lion bellows for dinner, his roar breaking through the confusing chatter of
other animals. Birds of all kinds chirp endlessly at curious children.
Monkeys swing from limb to limb, performing gymnastics for gawking
20 onlookers. A comedy routine by orangutans employing old shoes and
garments incites squeals of amusement. Reptiles sleep peacefully behind
glass windows, yet they send shivers down the spines of those who
remember the quick death many of these reptiles can induce. The
sights and sounds and smells of the zoo inform and entertain children of
all ages.
—Deborah Harris, student
B. No one even agrees anymore on what “old” is. Not long ago, 30 was
middle-aged and 60 was old. Now, more and more people are living into
21 their 70s, 80s and beyond—and many of them are living well, without any
incapacitating mental or physical decline. Today, old age is defined not
simply by chronological years, but by degree of health and well-being.
—Carol Tavris, “Old Age Isn’t What It Used to Be”
C. Lately, bee researchers have been distracted by a new challenge from

abroad. It’s, of course, the so-called “killer bee” that was imported into
Brazil from Africa in the mid-1950s and has been heading our way ever
since. The Africanized bee looks like the Italian bee but is more defensive
22 and more inclined to attack in force. It consumes much of the honey that it
produces, leaving relatively little for anyone who attempts to work with it. It
travels fast, competes with local bees and, worse, mates with them. It has
ruined the honey industry in Venezuela and now the big question is: Will the
same thing happen here?
—Jim Doherty, “The Hobby That Challenges
You to Think Like a Bee”
4i How can rhetorical strategies help me write

paragraphs?
Rhetorical strategies are techniques for presenting ideas clearly and effec-
tively. Rhetorical strategies reflect patterns of thought long in use in our
Western culture. You choose a specific rhetorical strategy according to what
you want to accomplish. Box 4-7 lists the common rhetorical strategies at
your disposal.
Often, your TOPIC SENTENCE will steer you toward a particular pat-
tern. For example, if a topic sentence is “Grilling a great hot dog is easy,” the
implied pattern—or rhetorical strategy—is to explain the process of how to
grill a hot dog. Or if a topic sentence is “To see many different styles of
62
How can rhetorical strategies help me write paragraphs? 4i
Common rhetorical strategies (patterns of thought)

for paragraphs
■ Narrative
■ Description
■ Process
■ Examples
■ Definition
■ Analysis
■ Classification
■ Comparison and contrast
■ Analogy
■ Cause-and-effect analysis
architecture in one US city, visit Chicago,” the implied pattern—or rhetori-

cal strategy—is to give examples.
Sometimes, you need to use a combination of rhetorical strategies.
For example, in a paragraph on types of color blindness, you might use a com-
bination of definition and classification. A paragraph explaining why one brand
of house paint is superior to another might call for comparison and contrast
combined with description—and, perhaps, also definition and examples.
Writing a narrative
Narrative writing is a rhetorical strategy that tells a story. A narration relates
what is happening or what has happened. Paragraph 23 is an example.
Gordon Parks speculates that he might have spent his life as a waiter
on the North Coast Limited train if he hadn’t strolled into one particular
movie house during a stopover in Chicago. It was shortly before World
War II began, and on the screen was a hair-raising newsreel of Japanese
planes attacking a gunboat. When it was over the camera operator came
23 out on stage and the audience cheered. From that moment on Parks was
determined to become a photographer. During his next stopover, in Seat-
tle, he went into a pawnshop and purchased his first camera for $7.50.
With that small sum, Parks later proclaimed, “I had bought what was to
become my weapon against poverty and racism.” Eleven years later, he
became the first black photographer at Life magazine.
—Susan Howard, “Depth of Field”
63
4i WRITING PARAGRAPHS
Writing a description
Writing a description is a rhetorical strategy that appeals to a reader’s sens-
es—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Descriptive writing paints a picture
in words. Paragraph 24 is an example.
Walking to the ranch house from the shed, we saw the Northern
Lights. They looked like talcum powder fallen from a woman’s face.
24 Rouge and blue eye shadow streaked the spires of a white light which
exploded, then pulsated, shaking the colors down—like lives—until they
faded from sight.
—Gretel Ehrlich, “Other Lives”
Writing about a process

