Determination of Heavy Metals and Chemical Properties of Pre-

treated and Treated Sachet Water Sold In Kaduna Metropolis

By

Maryam Ibrahim

KPT/CST/15/10902

Department of Applied Science

School of Science and Technical Education

College of Science and Technology

Kaduna polytechnic, Kaduna.

July, 2018

i
 Determination of Heavy Metals and Chemical Properties of Pre-

treated and Treated Sachet Water Sold In Kaduna Metropolis

By

Maryam Ibrahim

KPT/CST/15/10902

Department of Applied Science

School of Science and Technical Education

College of Science and Technology

Kaduna polytechnic, Kaduna.

Submitted To the Department of Applied Science in Partial

Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of National Diploma

(ND) In Science Laboratory Technology

July, 2018

ii
 Declaration

I hereby declare that this project has been conducted under the

supervision of Babagana Muktar. All literatures cited are acknowledged

by way of reference.

___________________ _________________

Maryam Ibrahim Date

KPT/CST/15/10902

iii
 Approval Page

This is to certify that this project is an original work undertaken by

Maryam Ibrahim (KPT/CST/15/10902) and have been prepared in

accordance with the regulations governing the preparation and

presentation of projects in Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.

________________________ ______________________

Mallam Babagana Muktar Date

Supervisor

_________________________ _______________________
Mallam Salman Hassan Date
Project coordinator

_________________________ _______________________
Dr. Baba Gabi Date
Head of Department

iv
 Dedication

This project is dedicated to the Almighty Allah and to my entire family

members.

v
 Acknowledgement

All praises and thanks to Almighty Allah Who in His Infinite mercy,

grante me protection and ability to do this work.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Babagana

Muktar whose constructive criticisms and encouragement made it

possible for the completion of this research. Your patience and valuable

contribution guide me throughout the research period for which I am

extremely grateful.

My sincere gratitude goes to Head of Department and members of staff

and my colleagues in the department for their support and understanding.

vi
 Table of Contents
Declaration .......................................................................................................... iii
Approval Page ..................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ............................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgement .............................................................................................. vi
Table of Contents ............................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ...................................................................................................... x
Abstract ............................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the study ............................................................................. 1
1.2 Water Requirements .................................................................................. 2
1.3 Water Qualities .......................................................................................... 3
1.4 Aim of the Work ......................................................................................... 5
1.5 Objectives................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 7
2.1 Sachet water ................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 12
3.1 Materials and method ............................................................................... 12
3.2 Description of the study area .................................................................... 12
3.3 Sample Collection and Preparation............................................................ 14
3.4 List of Chemicals and Reagents ................................................................. 14
3.5 List of Glassware ....................................................................................... 14
3.6 List of Analytical Instruments .................................................................. 15
3.7 Preparation of Standard for Heavy MetalsAnalysis using Atomic
Absorption Spectroscopy ................................................................................... 15
3.7.1 Preparation of cadmiumstandard from (Cd(NO3) 2.4H2O ..................... 15

vii
3.7.2 Preparation of nickel standard from NiSO4.6H2O ................................. 16
3.7.3 Preparation copper standardfrom CuSO4.5H20 ........................................ 16
3.7.4 Digestion of Sample for Heavy Metal Determination ............................. 17
3.7.5 Chemical Analysis of Sulphate, Nitrate, Phosphate and Chloride .......... 17
3.7.5.1 Determination of sulphate ...................................................................... 17
3.7.5.2 Determination of nitrate ......................................................................... 18
3.7.5.3 Determination of phosphate ................................................................... 18
3.7.5.4 Determination of chloride ...................................................................... 19
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results ...................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........... 23
5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 28
5.2 Recommendation ...................................................................................... 29
REFERENCES................................................................................................... 30

viii
 List of Tables

Table 2.1: Summary of published literature addressing sachet water

quality

Table 4.1:Values (mg/L) of treated sachet water samples obtained

compared with established standards
Table 4.2: Values (mg/L) of pre-treated water sample obtained compared
with established standards
Table 4.3: Heavy metals concentrations (mg/L) in treated sachet water

