Shock Waves (2000) 10: 363–376

Experimental investigation on the detonability

of non-uniform gaseous mixtures
I. Sochet1,2 , T. Lamy2 , J. Brossard2
1
Laboratoire Energétique Explosion Structure (LEES), 63 Av. De Lattre De Tassigny, 18020 Bourges cedex, France
2
Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Ingénieurs de Bourges (ENSIB), 10 Bd Lahitolle, 18020 Bourges cedex, France

Received 19 October 1998 / Accepted 15 July 1999

Abstract. An experimental investigation is performed to characterize the detonability of small gaseous

clouds with a concentration gradient. Two types of gaseous mixtures are used: (i) a heavy gas C3 H8 /O2
(equivalence ratio φ: 0.70 ≤ φ ≤ 1.66); (ii) a light gas H2 /O2 (0.50 ≤ φ ≤ 1.25). The mixtures are initially
confined in a hemispherical volume which is characterized by an initial radius R0 = 0.04 ÷ 0.08 m. When
the confining is ruptured, the gaseous mixture diffuses into the surrounding air. The concentration distri-
bution is a result of molecular diffusion, gravity and turbulence. Schlieren chronophotographies enable the
illustration of the dispersion of the cloud. By means of pressure profiles of blast waves generated by the
explosion, the limit between the two explosion phenomena (total and partial explosive charge) is defined.
The limit time delay, which leads to a given concentration distribution and for which detonations cannot
be observed, is investigated with respect to initial gaseous composition and initial volume of confining.
The critical nominal initiation energies in uniform and non-uniform media are characterized.

Key words: Cloud diffusion, Explosion, Propane, Hydrogen, Safety

1 Introduction From a theoretical point of view, the characterization

Accidental explosions include a variety of modes of pres-
sure wave propagation resulting from a detonation or a
deflagration wave. As a flame is propagating in a com-
bustible gas, the burned gases create a pressure wave dur-
ing their expansion, in the initial unburned gas. If the
pressure wave is weak, then the combustion front propa-
gates at a subsonic velocity and in an autonomous way
throughout the unburned gases. The propagation is real-
ized by the coupling of the chemical reaction and heat and
mass transfer phenomena resulting in a deflagration wave.
For a strong pressure wave, the shock wave increases the
temperature and pressure of the unburned gas: this gas is
called shocked gas. It allows the initiation of the explosive
reaction. The energy released by the reaction sustains the
shock wave. Hence, the shock wave and the combustion
wave support each other. The self-sustained propagation
can be considered as the coupling of the shock wave and
the reaction zone. The coupling propagates at supersonic
velocity with respect to the upstream unburned gas. In
practical initial conditions of an explosive cloud, the deto-
nation is not instantaneously created. The ignition process
generates a deflagration wave which can possibly acceler-
ate and lead to a detonation wave.
Correspondence to: I. Sochet
(e-mail: Isabelle.Sochet@ensi-bourges.fr)
of shock wave propagation in non-uniform media has been
principally carried out by various, mainly Russian research
teams. Numerous works, such as Bird (1961), Zel’dovich
and Raizer (1967), are mainly devoted to powerful ex-
plosions at high altitude and are related to temperature
and/or density gradients. Bird (1961) considers the prop-
agation of a shock wave in a stationary gas in which the
density varies linearly. The shock strength changes in the
non-uniform region. Reflections and successive reflected
waves are produced. These reflected waves have a consid-
erable influence on the rate of change of shock strength
for increasing density. Zel’dovich and Raizer (1967) focus
on propagation of shock waves in a non-homogeneous at-
mosphere with an exponential density distribution. They
show that the shock front surface and the strength of the
shock wave do not change in the same way in different
directions: in particular, in the direction of the density
decrease, the shock wave is accelerated. Since then, many
developments have been proposed taking into account the
counterpressure effect. The study of shock wave propaga-
tion in reactive non-uniform media is very complex since
the reactivity is a function of the non-uniformity. Sev-
eral authors suggest different possibilities to create non-
uniformity in reactive mixtures: (i) by temperature gradi-
ent; (ii) by density gradient; (iii) across an inert region.
Zel’dovich et al. (1970) are the first researchers to raise
clearly a criterion to initiate a detonation in non-uniform
364 I. Sochet et al.: Experimental investigation on the detonability