Writing about a process is a rhetorical strategy that reports a sequence of
actions by which something is done or made. A process usually proceeds
chronologically—first do this, then do that. A process’s complexity dictates
the level of detail in the writing. For example, paragraph 25 provides an
overview of a complicated process. Paragraph 26, on the other hand, gives
explicit step-by-step directions.
Making chocolate isn’t as simple as grinding a bag of beans. The
machinery in a chocolate factory towers over you, rumbling and
whirring. A huge cleaner first blows the beans away from their accom-
panying debris—sticks and stones, coins and even bullets can fall among
cocoa beans being bagged. Then they go into another machine for roast-
ing. Next comes separation in a winnower, shells sliding out one side,
25 beans falling from the other. Grinding follows, resulting in chocolate
liquor. Fermentation, roasting, and “conching” all influence the flavor of
chocolate. Chocolate is “conched”—rolled over and over against itself
like pebbles in the sea—in enormous circular machines named conches
for the shells they once resembled. Climbing a flight of steps to peer into
this huge, slow-moving glacier, I was expecting something like molten
mud but found myself forced to conclude it resembled nothing so much
as chocolate.
—Ruth Mehrtens Galvin, “Sybaritic to Some,
Sinful to Others”
Carrying loads of equal weight like paint cans and toolboxes is easier
if you carry one in each hand. Keep your shoulders back and down so
26 that the weight is balanced on each side of your body, not suspended in
front. With this method, you’ll be able to lift heavier loads and also to
walk and stand erect. Your back will not be strained by being pulled to
one side.
—John Warde, “Safe Lifting Techniques”
64
Writing using examples

A paragraph developed by examples presents particular instances of a larger
category. For instance, examples of the category “endangered animals” could
include the black rhinoceros, South China tiger, Bulmer’s fruit bat, and sil-
very gibbon. Paragraph 27 is an example of this strategy. On the other hand,
sometimes one extended example, often called an illustration, is useful.
Paragraph 28 is an example of this technique.
The current revolution in zoo design—the landscape revolution—is

driven by three kinds of change that have occurred during this century.
First are great leaps in animal ecology, veterinary medicine, landscape
design, and exhibit technology, making possible unprecedented realism
27
in zoo exhibits. Second is the progressive disappearance of wilderness—
the very subject of zoos—from the earth. Third is knowledge derived
from market research and from environmental psychology, making pos-
sible a sophisticated focus on the zoo-goer.
—Melissa Greene, “No Rms, Jungle Vu”
He was one of the greatest scientists the world has ever known, yet if
I had to convey the essence of Albert Einstein in a single word, I would
choose simplicity. Perhaps an anecdote will help. Once, caught in a
downpour, he took off his hat and held it under his coat. Asked why, he
28
explained, with admirable logic, that the rain would damage the hat, but
his hair would be none the worse for its wetting. This knack of going
instinctively to the heart of the matter was the secret of his major scien-
tific discoveries—this and his extraordinary feeling for beauty.
—Banesh Hoffman, “My Friend, Albert Einstein”
Writing using definition

When you define something, you give its meaning. Definition is often used
together with other rhetorical strategies. If, for example, you were explain-
ing how to organize a seashell collection, you’d probably want to define the
two main types of shells: bivalve and univalve. You can also develop an entire
paragraph by definition, called an extended definition. An extended defini-
tion discusses the meaning of a word or concept in more detail than a
dictionary definition. If the topic is very abstract, the writer tries to put the
definition in concrete terms. Sometimes a definition tells what something is
not, as well as what it is, as in paragraph 29.
Chemistry is that branch of science that has the task of investigating

29 the materials out of which the universe is made. It is not concerned with
the forms into which they may be fashioned. Such objects as chairs,
tables, vases, bottles, or wires are of no significance in chemistry; but
65
such substances as glass, wool, iron, sulfur, and clay, as the materials out
of which they are made, are what it studies. Chemistry is concerned not
only with the composition of such substances, but also with their inner
structure.
—John Arrend Timm, General Chemistry
Writing using analysis

