Psychological characteristics and talent

development in youth football

Library based project by

Boni Bonev
 Content page:

Abstract………………………………………….…….1
Introduction………………………………………….2
Methodology………………………………………...5
Literature review…………………………………13
Conclusion and recommendations………24
Reference list………………………………………26
Appendix…………………………………………….32
 Abstract:

The following study investigates the role of the psychological

characteristics in talent identification and talent development in youth
football. Academic literature suggests there is a relationship between one’s
psychological skill set and one’s talent development and progress in
football. These psychological skills are identified as commitment, self-
confidence, motivation, resilience and coping with set-backs. The following
reading is exploring the process behind the acquisition of these
psychological characteristics and recommends ways of developing these
through psychological skill training

Keywords: psychological characteristics, talent development, talent

predictors, psychological skill training

1
 Psychological characteristics and talent development in
youth football

Introduction:

Youth talent development (TD) programs in football aim at the identification

and development of current talented players at a younger age. The reasons
for this can vary from gaining financial benefits from a business point of view
to building football legacy and success on the pitch (Relvas et al., 2010;
Larkin and O'Connor 2017). Regardless of the rationales behind this process,
many talent identification and development programs focus solely on
physical, physiological and current performance variables when assessing for
potential and future (Abbott and Collins 2002; Meylan et al., 2010;
O'Connor, Larkin and Williams 2016). Academic research in recent years has
added to existing practices the importance of identifying and developing
psychological skills as part of the talent development in football (Van Yperen
2009).

In England, the topic has increased attention from scholars and practitioners
following criticism focused on the ineffective talent development practices in
English professional football academies (Green 2009; Williams 2009).
According to the English Football Association(FA), in 2014 home-grown
players consisted of less than 10% (9.4%) of English Premier League (EPL)
squads and only 23 English players took part in UEFA's Champions League
competition (The FA, 2015). Moreover, in 2014/15 EPL clubs spent 3.4 billion
Euros mainly on players from overseas (Poli, Ravanel and Besson 2015).
Although, some of the issues addressed by Green (2009) and Williams (2009)
have seen improvement in recent years ,as English youth formations have
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had quite a success since 2009: U17's European Championship runners-up
and World Cup winners; U19's European Champions; U20's World Cup
winners; U21's European Championship semi-finalists (ESPN 2017), further
understanding of the psychological factors influencing talent identification
and development is needed to support academic researchers' and football
practitioners' revision of the current development practices.

Academic literature suggests a clear distinction between giftedness and

talent. Giftedness indicates the possession and application of natural
abilities in any field mainly with regards to the rate and speed of learning,
rather than the level of performance (Vaeyens et al., 2008). In football
context talent is referred to as "superior mastery of systematically
developed skills" (Meylan et al., 2010, p. 572). Furthermore, the talent
development (TD) action is characterized by the transformation of gifts into
talent, or the evolution of outstanding skills through learning, deliberate
practice and maturation (Williams and Reilly 2000). Researchers on the topic
advise that there are a variety of factors influencing the TD process. Some of
these are one's physical and cognitive development (Murr et al., 2018),
speed of maturation (Verburg et al., 2014), developmental environment
(Taylor and Bruner 2012), cultural background, parental and peer support
(Mills et al., 2014) and perceived coaching experiences (Höner and
Feichtinger 2016; Holt and Dunn 2004; Van Yperen 2009).

In contemporary football, a big volume of studies focuses on the process

behind the acquisition of certain psychological characteristic perceived to
predict TD and future career progress into professional settings (Gledhill et
al., 2017). Scholars with sports psychology expertise suggest that
psychological characteristics include personality traits, which tend to be
relatively stable, and psychological or mental skills, which can be developed
through practice over time (Weinberg and Gould 2007; Eklund and
Tenenbaum 2013). This study aims at identifying these characteristics and

3
propose practical recommendations on how these can be better developed
from an early age in youth football players.

Given the recent increased interest in the topic, this study is investigating in-
debt the role of the psychological characteristics when one is assessing for
future potential and TD in a football context. The aims of the following
reading are: 1) to critically analyse the existing academic literature and
identify which psychological characteristics and factors are associated with
talent identification and talent development in youth football; 2) to examine
which psychological characteristics can be trained and developed through
practice in youth football, and 3) to give practical recommendations on ways
to promote the development of these psychological characteristics in youth
football players.

4
Methodology:

The method of collecting information in this study was advised by Israel and
Richter(2011) meta-analysis, Moher et al. (2009) Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) and Tong et al.(2012)
Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the Synthesis of Qualitative research
(ENTREQ) guidelines (see Appendix 1and Appendix 2). The strategy of
identifying relevant articles followed the process of 1) searching e-journal
databases – Web of Science; Sport Discus; Science Direct and Google.
Scholar, and 2) bibliographic screening of the reference chapters of eligible
articles.

The search key words/phrases in the databases were: "psychological

factors/characteristics"; "talent identification in football/soccer/sport";
"youth football/soccer/sport mental skills"; "talent development in
football/soccer/sport"; "talent identification/development
models/programs"; "football/soccer/sport talent predictors"; "psychological
interventions/psychology skill training in football/soccer/sport";
"psychological predictors of success".

The found articles were then analysed for relevancy by title, then by abstract
and keywords, and finally by full text. Inclusion/exclusion criteria in this
study were as follows: a) only papers published in English language were
used; b) only articles published after the year 2000 were included; c) only
original papers were analysed; d) articles with full-text available; e) papers
presenting original findings on psychological factors associated with
football/soccer/sport talent identification or development; f) papers
presenting genuine results from psychological interventions in
sport/football. The articles were then divided into two tables. Table 1 shows
the academic publications related to psychological characteristics associated
with talent development in football/sport and Table 2 that refers to the
5
articles related to mental skills developed through psychological skill training
(PST) in football/sport.

For the first part of the current study, "identifying which psychological
characteristics/factors are associated with TI and TD", an ontological
approach was adopted. Ontological presumption refers to what constitutes
reality or what is known on the topic (Scotland 2012). That consist of an
overview of the academic data available so far on psychological
characteristics predicting talent in youth football. As suggested by scholars,
the study assumes the position that psychological factors are of significant
importance when identifying talent and can predict potential and future
development in a youth football context.