ix
 List of Figures

Figure 3.1: Map of the Sampling Sites

x
 Abstract

The provision of safe drinking water is a very important public health

priority. Most of the diseases in developing countries are caused by the
consumption of contaminated water. The concentrations of three heavy
metals and chemical properties were determined in sachet water samples
obtained in Kaduna metropolis. Heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Ni) were
determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). All the
samples analysed for (Cd, Cu, Ni) were below the permissible levels of
the WHO. The chemical properties (sulphate, nitrate, phosphate and
chloride) analysed for the pre-treated and treated sachet water samples
were also below the maximum permissible limit prescribed by SON and
WHO. This implies that all the sachet water sample analysed are not
harmful after being consumed for a long time by the Kaduna populace.

xi
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Sachet water, also known as pure water, has become a growing business

in Nigeria. In the view of the Nigerian government, which is preoccupied

with poverty eradication, the sachet water (packaged groundwater)

industry is an industry that alleviates poverty for many Nigerians without

jobs. However, the quality of drinking water depends on its original

source and treatment; heavy metals and chemicals in drinking water that

are toxic may cause either acute or chronic health effects.

Water is an essential requirement of life for drinking, domestic, industrial

and agricultural uses. Its quality and quantity which vary over space and

time are important components in the integral development of any area.

Any change in the natural quality of water may disturb the equilibrium

system and it would become unfit for designated uses (Ato and Ayua,

2013).

Ombaka, and Gichumbi, (2012) reported that the protoplasm of many

living cells contain about 80 percent water and most of the biochemical

reactions which occur in metabolism and growth of living cells involve

water medium, hence it is referred to as universal solvent. Introduction of

anthropogent chemicals, that have impact on health when present in trace

amounts, has become a problem (Kegley and Andre, 1998). A reliable

1
 supply of wholesome water is highly essential to promote healthy living

amongst the inhabitants of any geological region (Mustapha and Adamu

, 1991). The world industrialized standard model for delivery of safe

drinking water and sanitation technology is not affordable in much of the

developing world (Gadgil and Derby, 2003).

Chikezie, (2012) remarked, that water in sachets is readily available and

affordable more than bottled water, but there are concerns about its

purity. The need to define the quality of water has developed with the

increasing demand. The available must have specific characteristics,

signifying its quality. There has been a tremendous increase in the

demand for fresh water due to rapid growth of population and the

accelerated pace of industrialization.

Contaminated water still threatens the well-being of the population,

particularly in under-developed and developing countries. Water quality

and quantity are inextricably linked, but quality deserves special attention

because of its implication on health and life (Warren and Mark, 1998).

Every year, thousands of cholera cases causing many human fatalities are

said to occur in Nigeria and recently it was experienced

1.2 Water Requirements

According to world health organization (WHO), 75 litres of water per

day is necessary to protect against household diseases and 50litres is

2
 necessary for basic family sanitation. According to a report released at

the world water forum (March, 2008), a person living in an urban area

uses an average of 250litres per day although individual consumption

varies widely around the globe (Abaje et al., 2009). The total domestic

water needs in homes with piped water is at least 115litres per day,

though the actual amount used may be greater depending on the ease and

convenience of supply (Ayoade and Oyebande, 1983)

1.3 Water Qualities

There are many parameters that are employed in assessing water quality.

These are classified as physical, chemical or biological. The quality of

given water is assessed with respect to the intended use, for example the

standard qualities of drinking water should be different from water

intended for industrial or agricultural uses.

However a change in qualities of water meant for portability has direct

influence on public health. When water gets contaminated with various

pathogenic as well as opportunistic micro flora and toxic chemical

compounds, it serves as the commonest vehicle of transmission of a

number of infectious diseases. Unfortunately, over a billion people in the

developing world do not have access to satisfactory water supply. The

WHO has estimated that up to 80% of all sickness and disease in the

world is caused by inadequate sanitation, polluted or unavailability of

3
water. The pollution of drinking water is responsible for a large number

of mortalities and morbidities due to water-borne diseases like typhoid,

cholera, dysentery, hepatitis as well as many protozoan and helminthic

infestations (WHO, 2007).