Analysis, sometimes called division, divides things up into their parts. It usu-
ally starts, often in its topic sentence, by identifying one subject and contin-
ues by explaining the subject’s distinct parts. Paragraph 30 discusses the
parts of the wing of a supersonic aircraft.
A wing design is a compromise. For example, if a designer wants a
wing for an aircraft that will cruise at supersonic speeds, he must also
design the wing to fly at subsonic speeds as well as for takeoffs and land-
30 ings. Thus, the optimum cruise configuration is compromised to gain
other necessary characteristics. Granted, devices such as ailerons, flaps,
spoilers, and slats can partially compensate for deficiencies, but these
still do not give the optimum performance of a wing designed for a par-
ticular flight regime.
—Bill Siuru and John D. Busick, The Next Generation
of Aircraft Technology
Writing using classification

Classification groups items according to an underlying, shared characteristic.
Paragraph 31 groups—classifies—interior violations of building-safety codes.
A public health student, Marian Glaser, did a detailed analysis of 180
cases of building code violation. Each case represented a single building,
almost all of which were multiple-unit dwellings. In these 180 buildings,
there were an incredible total of 1,244 different recorded violations—
about seven per building. What did the violations consist of? First of
all, over one-third of the violations were exterior defects: broken doors
and stairways, holes in the walls, sagging roofs, broken chimneys, dam-
31 aged porches, and so on. Another one-third were interior violations that
could scarcely be attributed to the most ingeniously destructive rural
southern migrant in America. There were, for example, a total of 160
instances of defective wiring or other electrical hazards, a very common
cause of the excessive number of fires and needless tragic deaths in the
slums. There were 125 instances of inadequate, defective, or inoperable
plumbing or heating. There were 34 instances of serious infestation by
rats and roaches.
—William Ryan, “Blaming the Victim”
66
Writing using comparison and contrast

A paragraph developed by comparison deals with similarities; a paragraph
developed by contrast deals with differences. Comparison and contrast
writing is usually organized one of two ways: You can use point-by-point
organization, which moves back and forth between the items being com-
pared; or you can use block organization, which discusses one item com-
pletely before discussing the other.
Paragraph 32 is structured point by point, going back and forth between
the two children (whose names are in boldface) being compared.
My husband and I constantly marvel at the fact that our two sons,
born of the same parents and only two years apart in age, are such com-
pletely different human beings. The most obvious differences became
apparent at their births. Our firstborn, Mark, was big and bold—his
intense, already wise eyes, broad shoulders, huge and heavy hands, and
powerful, chunky legs gave us the impression he could have walked out
of the delivery room on his own. Our second son, Wayne, was delight-
32 fully different. Rather than having the football physique that Mark was
born with, Wayne came into the world with a long, slim, wiry body more
suited to running, jumping, and contorting. Wayne’s eyes, rather than
being intense like Mark’s, were impish and innocent. When Mark was
delivered, he cried only momentarily, and then seemed to settle into a
state of intense concentration, as if trying to absorb everything he could
about the strange, new environment he found himself in. Conversely,
Wayne screamed from the moment he first appeared. There was noth-
ing helpless or pathetic about his cry either—he was darn angry!
—Rosanne Labonte, student
Paragraph 33 uses the block pattern for comparison and contrast.
The writer first discusses games and then business (each key word is in
boldface).
Games are of limited duration, take place on or in fixed and finite sites,
and are governed by openly promulgated rules that are enforced on the
spot by neutral professionals. Moreover, they’re performed by relatively
evenly matched teams that are counseled and led through every move by
seasoned hands. Scores are kept, and at the end of the game, a winner is
33 declared. Business is usually a little different. In fact, if there is anyone out
there who can say that the business is of limited duration, takes place on a
fixed site, is governed by openly promulgated rules that are enforced on the
spot by neutral professionals, competes only on relatively even terms, and
performs in a way that can be measured in runs or points, then that per-
son is either extraordinarily lucky or seriously deluded.
—Warren Bennis, “Time to Hang Up
the Old Sports Clichés”
67
Writing using analogy