The second part of the theme, "which psychological/mental skills can be

developed through practice?", used an epistemological procedure to
investigate the meaning behind the data findings. As defined by Cohen,
Manion and Morrison (2007), epistemology is concerned with what the
knowledge on the topic actually means, the ways it can be interpreted and
the practical use of it. That approach can help the reader to better
understand the practical implications of the findings, the possible limitations
of the current study and the future research directions on the topic. In the
last part of this paper, Psychological Skill Training - PST interventions were
investigated and based on the literature on existing practices, applicable
recommendations for improving mental skills in youth football players
suggested. The evidence-based guidance provided in the final section
proposes different ways in which football coaches and psychology
practitioners can adapt their practical delivery and implement PST as part of
their curriculum.

Table 1. Summary of the articles referring to the psychological characteristics associated with talent
development in football included in the present study, with extracted data on authors, number of
participants, age, gender, country of the research, methodology used and key finding

6
Author Participants Age(Avera Gender Country Method Key findings of psychological characteristics/factors associated with
ge age) talent development

Abbott and Collins, 2002 2498 10-14 M/F Scotland Sport Interactive Limitations of TI models focusing on physique and performance
(12.5) Physical Test, capacities; Early maturer benefit at late maturer’s cost; Proposed
Physiological evidence-based model promoting motor and psycho-behavioural skills
Measures
Crust, Nesti and Littlewood, 112 12-18 M England MTQ18 test of No differences in mental toughness between retained and released
2010 mental players found. No differences in mental toughness between age groups
toughness found.
Gledhill et al.(2017) 14 977 PLAYERS M/F England, Europe, Systematic Discipline, self-control, self-awareness, adaptive perfectionism, self-
Male – Australia, Mexico, review acceptance, task orientation, commitment, determination, intrinsic
15.9; Ghana, Brazil, motivation, self-regulation, resilience, grit, non-verbal intelligence, fear
Female – Canada, USA of failure, psychological wellbeing, reflective skills, enjoyment, perceived
14.9; competence, anticipatory skills, decision making skills, delaying
Gender gratification and coping strategies.
not stated
– 15.6.
COACHES
31.7 -
47.5
Gould et al.(2002) 20 24-42 M/F U.S.A Qualitative Positive effect on performance from imagery/self-talk, self-regulation of
(35.1) retrospective arousal, high confidence
interviews
Harwood, 2008 6 COACHES M England 5 C’s educational 10 weeks psychological intervention in professional English football
23-42 program for academy showed youngest age group(U 9’s) reported better
(34.2) coaches improvement on 5 C’s test than their older counterparts.
Haugaasen, Toering and 745 14-21 Not Norway Retrospective Professional players spent more time in coach-led practice than non-
Jordet, 2014 (16.2) stated questionnaire professional players from age 6 to 19. Differences in participation at
younger age(before 12 years of age) contributes to better motoric and
cognitive development and gives advantage in future learning process
Holt and Dunn, 2004 40 PLAYERS - M England, Canada Semi-structured Discipline, commitment, resilience and social support found to be the
U17-U20 interviews major psychological competencies linked to success in elite youth
(16.5) soccer.
COACHES
35-64

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Author Participants Age(Avera Gender Country Method Key findings of psychological characteristics/factors associated with
ge age) talent development
Holt and Mitchell, 2006 12 PLAYERS – M England Qualitative semi- Lack of volitional behaviour, delaying gratification, determination, career
18.5 structured planning, coping strategies and tangible support are major factors when
COACHES interviews – self releasing TD program academy players; Planning career pathways,
- reported and taking personal responsibility and developing resilience suggested to be
43.3 coach reported factors of future success
Höner and Feichtinger 1412 U12’s M Germany Motor- Psychological characteristics development in adolescence correlate with
(2016) performance improved football performance
test;
Psychological
questionnaire
Larsen, Alfermann and 15 Not M Denmark Case study Self-awareness and ability to work hard emerged from players’
Christensen 2012 stated interviews. Goal setting, motivation, ability to work hard suggested by
coaches as important in TD process in professional football academy
MacNamara et al., 2010 14 21-37 M/F Not stated Qualitative Competitiveness, commitment, imagery, coping under pressure, self-
(30.1) retrospective belief found to be factors when developing excellence in sport
interviews
MacNamara et al., 2010 24 25-56 M/F Not stated Qualitative semi- Development of social skills, focus, distraction control, commitment to
team structured the performance domain, coping with setbacks, goal setting
sport-28.5 interviews
individual
sport-28.9
music41.8
Mills et al., 2012 10 COACHES Not England Semi-structured Resilience, goal-directed attributes, sport-specific attributes, intelligence
31-62 stated interviews and awareness considered most important for talent development and
(47.5) career progression by highly experienced academy coaches in English
professional football
Mills et al., 2014 10 COACHES Not England Semi-structured Coherent operating system, strong psychological construction(building
31-62 stated interviews trust with key stakeholders – family members; long term goal-setting ;
(47.5) clear progression pathways), consistent organisational functioning and
suitable physical environment can optimize development environment
within elite English soccer academy setting
Murr et al., 2018 5395 U12’s- M/F Finland, Portugal, Systematic Achievement motivation, hope for success/fear of failure, effort, self-
U19’s Germany, review serving attributions, task-orientation related to future success
Australia,
Switzerland,
Netherlands
Taylor and Bruner(2012) 133 11-18 M England Multi-section Positive coaches rapport, enhanced goal-setting, developing leadership
(14.23) questionnaire skills
8
 Author Participants Age(Avera Gender Country Method Key findings of psychological characteristics/factors associated with
ge age) talent development
Van Yperen, 2009 65 14-17 M Netherlands Coach Goal commitment, use of problem-focused coping strategies, seek of
(16.58) assessment of social support found to be the difference between successful and
physical unsuccessful soccer players
condition,
technique and
soccer specific
abilities
Verburgh et al., 2014 126 HIGH M Netherlands Motor inhibition Talented players from higher football divisions outperform amateur
DIVISION - (Stop Signal), players from same age group on motor performance and on the ability
8-12(11.9) alerting, to attain and maintain an alert state(focus)
LOW orienting,
DIVISION - executive
8-12(11.8) attention(Attenti
on Network) and
visuospatial
working memory
tests
Vestberg et al., 2012 57 HIGH DIV M/F Sweden Cross sectional Validated neuropsychological test can predict player’s capacity to reach
- 25.3 tests - D-KEFS top level in soccer
LOW DIV test of executive
22.8 functions
Larsen, Alfermann and 15 Not Denmark Case study Explicit psychological skills, such as motivation, self-awareness and
Christensen 2012. stated ability to work hard were identified to be of significant importance in
professional football setting. Managing performance, process outcomes
and utilizing team and social skills suggested to be key for career
transition from academy to first team, yet these were practiced only
indirectly and not intentionally
Sarmento et al., 2018 729(Psychol Not Not Canada, Systematic Identified goal commitment, engagement in problem-focused coping
ogical stated stated Netherlands, review behaviours, discipline, resilience, mental rehearsal, concentration,
characterist South Africa, peaking under pressure, achievement motivation, effort and self-
ics only) Switzerland regulation to be psychological factors associated with talent
development and career success