Consequently, access to safe drinking water and sanitation is critical in

terms of health, especially for children. For instance, unsafe drinking

water contributed to numerous health problems in developing countries

such as the one billion or more incidents of diarrhea that occur annually

(Mark et al., 2002).

An adequate supply of portable water assist in preventing the spread of

gastrointestinal diseases, support domestic and personal hygiene and

improve the standard of living (Ike and Ugodunluwa, 1999). Today

human activities around sources of water are constantly adding industrial,

domestic and agricultural waste to water sources at alarming rate (Aremu

etal,2011). In the same vein both the quantity and quality of water are

affected by an increase in anthropogenic activities and any pollution

either physical or chemical that causes changes to the water quality of

the receiving water body (Aremu et al,2011). Chemical contaminant

occurs in drinking water throughout the world which could possibly

threaten human health.

4
 Delivery of safe portable drinking water to communities in Nigeria is the

responsibility of the government which in most cases has been inefficient

and adequate, Kaduna metropolis as a city is one of such communities

where adequate and safe drinking water is not guaranteed.

The effects of heavy metals and chemical properties on the quality of

water have become one of the major environmental challenges in our

society (Ukpaka and Chukwu,2012). The selection of parameters for

testing of water solely depends upon the quality and purity required.

In this study, we sought to determine the levels of heavy metals and

chemical properties in sachet water sold in Kaduna metropolis, with a

view of lending credence to the assertion by (Gidlow, 2004)that,

irrespective of the pressure to reduce heavy metal and chemical

properties exposure in the general population and working environment,

legislation must be based on genuine scientific evaluation of the available

evidence.

1.4 Aim of the Work

This research is aimed at assessing level of heavy metals and some

qualities of pre-treated and treated sachet water supply in Kaduna

metropolis.

5
1.5 Objectives

The objective of the work includes

i. Collection of pre-treated and treated sample of sachet water

ii. Analysis of chemical properties of pre-treated and treated sample of sachet

water (sulphate, nitrate, phosphate and chloride)

iii. Determination of the concentration of heavy metals in treated sample of

sachet water (nickel, cadmium and copper) using Atomic Absorption

Spectroscopy.

iv. Comparing the data obtained with standards (WHO, FOA etc)

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Sachet water

Sachet water can be viewed as the latest, low-cost technological

incarnation of vended water in developing cities. Technology has allowed

vended water to evolve even further in the developed world, and a recent

body of literature highlights the challenges in maintaining quality control

of machine-vended water (i.e. filling personal containers) in the US and

Europe (McSwane et al. 1994;Chaidez et al. 1999; Hunter and Barrell

1999; Schillinger and Du Vall Knorr 2004).

The vast majority of published literature on sachet water addresses

product quality, and this section reviews that body of work. Searches in

PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Academic Journals

databases were conducted between June and July 2010 using

combinations of keywords such as ‘sachet water’, quality’ and ‘Africa’ to

identify potential articles; reference lists were used to locate additional

resources. Articles were included if any diagnostic test was performed to

determine levels of any substance that affects drinking water quality,

even if the primary focus of the paper was not sachet water. Over 200

articles were reviewed and thirty (twenty-three from Nigeria, six from

Ghana and one from India) are summarized in Table 1. Recent research

7
on sachet water has primarily focused on sub-standard quality and

potential disease transmission, with some elaboration on health impact.

Despite scientific interest in microbiological quality of sachet water that

dates back to at least the mid-1990s (see Oloke 1997, for an early

example), there is a striking paucity of research on the topic. As evident

in Table 1, very few studies have incorporated a study design with a

sufficient sample size, geographic coverage, or general scientific rigor

needed for broad conclusions about quality, even at a local scale.