An analogy is an extended comparison between objects or ideas from dif-
ferent classes—things not normally associated. Analogy is particularly effec-
tive in explaining unfamiliar or abstract concepts because a comparison can
be drawn between what is familiar and what is not. An analogy often begins
with a SIMILE or METAPHOR (20d), as in paragraph 34.
Casual dress, like casual speech, tends to be loose, relaxed, and col-
orful. It often contains what might be called “slang words”: blue jeans,
sneakers, baseball caps, aprons, flowered cotton housedresses, and the
like. These garments could not be worn on a formal occasion without
causing disapproval, but in ordinary circumstances, they pass without
remark. “Vulgar words” in dress, on the other hand, give emphasis and
34 get immediate attention in almost any circumstances, just as they do in
speech. Only the skillful can employ them without some loss of face, and
even then, they must be used in the right way. A torn, unbuttoned shirt
or wildly uncombed hair can signify strong emotions: passion, grief, rage,
despair. They’re most effective if people already think of you as being
neatly dressed, just as the curses of well-spoken persons count for more
than those of the customarily foul-mouthed do.
—Alison Lurie, The Language of Clothes
Writing using cause-and-effect analysis

Cause-and-effect analysis examines outcomes and the reasons for those
outcomes. Causes lead to an event or an effect, and effects result from causes.
Paragraph 35 discusses how television (the cause) becomes indispensable
(the effect) to parents of young children.
Because television is so wonderfully available as child amuser and child
defuser, capable of rendering a volatile three-year-old harmless at the flick
of a switch, parents grow to depend upon it in the course of their daily
lives. And as they continue to utilize television day after day, its importance
in their children’s lives increases. From a simple source of entertainment
35 provided by parents when they need a break from childcare, television
gradually changes into a powerful and disruptive presence in family life.
But despite their increasing resentment of television’s intrusions into their
family life, and despite their considerable guilt at not being able to control
their children’s viewing, parents don’t take steps to extricate themselves
from television’s domination. They can no longer cope without it.
—Marie Winn, The Plug-In Drug
EXERCISE 4-8 Working individually or with a peer-response group, decide

what rhetorical strategies are used in each paragraph. Choose from any
one or combination of narrative, description, process, examples, definition,
68

analysis, classification, comparison and contrast, analogy, and cause and
effect. For help, consult 4i.
A. Another way to think about metamessages is that they frame a
conversation, much as a picture frame provides a context for the images in
the picture. Metamessages let you know how to interpret what someone is
36 saying by identifying the activity that is going on. Is this an argument or a
chat? Is it helping, advising, or scolding? At the same time, they let you
know what position the speaker is assuming in the activity, and what
position you are being assigned.
—Deborah Tannen, You Just Don’t Understand
B. I retain only one confused impression from my earliest years: it’s all
red, and black, and warm. Our apartment was red: the upholstery was of
red moquette, the Renaissance dining-room was red, the figured silk
hangings over the stained-glass doors were red, and the velvet curtains in
Papa’s study were red too. The furniture in this awful sanctum was made
37
of black pear wood; I used to creep into the kneehole under the desk and
envelop myself in its dusty glooms; it was dark and warm, and the red of
the carpet rejoiced my eyes. That is how I seem to have passed the early
days of infancy. Safely ensconced, I watched, I touched, I took stock of
the world.
—Simone de Beauvoir, Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter
C. In the case of wool, very hot water can actually cause some structural
changes within the fiber, but the resulting shrinkage is minor. The
fundamental cause of shrinkage in wool is felting, in which the fibers
38 scrunch together in a tighter bunch, and the yarn, fabric, and garment follow
suit. Wool fibers are curly and rough-surfaced, and when squished together
under the lubricating influence of water, the fibers wind around each other,
like two springs interlocking. Because of their rough surfaces, they stick
together and can’t be pulled apart.
—James Gorman, “Gadgets”
D. After our lunch, we drove to the Liverpool public library, where I was
scheduled to read. By then, we were forty-five minutes late, and on arrival we
saw five middle-aged white women heading away toward an old car across the
street. When they recognized me, the women came over and apologized: They
were really sorry, they said, but they had to leave or they’d get in trouble on
39 the job. I looked at them. Every one of them was wearing an inexpensive,
faded housedress and, over that, a cheap and shapeless cardigan sweater.
I felt honored by their open-mindedness in having wanted to come and listen
to my poetry. I thought and I said that it was I who should apologize: I was
late. It was I who felt, moreover, unprepared: What in my work, to date,
deserves the open-minded attention of blue-collar white women terrified by
the prospect of overstaying a union-guaranteed hour for lunch?
—June Jordan, “Waiting for a Taxi”