9
Table 2. Summary of the articles referring to mental skills developed through PST interventions in football/sport included in the present
study, with extracted data on authors, number of participants, age, gender, country of the research, methodology used, sport and key
findings

Author Participants Age(Average Gender Country Method Sport Key findings of psychological interventions
age)

Evans, Jones and Mullen 1 23 M Wales Imagery Rugby The player reported greater control of
2004 intervention – SIQ, anxiety, motivation, confidence before
semi-structured competition after 14 weeks imagery
interview intervention
Costalupes 2018. 6 14-17 M U.S.A Mindfulness- Baseball Mindful meditation intervention assessing
(15.6) based self-confidence and mental readiness for
Intervention competition found no significant
Sport-confidence differences prior and post intervenion
Inventory (SCI)
Gucciardi et al., 2009 11 COACHES M Australia Semi-structured Australian Early childhood experiences enhance
(42.0) interviews Football development of mental toughness.
Coaches used encouragement, modelling
and motivational climate to foster mental
toughness.
Hardy, Gammage and 150 (20.68) M/F Not reported Descriptive study. Team and Use of cognitive specific self-talk before
Hall, 2001 Self-talk individual sports and during competitions for skill
questionnaire (basketball, development and skill acquisition. Use of
(5Ws). rowing, rugby, general specific self-talk to enhance focus,
swimming etc.) self-confidence, mental preparation and
coping with pressure and adversity.
Motivation functions improved by self-talk.
Proposed the use of imagery and self-talk
in a package intervention
Author Participants Age(Average Gender Country Method Sport Key findings of psychological interventions
age)

10
Harwood, 2008 6 COACHES M England 5 C’s educational Football 10 weeks psychological intervention in
23-42 program for professional English football academy
(34.2) coaches showed youngest age group(U 9’s)
reported better improvement on 5 C’s test
than their older counterparts.
Jonson et al., 2004 4 U14 F Canada Self-talk Football Enhanced low-drive shooting. Improved
intervention focus and confidence
Jordet 2005 3 21-24 M Norway Imagery Football 10-14 weeks imagery intervention
intervention – SIQ engaging in exploratory activity prior
and interviews receiving the ball led to only 1 player
improving his overall performance.
All players reported increased awareness
and self-control post intervention
Kanniyan 2015 18 15-18 M Saudi Arabia Self-talk Football 8 weeks PST decreased cognitive and
(16.4) intervention somatic anxiety and decreased self-
Competitive State confidence
Anxiety Inventory-
2
(CSAI-2)
Kerkez, Kulak and Aktas 29 10-12 M Turkey Imagery and Football 14 week intervention saw participants
2012 autogenic improve performance on 4 football specific
relaxation tasks compared to control group.
intervention
Munroe-Chandler et 143 7-14 M/F Canada Sport imagery Football Positive impact of imagery intervention on
al.2012 (10.11) questionnaire(SIQ) youth performance. Younger athletes
showed better results
Omar-Fauzee et al., 2009 106 17-47 M/F Malaysia SIQ, ACSI-28 Team and Relationship between imagery skill and
(23.89) individual sports coping behaviours. Female use more
(football, futsal, coping strategies behaviours than men.
archery,volleyball, Higher level athletes use mental skill
hockey etc.) training more often than lower level
athletes
Author Participants Age(Average Gender Country Method Sport Key findings of psychological interventions
age)

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Sadeghi et al., 2010 8 25-36 M Malaysia Qualitative Football Imagery, self-talk, goal setting and
interviews relaxation emerged as mental training
techniques used by university football
players to improve performance. Improved
motivation, focus, stress management and
self-confidence
Thelwell and Greenless 4 19-21 M England Mental Skill Triathlon Goal setting, relaxation, imagery and self-
2003 Questionnaire, talk enhance competitive gymnasium
Mental skill performance. Improved focus, motivation,
training package self-regulation, commitment and resilience
Thelwell, Greenless and 5 19-23 M England Mental skill Football Sport and position specific psychological
Weston, 2006 training package – skills can be improved by relaxation, self-
relaxation, talk and imagery interventions techniques.
imagery and self- Psychological skills enhance endurance
talk performance and performance
consistency. Improved self-confidence,
motivation
Thelwell, Greenless and 3 20-23 M England Relaxation, Football Positive results from 8 competitive football
Weston, 2010 imagery and self- games intervention on at least 2 of the 3
talk intervention components analysed (first touch, tacking,
passing). Players reported improvement in
confidence, self-control and motivation
Veraksa and Gorovaya 41 8-14 M Russia Adapted SIQ, Football Use of imagery enhance performance of
2012 Adapted Torrance novice football players. Players with higher
Test of Creative levels of imagination use imagery more
Thinking (TTCT) often. Younger players use motivational
imagery, older ones- use motivational and
cognitive

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Literature review:

Psychological factors that predict future elite performance has been of interest
for researchers in recent years (Den Hartig et al., 2018). Studies in sport
domain identified that high levels of commitment, focus, setting short and long
term goals and the use of imagery and pre-set training and/or competition
plans can be associated as predictors of performance excellence and future
success (Gledhill eta l., 2017; Harwood 2008; MacNamara, Button and Collins
2010). Moreover, Gould, Deiffenbach and Moffett (2010) also found successful
Olympic athletes possessed higher levels of commitment to their sport, better
focus and spent more time engaging in mental skill training than their less
successful counterparts. As the pioneering research on the topic from the
1970's present, the role of psychology in sport caters for more than 50% of the
talent development and the effective progression of an athlete. Yet the authors
suggest the importance of developing mental skills in sport is often neglected
and unaccounted for, less than 15% of talent development programs at that
time considered psychological factors (Kunst and Florescu, cited in
MacNamara, Button and Collins 2010, p.53). Unfortunately, there has been
little change over time, and talent identification(TI) and talent development
(TD) models continue predominantly to rely on physical characteristics and
current performance when assessing for future success and excellence (Abbot
and Collins 2002; Miller, Cronin and Baker 2015).

In a more broad sport domain, a study by Gould et al. (2002) used qualitative
retrospective interviews with 10 U. S. Olympic champions, in both individual
and team sports, their coaches and significant others to explore which
psychological characteristics are linked with the success of outstanding
athletes. The study focuses not only on recognition of these psychological
attributes but on their development over time and the factors that influenced
this process. As found in previous literature on the topic, the study yielded
psychological influences such as family and social support (Mills et al., 2012;
Larsen, Alfermann and Christensen 2012), positive sports environment (Pain
and Harwood 2008) and the athlete actions themselves had most influences on
their own psychological development.
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Using Smith and colleagues' (1995) Athletic Coping Skill Inventory(ACSI-28) the
study revealed that the Olympic champions scored high on confidence,
focus/concentration, freedom of worry and coachability. Comparing the results
with Smith and Cristiansen (1995) ACSI-28 study on minor league baseball
players, the areas of supremacy for the more successful athletes' (Olympians)
were coping with setbacks (also confirmed by Anshel and Delany 2001),
peaking under pressure, goal setting and mental preparation, focus (suggested
by Beswick 2010) and freedom of worry. The findings support existing research
on the topic and also identified psychological attributes, such as self-regulation
of arousal, high confidence, better focus, positive imagery, self-talk and
commitment to one's sport to be paramount for future success (Durant-Bush
and Salmela 2002). The authors also state the mental skills associated with
developing these attributes as imagery, goal setting, self-control, coping and
competition strategies and pre-performance mental preparation. Moreover,
the semi-structured interviews suggest successful athletes perceived hope,
optimism and positivism as crucial for their psychological development.
Although the study gives an insight into mental skill associated with TD of
highly successful athletes and reports more than one point of view, one should
be cautious when interpreting these findings. The research design used was
retrospective interviews and was partly self-reported, hence the results can be
subjective due to self-attribution and memory bias.

In a football context, a study conducted by Holt and Dunn (2004) used semi-
structured qualitative interviews with English coaches and English and
Canadian youth football players (M age=16.5 years) in order to identify
psychological factors that discriminate the successful from unsuccessful
football players. Their finding supports previous research as they identified
four main factors when assessing for TD and future success -
discipline/dedication (Sarmento et al., 2018), commitment to the
sport/motives and goal setting (Van Yperen 2009), resilience/coping with
setbacks (MacNamara et al., 2010) and social support (Pain and Harwood
2008). The results also suggest that an athlete should be ready to sacrifice
friends, family and social life in order to progress successfully to adult football.
Moreover, this should be complemented with personal responsibility and the

14
capacity to follow instructions and produce in a competitive environment (Holt
and Dunn 2004).

Indeed, it suggested that professional football players spend more time in a

coach-led practice from an early age and that is enhancing their development
both physically and cognitive (Haugaasen, Toering and Jordet, 2014). Discipline
and resilience emerged as most impactful attributes for the coaches from the
research if one is to fully develop talent and made a successful transition to the
adult game. Based on these findings Holt and Dunn (2004) developed a
grounded theory (see Appendix 5) of psychological competencies associated
with football success, that can help practitioners when evaluating potential
interventions.

Contrary to these findings, resilience appeared as unreliable talent

identification from Crust, Nesti and Littlewood's (2010) mental toughness
questionnaire (MTQ18 advised by Clough, Earle and Sewell, 2002). As defined
by Weinberg and Gould (2007), resilience refers to one's ability to focus and to
cope with failure and pressure. Crust and colleagues (2010) assessed mental
toughness in 112 EPL football academy players using MTQ18. They found no
significant differences in age groups scores and no significant differences
between retained and released academy football players. That comes to
contradict with previous research that suggests the importance of mental
toughness for success in sport domain (Gould, Moffet and Deifenbach 2002;
Gucciardi et al., 2009; Holt and Dunn 2004). A possible explanation for this
finding may be the nature of the data collection – self-reported quantitative
questionnaire. As advised by scholars, the use of mixed methods of collecting
information can give the reader a better understanding of the findings (Cohen,
Manion and Morrison 2007).

In the most extensive study on the topic, conducted by Gledhill and colleagues
(2017) present discipline, self-regulation/self-control, commitment and
resilience to be the most impactful psychological factors associated with TD in
youth soccer. Social support from coaches, family and peers also seem to be
important for shaping a positive learning environment and future success in
soccer. The review included data on almost 15 000 youth football players (M

15
age= 15.9 years for male; 14.9 years for female) from countries across 5
continents. Although extensive, the review addresses the psychological factors
associated with TD in football mainly from the quantitative point of view and
does have its limitations in terms of asking questions behind the TD and TI
processes that concern the individual. It does, however, provide a concept map
(see Appendix 3) of testable hypotheses on behavioural, psychological and
psychosocial factors and relationships in TD in soccer.