Most of this literature also appears in African journals that are not linked

to major databases like PubMed, which slows the dissemination of

findings and subsequent rousing of interest in these issues, particularly

with international organizations that may have the resources to

investigate further. While the lack of thorough sachet research is

surprising, it is understandable given the emerging state of the sachet

economy and absence of any ‘impact’ publications in Western academic

literature. This brief review includes only English-language publications,

but as English is the national language of both Nigeria and Ghana, the

representative literature from this region was likely captured. In fact,

Table 1 may represent the most comprehensive compilation of sachet-

related literature available. It is notable that the sachet literature is limited

to West Africa, as the phenomenon seems to have been born in Nigeria.

8
DHS data and anecdotal reports indicate that sachet water is now

prevalent in all nations contiguous to Nigeria (Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina

Faso, Togo, Benin, Niger, and Cameroon). The literature on bottled

drinking water quality has a slightly broader geographic base with early

reports from Nigeria (Ogan 1992; Olayemi 1999), as well as recent work

in Zimbabwe (Okagbue et al. 2002), South Africa (Ehlers et al. 2004),

and Tanzania (Kassenga 2007). Due to higher expense, bottled water

remains a luxury for higher socioeconomic status households and is not a

significant source of drinking water in West Africa. Recent DHS data

show that the only areas of West Africa where more than 1% of the

population use bottled water as a primary drinking water source are urban

regions of Liberia and Nigeria (3.6 and 6.9%, from 2009 and 2008

respectively) (Macro International Inc, 2011).

It is noteworthy that not every study has found sachet water quality to be

troublesome (Egwari et al. (2005); Olowe et al. (2005), though there is

an obvious bias toward reporting of positive test results for pathogens or

contaminants. The wide variety of impurities, despite the anecdotal

nature of some inquiries, may just be the tip of the proverbial iceberg as

sachet consumption increases across West Africa. Ironically, while water

quality continues to be the primary topic of interest, sachets have the

potential to be a transformative public health intervention – albeit as an

9
unintended consequence for low income households by eliminating the

need for unsafe water storage vessels. The deterioration of water quality

during transport and storage is established in public health literature

(Clasen and Cairncross (2004); Wright et al. (2004); Gundry et al.

(2006)), and as noted earlier, the potential for high-quality sachet water

to improve health outcomes by eliminating these contamination pathways

has been suggested empirically. Additionally, while research continues

into the health effects of phthalates and other chemicals thought to leach

from plastic bottles in the US and elsewhere (see, for example, Sax

(2010), no related studies of such effects in sachet water were identified

in the literature review shown in Table 1. Sachet bags frequently

experience direct sun exposure both during distribution on pickup truck

flatbeds, and while for sale in open markets or on the heads of street

vendors; higher temperatures are a risk factor for not only increased

microbial growth, but the release of contaminants from some plastics.

The potential health effects attributable to plastic packaging remains

unknown, and may be particularly important for sub-standard plastics

used in gray-market sachet production.

10
 Table 2.1: Summary of published literature addressing sachet water
quality

S/no Reference Setting N Quality measure Outcome

Ajayi and Adesida Akure, Chemical parameters, 100% exceeded UNSCEAR and
1 (2009) Nigeria 15 activity WHO limits

concentrations of 40K,
226Ra for uranium and thorium series

and 228Ra

Kaduna, 100% exceeded WHO TC

2 Ante et al. (2007) Nigeria 60 TC, chemical analysis guidelines; 45%

exceeded local TC standards

100% elevated TC, iron, zinc,

3 Ifenyi et al. (2006) 5 manganese,
PortHarcourt, TC, E. coli, heavy
Nigeria metals

Kumasi, 4.5% elevated TC; 2.3% FC;

4 Ghana 88 TC, FC, heavy metals iron within
Obiri-Danso et al.
(2003)

Southeast 25% of brands contained

5 Nigeria 300 elevated nitrite
Okafor and Ogbonna Nitrite and nitrate
(2003) content Concentration

11
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials and method

3.2 Description of the study area

The study area was Kaduna State which is in the centre of Northern

Nigeria located on a latitude of 11○ 12` N and a longitude of 07○37`E

with a population of 6,066,562 (National population commission, 2010).