69
4k WRITING PARAGRAPHS
E. Lacking access to a year-round supermarket, the many species—from ants

to wolves—that in the course of evolution have learned the advantages of
hoarding must devote a lot of energy and ingenuity to protecting their stashes
from marauders. Creatures like beavers and honeybees, for example, hoard
food to get them through cold winters. Others, like desert rodents that face
40 food scarcities throughout the year, must take advantage of the short-lived
harvests that follow occasional rains. For animals like burying beetles that
dine on mice hundreds of times their size, a habit of biting off more than they
can chew at the moment forces them to store their leftovers. Still others, like
the male MacGregor’s bowerbird, stockpile goodies during mating season so
they can concentrate on wooing females and defending their arena d’amour.
—Jane Brody, “A Hoarder’s Life: Filling

the Cache—and Finding It”
EXERCISE 4-9 Working individually or with a peer-response group, reread

the paragraphs in Exercise 4-7 and determine the rhetorical strategy (or
strategies) being used in each.
4j What is a transitional paragraph?

Transitional paragraphs are found in long essays. These paragraphs form a
bridge between one long discussion on a single topic that requires a number
of paragraphs and another discussion, usually lengthy, of another topic. Para-
graph 41 is an example of a transitional paragraph that allows the writer to
move from a long discussion of people’s gestures to a long discussion of peo-
ple’s eating habits.
Like gestures, eating habits are personality indicators, and even food pref-
41 erences and attitudes toward food reveal the inner self. Food plays an impor-
tant role in the lives of most people beyond its obvious one as a necessity.
—Jean Rosenbaum, M.D., Is Your Volkswagen
a Sex Symbol?
4k What are effective concluding paragraphs?

A concluding paragraph ends the discussion smoothly by following logically
from the essay’s introductory paragraph (4b) and the essay’s body paragraphs
(4c). Always integrate a concluding device into the final paragraph so that
the discussion does not end abruptly. A conclusion that is hurriedly tacked
on is a missed opportunity to provide a sense of completion and a finishing
touch that adds to the whole essay. Box 4-8, which follows, lists strategies for
concluding your essay as well as strategies to avoid.
The same writers who wait to write their introductory paragraph until
they’ve drafted their body paragraphs often also wait to write their concluding
70
What are effective concluding paragraphs? 4k
Strategies for concluding paragraphs

Strategies to Try
■ A strategy adapted from those used for introductory paragraphs (4b)—
but be careful to choose a different strategy for your introduction and
conclusion:
• Relating a brief concluding interesting story or anecdote
• Giving one or more pertinent—perhaps surprising—concluding
statistics
• Asking one or more provocative questions for further thought
• Using an appropriate quotation to sum up the THESIS STATEMENT
• Redefining a key term for emphasis
■ An ANALOGY that summarizes the thesis statement
■ A SUMMARY of the main points, but only if the piece of writing is longer
than three to four pages
■ A statement that urges awareness by the readers
■ A statement that looks ahead to the future
■ A call to readers
Strategies to Avoid
■ Introducing new ideas or facts that belong in the body of the essay
■ Rewording your introduction
■ Announcing what you’ve discussed, as in “In this paper, I have
explained why oil prices have dropped.”
■ Making absolute claims, as in “I have proved that oil prices don’t always
affect gasoline prices.”
■ Apologizing, as in “Even though I’m not an expert, I feel my position is
correct.”
paragraph until they’ve drafted their introduction. They do this to coordinate

the beginning and end so that they can make sure they don’t repeat the same
strategy in both places.
Paragraph 42 is a concluding paragraph from an essay on the history of
pizza and its modern appeal. It summarizes the main points of the essay.
71
5a CRITICAL THINKING, READING, AND WRITING
For a food that is traced to Neolithic beginnings, like Mexico’s

42 tortillas, Armenia’s lahmejoun, Scottish oatcakes, and even matzos, pizza
has remained fresh and vibrant. Whether it’s galettes, the latest thin-
crusted invasion from France with bacon and onion toppings, or a plain
slice of a cheese pie, the varieties of pizza are clearly limited only by
one’s imagination.
—Lisa Pratt, “A Slice of History”
EXERCISE 4-10 Working individually or in a peer-response group, return to

Exercise 4-1, in which you wrote introductory paragraphs for three informally
outlined essays. Now, write a concluding paragraph for each.
CHAPTER 5
Critical Thinking, Reading,

and Writing
The word critical here has a neutral meaning. It doesn’t mean taking a neg-
ative view or finding fault, as when someone criticizes another person for
doing something wrong. Rather, critical here applies to a mental stance of
examining ideas thoroughly and deeply, refusing to accept ideas merely
because they seem sensible at first thought, and tolerating questions that
often lack definitive answers.
5a What is critical thinking?