Research suggests that psychological skills can support the acquisition of

football-related skills at a younger age and enhance an individual's future
development (Mills et al., 2012; Kerkez, Kulak and Aktas 2012). In a football
academy context study, Holt and Mitchel (2006), examined the psychological
aspects of TD in a professional setting. Nine third division professional football
academy players (M age=18.5 years) were about to be released from their club.
The researchers used self-reported and coach-assessed qualitative data
collection tool to explore which psychological attributes contribute to this
process. The findings supported actual literature and presented the importance
of volitional behaviour, determination to succeed (Murr et al., 2018),
developing coping strategies (Omar-Fauzee et al., 2009) and use of social
support (Pain and Harwood 2008) as psychological characteristics
distinguishing those who made it to the first team from those who did not.

Once identified, the psychological characteristics associated with TD and future

success should be measured for predicting talent successfully. In a study
designed to identify psychological characteristics that can predict successful
career transition, Van Yperen (2009) explored the progress of 65 players (M
age=16.58 years) in a professional Dutch football club. Based on the score of
the significant predictor – football specific ability, technique and physical
condition, and control variables 15 years earlier, 84.6% of the 14-17 years old
youth players were accurately classified as successful or not successful.
Noteworthy here is that in terms of psychological characteristics, both groups
differed in goal commitment levels when joining the club academy, problem-
focused coping strategies and social support seeking. Even more interesting,
when assessed only based on these psychological factors, a significant majority
of 72.3% of the players were properly categorized as successful or

16
unsuccessful. Nonetheless, one should consider the 15 years time gap between
the initial data collection and the publication of the study as a possible
limitation when interpreting the results. Additional factors that may have
influenced players' development during the period were not presented in the
study, and that should also be taken into account when making conclusions.
Besides that, when firstly assessed, the successful players were also rated
highly on their current performance in competitive environment, which may
lead one to think that these players could have actually received more support
and attention from their coaches because of that, hence this could have
enhanced their future development better. Yet, Van Yperen's findings do
suggest that when assessed by experienced football coaches in an academy
setting, the psychological characteristics alone can predict TD and future
success in youth football.

Holt and Mitchel (2006) and Van Yperen (2009) studies propose psychological
attributes, that facilitate for one's transition from adolescent to professional
football and both include qualitative data from the coaching team. According
to the expertise coaches' assessment, one should possess characteristics like
discipline, commitment, determination to succeed and resilience/coping
strategies in order to fully develop their talent during adolescence (Forsman et
al., 2016). As stated by Heaney (2006), the development of these psychological
attributes can support one beyond his sporting experience by transferring
these in any domain of life.

In terms of experts opinions, coaches should be considered reliable when

assessing for TD potential (Den Hartig et al., 2018). In Germany for example,
psychological development is a compulsory factor for the licencing of a football
academy (Musculus and Lobinger 2018). The authors also suggest that coaches
need to be educated about the way they can use their competence in assessing
future talented players. Research on TI and TD programs uses predominantly
self-reported questionnaires, therefore the effect size of the findings is not
significant enough and can be questioned (Mann et al., 2017). Alternatively,
multi-methods of evaluation can provide more reliable and valid results.
Approaches involving more than one assessor providing data should be
considered (Musculus and Lobinger, 2018). Based on their expertise in the field

17
and since they have the experience of working with many players, the coaches
can recall certain variables like personality traits and psychological skills they
have identified in previous talented players who eventually progressed their
career successfully.

Not surprisingly, qualitative interviews with academy coaches addressed

psychological characteristics not identified by the athletes' self-reported
findings, such as professional attitude, awareness, passion (Mills et al., 2012)
and dedication and the will to make sacrifices in football context (Holt and
Dunn 2004). Additionally, the quality of the coaches' assessment of
psychological characteristics is paramount for both athletes and stakeholders
investing in TD (Visek, Harris and Blom 2009). That is especially relevant for the
football clubs given the number of players released by football academies
every year (Williams 2009).

Larsen, Alfermann and Christensen (2012) also present coaches' view on the
ability to work hard, motivation and players' self-awareness to be key
psychological skills for one's TD and transition from academy to adult football.
Although a number of studies address the issue, and coaches' and athletes'
have an awareness of the impact these factors may have on one's career
progression, not enough psychological skill training is incorporated into
deliberate practice and the topic has been spoken about only in informal
conversations (Larsen, Alfermann and Christensen, 2012; Pain and Harwood
2004). It seems like it is up to the athletes to develop these psychological skills
by them self and scholars propose this area needs further improvement
(Musculus and Lobinger, 2018).

Birrer and Morgan (2010) propose that Psychological Skill Training (PST) refers
to structured and regular training of psychological or mental skills in order to
enhance one's performance and satisfaction of the activity. Hence, that process
should be systematically planned, goal-oriented, accounted for and evaluated.
For psychology practitioners and football coaches, deploying football specific
PST for children from younger age means that they can first, set habits of good
practice early and produce mentally strong players earlier – for example having
better players at youth formations, and second, by developing psychological

18
skills relevant to TD, ease the players' transition into adult teams.

It is argued that football academies tend to release 90% of their players around
the age of 18, after investing between 5 to 9 years developing them (Williams
2009). Therefore, for a football club, it is important that the 10 % who progress
into the adult game are optimally developed, both psychologically and
physically players, and they can further their careers professionally. Academics
propose that TD models should start shifting their focus from physical,
physiological and current performance talent identification (TI) factors, to
psychological and socio-behavioural characteristics when assessing for
potential and predicting future development (Morris 2000).

Certainly, If physically equal, more successful athletes differ from less

successful in their psychological skill development (Weinberg and Gould 2007).
Scholars suggest there are three phases of PST: education, acquisition and
practice, with the latter stage aim to automate the skill through overlearning,
teach systematic integration in athlete's practice and simulate the skill one
wants to perform in a competitive environment. Applied sport psychology
literature advise the use of imagery, self-talk, relaxation and goal-setting to
have a positive effect on athletes' performance (Kerkez, Kulak and Aktas 2012;
Jordet 2005). These techniques are recommended to enhance the
development of a number of psychological skills, such as self-confidence
(Thelwell, Greenless and Weston 2006), self-control, coping with anxiety, stress
and pressure (Kenniyan 2015), mental toughness/resilience (Coultier, Mallet
and Singer 2016), concentration/focus and motivation (Hardy, Gammage and
Hall 2001; Evans, Jones and Mullen 2004; Jonson et al., 2004).