It is characterized by a tropical climate with two main seasons; a rainy

season (May to October), with a mean annual rainfall of 1092.8mm, and

the dry season which spans between November and April (Ukegbu,

2005).

12
Fig 3.1: Map of the Sampling Sites (Source: GIS NDA, 2018)

13
3.3 Sample Collection and Preparation

Ten (10) samples consisting of five (5) different brands of pre-treated and

treated sachet water were selected at random with particular attention to

popular brand names commonly consumed within Kaduna Metropolis.

These samples were denoted as pre-treated (PT1 – PT5) and treated sachet

water (TT1-TT2). Samples from each factory were collected just

immediately before and after production, labelled, and transferred to

Kaduna Polytechinic Laboratory for chemical and heavy metals analysis.

3.4 List of Chemicals and Reagents

i. Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid (H2SO4) (MW;98.072 g/mol)

ii. Nickel(II) sulphate hexahydrate NiSO4.6H2O (MW; 262.85 g/mol)

iii. Nitric acid (HNO3) , (MW; 63 g/mol)

iv. Cadmium nitrate [Cd (NO3)2], (MW; 236.42 g/mol)

v. Copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate CuSO4.5H20 (MW 249.64 g/mol)

vi. Distilled water

3.5 List of Glassware

i. Funnel

ii.Spatula

iii. Burette

iv. Storage bottle

v. Measuring cylinder

14
 vi. Pipette

vii. Volumetric flask

viii. Beakers

ix. Desiccator

x. Nessler test tube

3.6 List of Analytical Instruments

i. Analytical balance (OHAUS Electronic scale), (Buck scientific model

210)

ii. Electric oven- Gallenkamp (HOSPOT) oven Model

iii. Analytical balance – Mettler AE 166 Model

iv. Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) (Buck scientific model 210)

3.7 Preparation of Standard for Heavy MetalsAnalysis using Atomic

Absorption Spectroscopy

3.7.1 Preparation of cadmiumstandard from (Cd(NO3) 2.4H2O

With the aid of an electronic analytical balance, 2.8g of cadmium nitrate

tetrahydrate (Cd(NO3) 2.4H2O and dissolved in 250 cm3 beaker with

distilled water. The solution was transferred to a 1000 cm3 volumetric

flask and made up to the mark with deionised water. This was clearly

labelled as the 1000 mg/L cadmium standard solution. The standard

solution of 10 mg/L was prepared by accurately measuring 1.00 cm3 of

the 1000 mg/L standard cadmium solution and serial dilutions was made

15
 from the intermediary standard to give various desired

concentrations(APHA-AWWA-WPCF, 1995).

3.7.2 Preparation of nickel standard from NiSO4.6H2O

Exactly 4.5g of NiSO4.6H2O was accurately weighed using an electronic

analytical balance and dissolved in a 250 cm3 beaker with distilled water,

it was stirred with glass rod and when it was completely dissolved, the

solution was transferred into a 1000 cm3 volumetric flask and made up to

the mark with distilled water it was clearly labelled as 1000 mg/L

standard solution of nickel and serial dilutions was made from the

intermediary standard to give various desired concentrations (APHA-

AWWA-WPCF, 1995).

3.7.3 Preparation copper standardfrom CuSO4.5H20

Using an electronic analytical balance, 3.9g of CuSO4.5H20 was

accurately weighed and dissolved in a 250 cm3 beaker with distilled

water. A glass rod was used to stir the solution for complete dissolution.

Upon dissolution it was transferred to a 1000 cm3 volumetric flask and

made up to the mark with deionised water. This was clearly labelled as

1000 mg/L solution of copper and serial dilutions was made from the

intermediary standard to give various desired concentrations (APHA-

AWWA-WPCF1995)

16
3.7.4 Digestion of Sample for Heavy Metal Determination

Exactly100 cm3 of well-mixed sample of pre-treated and treated sachet

water was taken into a beaker followed by 2 cm3 of concentrated HNO3

and 5 cm3 of concentrated HCl was added. The sample was covered with

a watch glass and heated on a hot plate at 90 to 95 oC until the volume has

been reduced to 15-20 cm3.The beakers were then removed and allow

cooling. The content of the beaker was filtered with the watch glass

washed into the beaker with distilled water and filtered to remove

silicates and other insoluble material that could clog the nebulizer. The

final volume was adjusted to 100 cm3 with distilled water. (Abulude.