Thinking isn’t something you choose to do, any more than a fish chooses to
live in water. To be human is to think. But while thinking may come natu-
rally, awareness of how you think doesn’t. Thinking about thinking is the key
to critical thinking.
Critical thinking means taking control of your conscious thought
processes. If you don’t take control of those processes, you risk being con-
trolled by the ideas of others. The essence of critical thinking is thinking
beyond the obvious—beyond the flash of visual images on a television
screen, the alluring promises of glossy advertisements, the evasive state-
ments by some people in the news, the half-truths of propaganda, the manip-
ulations of SLANTED LANGUAGE, and faulty reasoning.
72

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QXD 1/27/06 6:08 PM Page 47

they’re rested after a workout, our instructor taught us to work

trouble lifting my grandmother, I added exercises to strengthen

4b How can I write effective introductory

How can I write effective introductory paragraphs? 4b

another’s emotions—to infancy, contradicting a long-standing assump-

E X E R C I S E 4 - 1 Write an introduction for the three essays informally out-

4c What are body paragraphs?

How can topic sentences create paragraph unity? 4c

Characteristics of effective body paragraphs

4d How can I create unity in paragraphs?

4e How can topic sentences create paragraph unity?

Topic sentence starting a paragraph

Topic sentence ending a paragraph

Topic sentence implied, not stated

How can I develop my body paragraphs? 4e

E X E R C I S E 4 - 2 Working individually or with a peer-response group, identify

4f How can I develop my body paragraphs?

NO The cockroach lore that has been daunting us for years is

The RENNS Test: Checking for supporting

How can I write coherent paragraphs? 4f

E X E R C I S E 4 - 3 Working individually or with a peer-response group, look

4g How can I write coherent paragraphs?

Techniques for achieving coherence

4g.1 Using transitional expressions for coherence

A L E R T: In academic writing, set off a transitional expression with

Vary your choices of transitional words. For example, instead of always

Transitional expressions and the relationships

How can I write coherent paragraphs? 4g

Paragraph 13 demonstrates how transitional expressions (shown in

Before the days of television, people were entertained by exciting

4g.2 Using pronouns for coherence

is a revelation, one that works backward in the minds of an audience: the

4g.3 Using deliberate repetition for coherence

4g.4 Using parallel structures for coherence

How can I write coherent paragraphs? 4g

forth among the different worlds in which we live—the sacred, the

4g.5 Creating coherence among paragraphs

E X E R C I S E 4 - 4 Working individually or with a peer-response group, locate the

E X E R C I S E 4 - 5 Working individually or with a peer-response group, use

4h How can I arrange a paragraph?

E X E R C I S E 4 - 6 Working individually or with a peer-response group, re-

How can I arrange a paragraph? 4h

Ways to arrange sentences in a paragraph

EXERCISE 4-7 Working individually or with a peer-response group, deter-

—Carol Tavris, “Old Age Isn’t What It Used to Be”

C. Lately, bee researchers have been distracted by a new challenge from

4i How can rhetorical strategies help me write

How can rhetorical strategies help me write paragraphs? 4i

Common rhetorical strategies (patterns of thought)

architecture in one US city, visit Chicago,” the implied pattern—or rhetori-

Writing about a process

How can rhetorical strategies help me write paragraphs? 4i

Writing using examples

The current revolution in zoo design—the landscape revolution—is

—Banesh Hoffman, “My Friend, Albert Einstein”

Writing using definition

Chemistry is that branch of science that has the task of investigating

Writing using analysis

Writing using classification

How can rhetorical strategies help me write paragraphs? 4i

Writing using comparison and contrast