Indeed, Munroe-Chandler and colleagues (2012) delivered imagery

intervention to youth football players aged 7-14 and found that players
reported a positive impact on their self-confidence post-intervention, as well as
enhanced football performance. Interestingly, the younger age cohort had
better results compared to the older age groups. This comes to suggest that
confidence can be developed through PST even at 7-8 years of age. Moreover,
in elite professional setting Seif-Barghi et al. (2012) use imagery technique to
improve a football-specific skill – passing. Their results yielded again that the
younger players (U16's and U21's in their study) improved better in comparison
19
to players over 21 years of age. In reality, however, imagery works differently
with different individuals and Veraksa and Gorovaya (2012) proposed a
possible explanation is that the more creative players were found to be more
inclined to the use of imagery in a youth football context.

Another example from youth football is Johnson et al.'s (2004) study on self-
talk impact on acquisition of skills, amending habits, getting ready for
performance, improving focus and attention and building confidence. Their
experimental study with U14'ss female football players aimed at improving
shooting accuracy of low-drive shot through self-talk. The finding showed
improved results for the three players who were introduced to the
intervention, compared to no significant change in performance for the fourth
participant who did not receive any PST. Players and coaches reported an
increase in low-drive shots in training and in a competitive setting.
Furthermore, the players reported enhanced confidence during and after the
intervention and better focus attainment on relevant cues or on what needs to
be done (Johnson et al., 2004). Both aforementioned interventions took place
in a real competitive environment which gives the results additional realism
and validity. From a psychological development point of view, the results come
to suggest that mental skill training can improve competitive football
performance and confidence and focus can be trained and improved through
PST in a youth football setting.

In an adult football context, Jordet (2005), video recorded 13 games post-

intervention to analyse if imagery intervention had a positive impact on
players' visual exploratory activity. Participants reported increased awareness
of actions around them in real games and enhanced ability to identify their
next action, hence shortened their decision-making time. Although players self-
reported improvement of their actions, the video analyses results just partly
support Seif-Barghi and colleagues' findings. Jordet found that only one of the
three players actually performed better based on the targeted variables. That
finding implies that self-reported data can be unreliable, thus the future
research should address this with more trustworthy and stable methodological
measurements. Yet, just stating that one perceives his performance improved
suggest increased self-confidence and self-control skills post imagery

20
intervention.

In a broader sport context, Evans, Jones and Mullen (2004) delivered 14 weeks
of imagery training to a rugby player. The athlete reported better anxiety
control, motivation and confidence before a competition. Although self-
reported, the study has ecological validity as it was performed in a real
competitive environment and the data was obtained from a variety of sources,
including diaries and semi-structured interviews. Based on the qualitative data
findings, the authors propose a relationship between the use of imagery and
goal setting. Their results also indicate the use of imagery to enhance self-
efficacy, focus attention, anxiety control which are all psychological skills
associated with TD in football context too. A possible limitation of the study
can be the fact the publisher of the study was also coach and deliverer of the
intervention. However, the researchers recommend the individualization of
imagery intervention for optimal results.

Overlapping with the above findings are the ones from a descriptive study on
the use of self-talk impact in a variety of sports by Hardy, Gammage and Hall
(2000). The use of self-talk was perceived to improve focus pre and during the
competition, motivation and self-confidence. The retrospective format used in
the study may suggest memory bias and has its limitations. However, the
research found no significant distinctions in the use of the technique between
different sports. According to the authors, self-talk and imagery are used for
the same reasons. Authors proposed a relationship between the outcomes of
the two PST interventions and recommended the use of them in a package
intervention (Hardy, Gammage and Hall 2000).

In fact, that is exactly what Thelwell and Greenless (2003) did when delivering
mental skill package (goal-setting, relaxation, imagery and self-talk)
intervention to 4 amateur gymnasium triathlon athletes in order to examine
performance improvement. Although delivered in a simulated competitive
environment (researchers offered an incentive for the winner and the
competition took place in a gymnasium instead of in real outdoor
environment), the study present that all of the participants improved their
time performance compared to the pre-intervention data and all of them

21
reported increased use of mental skills training. Interestingly, the information
from the qualitative interviews suggest that the athletes used a variety of
techniques in a similar way - relaxation was used mainly before competition,
goal setting was used pre and during performance to maintain pace, imagery
was used during performance to ease pain and fatigue and finally, self-talk was
used mainly before and at the latter stages of the task (Thelwell and Greenless
2003). A possible explanation for this can be that athletes established
combined mental skill usage instead of using only one technique. In line with
other research (Hardy, Gammage and Hall 2000; Evans, Jones and Mullen 2004)
this comes to suggest that mental skill packages can be more beneficial for an
athlete compared to the traditional single skill intervention. An important
condition to do so, however, is the athletes' awareness about the nature of the
PST because, without this prerequisite, delivery of a package of mental skills
would be difficult for one to comprehend. Again, the participants reported
greater commitment, resilience, focus and determination compared to pre-
intervention. Transferable to football context point made by the research is
that the use of self-talk in the latter stages of highly demanding physical task
can have a positive effect when one tries to resist the impact of pain and
fatigue.

These findings further support another package intervention (relaxation,

imagery and self-talk) delivered by Thelwell, Greenless and Weston (2010) to
non-elite midfield football players. The variables analysed were relevant to
their positions on the pitch – passing, first touch and tackling and the post-
intervention results identified improvement in at least two of the areas
assessed. This also suggests a possible impact on the decision-making process,
self-control, confidence and motivation. Furthermore, as suggested by
scholars, PST can improve position-specific performance, based on position
relevant variables assessed (Thelwell, Weston and Greenless 2006). In addition,
endurance and consistency emerged from these studies as areas that can be
developed through PST. Both factors are identified as important in TD and
future football performance (Abbot and Collins 2002; Larsen, Alfermann and
Christensen 2012).