2006). The sample was analyst for cations such as copper, nickel and

cadmium using atomic absorption spectroscopy of model AAS buck

scientific Model 210VGB.

3.7.5 Chemical Analysis of Sulphate, Nitrate, Phosphate and Chloride

3.7.5.1 Determination of sulphate

Exactly 50 cm3 of pre-treated and treated sachet water sample was taken

in a Nessler test tube followed by addition of 1 cm3 1:3 HCl and 1 cm3

10% Barium chloride solution and allowed to stand for about 5mins. The

solution turns milky white or cloudy to indicate the presence of sulphate,

absorbance of the solution will be measured l using a photometer of

model ELE international PAQUALAB photometer at a wave length of

17
 520nm, the concentration in mg/L determined from the calibration book

at the 520nm wavelength.

3.7.5.2 Determination of nitrate

At least 10 cm3 of pre-treated and treated sachet water sample was taken

in a test tube and immersed into a cold water bath, 2 cm3 4M NaCl added

and shaken followed by addition of 10 cm3 4:1 H2SO4, it was then mixed

thoroughly by swirling and allowed to cool. 0.5 cm3brucine-sulfanilic

acid reagent was then added and swirled to mix thoroughly and

subsequently placed in a well-stirred boiling water bath (that maintains a

temp of not less than 950C) for 20mins. Sample was then be removed and

immerse in cold water bath and cooled to room temperature (Rand et al.,

1975). The sample was finally analyzed using Spectrophotometer with

model ELE international PAQUALAB photometer to measure the

absorbance of nitrate at 570nm. The absorbance or transmittance will be

read against redistilled water set at zero absorbance or 100%

transmittance concentration of nitrate in mg/L will be determined from

the calibration book for the absorbance taken at the 570nm wavelength.

3.7.5.3 Determination of phosphate

At least 10 cm3 of the pre-treated and treated sachet water sample was

pipette into 50 cm3 volumetric flask. 4 cm3 of sulphuric acid was added

and shaken on each addition, 6 drops of stannous chloride was added

18
 then shaken and distilled water was added to make it up to 30 cm3. The

absorbance in the spectronic meter was read and at a wavelength of

650nm.

3.7.5.4 Determination of chloride

Approximately 20 cm3 of pre-treated and treated sachet water sample was

then measured using a pipette and transferred to 250 cm3 conical flask

followed by addition of 1 cm3 potassium dichromate indicator to get a

light yellow colour change, the solution was subsequently titrated against

the 0.028M silver nitrate solution until the colour changes from yellow to

brick red i.e. end point. Volume of silver nitrate used was noted as (V B).

The procedure was then repeated to get concordant values (Rand et al.,

1975) Amount of chloride was calculated using the formula:

(𝑉𝑎−𝑣𝑏∗𝑀∗35,45∗1000
Chlorides (mg/l)=
𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Va= Volume of silver nitrate for sample

Vb=Volume of sample silver nitrate for blank

M= molarity of silver nitrate

Equivalent mass of chlorine=35.45

19
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results

The values of chemical parameters determined for treated and pre-treated

sachet water samples are presented in Table 4.1-4.3

Table 4.1:Values (mg/L) of treated sachet water samples obtained

compared with established standards

Parameters
(mg/L) Sachet water brand Established standard

TT1 TT2 TT3 TT4 TT5 NIS SON WHO

PO4 1.66 1.97 1.42 1.21 1.46 10 NA NA

NO3 6.65 6.45 4.69 5.82 6.24 10 10 50

SO4 52.63 57.63 61.49 51.88 69.93 100 100 250

Cl 26.17 26.67 23.96 20.91 20.62 100 NA 250

Keys: Son (Standard organization of Nigeria); WHO (World health organization);