In a slightly different context – coaches' educational intervention, Harwood

22
(2008) aimed at improving players' commitment, communication,
concentration, control, confidence over 10 weeks period of time. The youngest
age group (U 9's) showed the best progress (also supported by Munroe-
Chandler et al. 2012). In this study, Harwood states enhanced commitment,
communication, concentration, control and confidence post-intervention, all of
which are considered important psychological attributes and are associated
with TD in youth football. One of the U 9's coaches mentioned on the
confidence practice that the players have been engaged with "no-fear-of-
mistakes" policy and using open-ended questions (guided discovery) in a
constructive way, so the players can figure it out on their own. All coaches
reported improvement in all psychological characteristics compared to pre-
intervention. Noteworthy here is the fact all age groups improved all areas of
their performance in the last part of the intervention – the confidence oriented
practices.

There are however barriers to psychology practitioners. Pain and Harwood

(2004) state that misunderstanding of sport psychology by academy directors
and coaches and national coaches in youth football is a common theme.
Another obstacle identified by the researchers when assessing for improved
performance is the high complexity of football, pace of play and observing and
detecting variables (Martin, Vause and Schwartzman 2005). Miller, Cronin and
Baker (2015) examined professional English academy coaches' perception of TI
just to find that still relatively small amount of attention is directed to
psychological features of talent. Described as difficult to assess and semi-
permanent, the psychological characteristics are often neglected when
evaluating future potential. Moreover, Heaney (2006) suggests there is still a
stigma attached to seeing a sports psychologist, which is another major barrier
for practitioners. All of these findings propose that there is still not enough
clarity and comprehension about the benefits of PST on both competitive
performance and developing psychological skills associated with TD.

23
Conclusion and recommendations:

The first objective of this study was to identify which psychological

characteristics were associated with TD in a youth football context. The
extensive literature suggests that motivation, commitment, self-confidence,
resilience and coping with adversity as main factors influencing players'
development. The findings emerged mainly in a self-reported form which has its
biases and should be interpreted with caution. There is however solid evidence
from qualitative methods collecting research that these characteristics are also
considered impactful by the decision making stakeholders such as the coaches
and/or academy directors. What the coaches' expertise add to the topic is the
importance of professional attitude/discipline, ability to work hard, awareness,
passion and the will to sacrifice, as these were not reported by the athletes
themselves.

The second objective investigated referred to psychological skill's development

through practice. As suggested by academics (see Appendix 3 and Appendix 5),
there is a clear relationship between one's psychological skill set and one's TD
and progress in football domain. Psychology practitioners identified that all of
the abovementioned psychological attributes can be developed and enhanced
through a variety of PST practices. In terms of youth football, imagery and self-
talk seem to be considered reliable and valid interventions in enhancing both
competitive performance and psychological factors associated with TD.
Relaxation and goal-setting techniques were found to be more advanced for
U12's age groups and were suggested to work better with older age cohorts.
However, the latter techniques can still be used in a PST package with younger
players, but practitioners should consider adaptations according to the age
group.

The third objective of this study was to give an applicable recommendation for
practitioners and coaches. Since TI and TD are quite complex processes in their
nature, the stakeholder involved should consider a variety of factors when
assessing for future potential. The gap between academic research and practice
is still evident. Coaches’ experience, expertise and perception of TI and TD are

24
identified as most relevant ones in regards to the selection process. Indeed, in
terms of developing psychological characteristics in youth football players,
coaches need to be better educated about the benefits of the process, both
individual and collective. Workshops and postgraduate courses can increase
awareness around the topic. Similar to the German model, The FA can
implement PST practices into their TD strategy and recommend its use to the
academies. However, the main individuals assessing and fostering the process
are still the football coaches, hence they have to be able and flexible enough to
integrate deliberately and purposefully PST, such as imagery and self-talk, into
their practice sessions in youth football. Encouraging mental skill development
from an early age can dissolve the stigma and misconceptions around the use of
psychology in a football context, yet important condition here is the process
should be consistent, measurable and regularly evaluated.

In conclusion, the psychological characteristics seem to be an integral part of TI

and TD process in youth football and can be developed through deliberate
practice. Relationships between the variables assessed for future potential and
success are complicated and dynamic. There is a variety of factors one need to
consider in the process, such as individual differences and environment (see
Appendix 4). The TD process requires adaptive approach, consistent definition
and measures and increased stakeholders’ awareness of the benefits associated
with PST in youth football. The literature on the topic so far is lacking more
longitudinal research following the whole process and progress of TD. Finally,
another area the scholars need to address is the use of multi-methods when
collecting data, as this would enable the reader to better understand the
reasons behind and the evaluation of TD.

25
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Appendix:

Appendix 1: ENTREQ: Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the Synthesis of

Qualitative research(Tong et al., 2012)

1 Aim
State the research questions the synthesis addresses.
2 Synthesis methodology
Identify the synthesis methodology or theoretical framework which underpins the
synthesis, and describe the rationale for choice of methodology (e.g. meta-
ethnography, thematic synthesis, critical interpretive synthesis, grounded theory
synthesis, realist synthesis, meta-aggregation, meta-study, framework synthesis).
3 Approach to searching
Indicate whether the search was pre-planned (comprehensive search strategies to
seek all available studies) or iterative (to seek all available concepts until they
theoretical saturation is achieved).
4 Inclusion criteria
Specify the inclusion/exclusion criteria (e.g. in terms of population, language, year
limits, type of publication, study type).
5 Data sources
Describe the information sources used (e.g. electronic databases (MEDLINE,
EMBASE, CINAHL, psycINFO, Econlit), grey literature databases (digital thesis,
policy reports), relevant organisational websites, experts, information specialists,
generic web searches (Google Scholar) hand searching, reference lists) and when
the searches conducted; provide the rationale for using the data sources.
6 Electronic Search strategy
Describe the literature search (e.g. provide electronic search strategies with
population terms, clinical or health topic terms, experiential or social phenomena
related terms, filters for qualitative research, and search limits).
7 Study screening methods
Describe the process of study screening and sifting (e.g. title, abstract and full text
review, number of independent reviewers who screened studies).
8 Study characteristics
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Present the characteristics of the included studies (e.g. year of publication,
country, population, number of participants, data collection, methodology,
analysis, research questions).
9 Study selection results
Identify the number of studies screened and provide reasons for study
exclusion (e,g, for comprehensive searching, provide numbers of studies screened
and reasons for exclusion indicated in a figure/flowchart; for iterative searching
describe reasons for study exclusion and inclusion based on modifications t the
research question and/or contribution to theory development).
10 Rationale for appraisal
Describe the rationale and approach used to appraise the included studies or
selected findings (e.g. assessment of conduct (validity and robustness), assessment
of reporting (transparency), assessment of content and utility of the findings).
11 Appraisal items
State the tools, frameworks and criteria used to appraise the studies or selected
findings (e.g. Existing tools: CASP, QARI, COREQ, Mays and Pope[25]; reviewer
developed tools; describe the domains assessed: research team, study design, data
analysis and interpretations, reporting).
12 Appraisal process
Indicate whether the appraisal was conducted independently by more than one
reviewer and if consensus was required.
13 Appraisal results
Present results of the quality assessment and indicate which articles, if any, were
weighted/excluded based on the assessment and give the rationale.
14 Data extraction
Indicate which sections of the primary studies were analysed and how were the
data extracted from the primary studies? (e.g. all text under the headings “results
/conclusions” were extracted electronically and entered into a computer software).
15 Software
State the computer software used, if any.
16 Number of reviewers
Identify who was involved in coding and analysis.
17 Coding