NIS(Nigerian Standard for drinking water); TT (Treated sachet water)

20
 Table 4.2: Values (mg/L) of pre-treated water sample obtained compared
with established standards

Parameters
(mg/L) Sachet water brand Established standard

PT1 PT2 PT3 PT4 PT5 NIS SON WHO

PO4 1.43 1.52 1.59 1.66 1.38 10 NA NA

NO3 7.54 8.22 7.01 6.98 6.08 10 10 50

SO4 61.56 74.02 70.00 69.03 81.01 100 100 250

Cl 20.73 22.06 21.03 28.08 26.07 100 NA 250

Keys: Son (Standard organization of Nigeria); WHO (World health organization);

NIS (Nigerian Standard for drinking water); PT (Pretreated sachet water)

21
Table 4.3: Heavy metals concentrations (mg/L) in treated sachet water

Heavy Metals Sachet water brand

Established
standard

TT1 TT2 TT3 TT4 TT5

WHO(mg/L)

Cd ND ND 0.001±0.02 ND 0.003±0.09 0.01

Ni ND 0.002±2.03 ND ND 0.004±0.08 0.02

Cu 0.081±0.13 1.021±0.79 0.045±3.02 0.684±0.01 0.889±0.47 2.00

Keys; TT (Treated sachet water), WHO(World health organization)

22
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The results of the chemical analysis for treated and pre-treated water

samples from Kaduna metropolis are presented in Table 4.1-4.2. The

highest and lowest chemical values for treated and pre-treated sachet

water are as follows; phosphate (TT) (1.97-1.21mg/L), nitrate (TT) (6.65-

4.69mg/L), sulphate (TT)(69.93-51.88mg/L), chloride (TT) (26.67-

20.62mg/L) and phosphate (PT) (1.66-1.38mg/L), nitrate (PT) (8.22-

6.08mg/L), sulphate (PT)(81.01-61.56mg/L), chloride (PT) (28.08-

20.73mg/L) . The values were compared with standard organization of

Nigeria, Nigerian standard for drinking water and the WHO permissible

limit for drinking water both treated and pretreated sachet were all below

the permissible limit.

The highest concentration of PO4 in treated and pre-treated water samples

were 1.97 and 1.66mg/L. Phosphorus is an essential element for all life.

It is part of the backbone of DNA. Phosphorous stimulates algal growth

which can endanger other aquatic lives. None of the phosphate values

were up to the NIS values of 10mg/L in all the water samples.

Nitrates are readily converted to nitrites and vice versa and are present

naturally in soils, water and food. They get into water through chemical

fertilizers, soils, foods and explosives (WHO, 2007) these compounds are

23
very soluble in water and can enter surface water when it rains or

groundwater through leaching. Nitrate is a normal component of the

human diet and it is relatively non-toxic but when swallowed, it is

converted to nitrite which reacts with hemoglobin in the blood causing

methemoglobin that could result in coma and deaths especially in infants.

It also causes diuresis and hemorrhage of the spleen. Excess of it in water

is used as an indicator of poor water quality (Ndamitso et al., 2013). The

highest values recorded for nitrate in the treated and pretreated sachet

water sample were 6.65 and 8.22 mg/L. These values were all below the

maximum permissible limit of SON, WHO and Nigerian standard for

drinking.

Sulphate occur naturally in drinking water and health concerns regarding

its level has been linked with diarrhea due to its laxative effects

especially when there is change from drinking water with low sulphate to

drinking water with high sulphate concentration (EPA,2011). In drinking

water, this ion has a secondary maximum contaminants level (SMCL) of

250mg/L which is a value provided as a guideline for public water works

(WHO, 2004) the concentration of all the water samples was far below

the maximum permissible limit with the highest value at 69.93and

81.01mg/L for treated and pre-treated sachet water samples.