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Describe the process for coding of data (e.g. line by line coding to search for
concepts).
18 Study comparison
Describe how were comparisons made within and across studies (e.g. subsequent
studies were coded into pre-existing concepts, and new concepts were created
when deemed necessary).
19 Derivation of themes
Explain whether the process of deriving the themes or constructs was inductive or
deductive.
20 Quotations
Provide quotations from the primary studies to illustrate themes/constructs, and
identify whether the quotations were participant quotations of the author’s
interpretation.
21 Synthesis output
Present rich, compelling and useful results that go beyond a summary of the
primary studies (e.g. new interpretation, models of evidence, conceptual models,
analytical framework, development of a new theory or construct).

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Appendix 2: PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analysis (Israel and Richter 2011; Moher et al., 2009)

TITLE
1 Title - Identify the report as a systematic review, meta-analysis, or both.
ABSTRACT
2 Structured summary - Provide a structured summary including, as
applicable: background; objectives; data sources; study eligibility criteria,
participants, and interventions; study appraisal and synthesis methods; results;
limitations; conclusions and implications of key findings; systematic review
registration number.
INTRODUCTION
3 Rationale - Describe the rationale for the review in the context of what is
already known.
4 Objectives - Provide an explicit statement of questions being addressed with
reference to participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design
(PICOS).
METHODS
5 Protocol and registration - Indicate if a review protocol exists, if and where it can
be accessed (e.g., Web address), and, if available, provide registration information
including registration number.
6 Eligibility criteria - Specify study characteristics (e.g., PICOS, length of follow-
up) and report characteristics (e.g., years considered, language, publication status)
used as criteria for eligibility, giving rationale.
7 Information sources - Describe all information sources (e.g., databases with
dates of coverage, contact with study authors to identify additional studies) in the
search and date last searched.
8 Search - Present full electronic search strategy for at least one database,
including any limits used, such that it could be repeated.
9 Study selection - State the process for selecting studies (i.e., screening,
eligibility, included in systematic review, and, if applicable, included in the meta-
analysis).
10 Data collection process - Describe method of data extraction from reports
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(e.g., piloted forms, independently, in duplicate) and any processes for obtaining
and confirming data from investigators.
11 Data items - List and define all variables for which data were sought (e.g.,
PICOS, funding sources) and any assumptions and simplifications made.
12 Risk of bias in individual studies - Describe methods used for assessing risk
of bias of individual studies (including specification of whether this was done at
the study or outcome level), and how this information is to be used in any data
synthesis.
13 Summary measures - State the principal summary measures (e.g., risk ratio,
difference in means).
14 Synthesis of results - Describe the methods of handling data and
combining results of studies, if done, including measures of consistency (e.g., I2)
for each meta-analysis.
15 Risk of bias across studies- Specify any assessment of risk of bias that may
affect the cumulative evidence (e.g., publication bias, selective reporting within
studies).
16 Additional analyses - Describe methods of additional analyses (e.g.,
sensitivity or subgroup analyses, meta-regression), if done, indicating which were
pre-specified.
RESULTS
17 Study selection - Give numbers of studies screened, assessed for eligibility,
and included in the review, with reasons for exclusions at each stage, ideally with
a flow diagram.
18 Study characteristics - For each study, present characteristics for which data
were extracted (e.g., study size, PICOS, follow-up period) and provide the
citations.
19 Risk of bias within studies - Present data on risk of bias of each study and, if
available, any outcome-level assessment (see Item 12).
20 Results of individual studies - For all outcomes considered (benefits or harms),
present, for each study: (a) simple summary data for each intervention group and
(b) effect estimates and confidence intervals, ideally with a forest plot.
21 Synthesis of results - Present results of each meta-analysis done, including
confidence intervals and measures of consistency.
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22 Risk of bias across studies - Present results of any assessment of risk of bias
across studies (see Item 15).
23 Additional analysis - Give results of additional analyses, if done (e.g.,
sensitivity or subgroup analyses, meta-regression [see Item 16]).
DISCUSSION
24 Summary of evidence - Summarize the main findings including the
strength of evidence for each main outcome; consider their relevance to key
groups (e.g., health care providers, users, and policy makers).
25 Limitations - Discuss limitations at study and outcome level (e.g., risk of bias),
and at review level (e.g., incomplete retrieval of identified research, reporting
bias).
26 Conclusions - Provide a general interpretation of the results in the context of
other evidence, and implications for future research.
FUNDING
27 Funding - Describe sources of funding for the systematic review and other
support (e.g., supply of data); role of funders for the systematic review.

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Appendix 3: Concept map of psychosocial factors associated with talent development in football and their
hypothesized relationships (Gledhill et al., 2017)

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Appendix 4: Conceptual framework of expert coaches’ perceptions of factors considered to influence elite
player development (Mills et al., 2012)

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Appendix 5: A grounded theory of the psychological competencies and environmental conditions
associated with soccer success during adolescence (Holt and Dunn 2004)

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