24
The highest concentrations of chlorides recorded within the sampling

period for treated and pre-treated water sample were 20.07 and

28.08mg/L. The values are far much below the maximum permissible

limit of 250mg/L set by WHO and the Nigerian standard for drinking

water. Excessive chloride concentration in water increases rate of

corrosion of metals in the distribution system depending on the alkalinity

of the water. This can lead to increased concentration of metals in the

water supply (Okereke et al., 2014). Chloride ion is one of the major ions

in water it is generally associated with sodium and calcium, high

concentration of chloride in water may lead to objectionable salty taste

(WHO, 2011).

The results presented in Table 4.3 showed that the maximum and

minimum concentrations of heavy metal in treated sachet water for Cd is

(ND-0.003 mg/L).Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal with long retention

times; it can accumulate to a significant extent in human tissue. Cadmium

may have a half-life in bone of 38 years (Berman, 1980) and it has

carcinogenic properties.According to Lauwerys (1979) cadmium intake

in relatively high amounts can be detrimental to human health. Over a

long period of intake, cadmium may accumulate in the kidneys and liver

and, because of its long biological half-life, may lead to kidney damage.

Cadmium is naturally present in the environment in soils, air, sediments

25
and in sea water. It is emitted into the air by industries using cadmium

compounds for pigments, plastics, alloys etc. People are exposed to

cadmium when consuming plant and animal based foods, together with

sea foods (Medairos et al., 2012). Cadmium accumulates in the human

body and it affects the lungs, liver, kidney, brain, central nervous system

etc. Other damages include hepatic toxicity, reproductive, hematological

and immunological toxicities (Mudgal et al., 2010). The WHO Maximum

Permissible Level for cadmium in drinking wateris 0.003

mg/L(Shyamala et al., 2008).

The results obtained in table 4.3 for Cu sample in ranged between (0.045-

0.684 mg/L). Copper, in contrast, is an essential element in human

nutrition, but it may reach high levels in tap water through contact with

copper fittings. Guidelines for copper in drinking water are primarily

aesthetic; at high concentrations the taste of water may be

affected.Copper is a potent neurotoxin and it accumulates in soft tissues

and bones after prolonged exposure. The supply of water through piped

water system leads to copper water pollution. High levels of copper in

drinking water can cause vomiting, chronic anemia, abdominal pain,

nausea, diarrhea, etc. (Ling et al., 2009). Hussainet al. (2012), collected

water samples to determine the concentrations of metals such as nickel,

lead, chromium, cadmium, zinc and copper. The concentrations of heavy

metals found in drinking water samples rangedfrom 0.01-0.10 mg/mL

26
(nickel), 0.00-0.03 mg/mL (lead), 0.01-0.02 mg/ mL (chromium), 0.01-

0.16 mg/mL (zinc) and 0.00-0.01 mg/mL (copper).These results are

similar to the results gotten in this study.

The results presented in table 4.3 indicated the maximum and maximum

concentrations of Ni ranged between (ND-0.004 mg/L).Nickel has been

the subject of many investigations due to it is essential for

living organism but toxic when it is excessive (Zeng et al., 2012).

General population is exposed to nickel from various sources. Significant

sources of nickel exposure for occupationally unexposed population are

foods and the inhalation of tobacco smoke (Talio et al., 2011). Totally,

nickel is a moderately toxic element and it is known that inhalation of

this metal and its compounds can lead to serious problems, including

respiratory system cancer (Luiz Silva et al., 2009).From the analysis

carried out on the sachet water samples, it was discovered that the heavy

metals (Cd, Ni and Cu) levels in the sachet water samples were within

WHO limits.

27
5.1 Conclusion

In conclusion, this study demonstrates the need for more stringent

standardization and control of the sachet water packaging industry,

particularly with regard to quality control. We advocate further studies on

the effects of the packaging materials and storage conditions onthe final

product quality.

28
5.2 Recommendation

It is recommended that all sachet water samples intended for drinking

purposes should be treated considerable to reduce the levels of heavy

metals and chemical properties present in them to levels that are not

harmful to the human body.

29
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