media. Initially, Zel’dovich et al. (1970) investigated the

conditions for the onset of detonation waves in reacting
gases, maintained initially at non-uniform temperature
(linear distribution). Three regimes of the development
of chemical reaction were proved to be possible: thermal
explosion, formation of a shock wave propagating away
from the reaction zone and a steady state detonation wave.
These regimes depend on the temperature gradient, which
can be small, steep or intermediate. Later, Zel’dovich et al.
(1988) considered the problem of the evolution of a two-
component mixture with non-uniform initial distribution
Fig. 1. Experimental setup
of one component. Depending on the physical size of the
non-uniformity domain, the kinetic parameters and the
inert gas (He, Ar, CO2 , SF6 , Air) in a vertical tube by
heat of reaction, various types of explosion process were
Thomas et al. (1991). It appears that the governing pa-
revealed. However, the numerical model of Dorofeev et al.
rameters are: the width of the inert region when the con-
(1989) shows the existence of a critical temperature dis-
centration gradients at the interface are high, the inert
tribution length. There is a minimum internal energy of
concentration profile when the form of the inert region is
preheated gas mass which initiates detonation. The value
distributed by mixing, the reactivity of the gas, the heat
of this energy is close to the minimum energy of blast ini-
transfer and the wall friction. The whole of these experi-
tiation and depends only on mixture properties. The con-
mental studies confirm that the critical conditions for ini-
tinuation of this analysis, investigated by Dorofeev et al.
tiation and propagation processes are difficult to predict
(1995), included multi-dimensional numerical modelling
in a reliable manner.
and the effect of non-uniformity shape: the minimum non-
Hence, from these theoretical and experimental stud-
uniformity length does not depend strongly on the distri-
ies and with a view to contributing to industrial safety,
bution function (gaussian, polygonal). Following the same
it would appear necessary to extend the knowledge of the
idea, He (1991) shows that the Zel’dovich criterion is a
non-uniform gaseous explosion processes by experimental
necessary condition but not sufficient to initiate a detona-
investigations. This problem is related to practical situa-
tion. He investigated the effect of an initial non-uniform
tions in which gaseous mixtures are ignited accidentally,
temperature distribution in a limited environment (heat
in some cases leading to the formation of detonation waves
pocket) in a uniform cold gas. The numerical model leads
and consequently causing major accidents. This is why we
to the critical size of a heat pocket of gas which can initiate
develop our first experimental and theoretical investiga-
a self-propagating detonation in a cold gas. More recently
tions (Sochet et al. 1993; Sochet and Brossard 1994) based
Khokhlov et al. (1997) studied deflagration-to-detonation
on a compositional gradient, as would exist in an acciden-
transition (DDT) in non-uniform media. They considered
tal gas cloud. The basic idea of this paper is to characterize
the process of initiation of detonation that arises from
the detonation limit of a small explosive gaseous charge
the explosion of a reactive gas with a non-uniform distri-
diffusing into surrounding calm air. We describe the ex-
bution of induction times. The non-uniformity is consid-
perimental technique and present a synthesis of numerous
ered as the result of the mixing of high-entropy products
experimental results as a function of the initial and ini-
and low-entropy unreacted fuel. The criterion of DDT in
tiation conditions of the non-uniform explosive gaseous
unconfined flames was formulated in terms of the one-
mixture.
dimensional thickness of the Chapman-Jouguet detona-
tion (xd ), the laminar flame speed and the laminar flame
thickness in the reactive gas. Khokhlov et al. (1997) show
that there are two key elements to the
2 Experimental setup

 theory for uncon-
fined DDT: (i) the size Ld
103 xd of the region that The similitude laws are representative of physical phe-
can trigger DDT in a mixture of hot burning product and nomena involved in the detonation process. Consequently,
fuel; (ii) the intensity of turbulent motions required for the choice of small scale experiments are clearly justified
the region of size Ld to undergo DDT. (Brossard et al. 1988). The experimental setup used in
this study is similar to that described in previous papers
From an experimental point of view, a few studies have (Sochet et al. 1993; Sochet and Brossard 1994). The ex-
been conducted. Donato et al. (1981) investigated a one- perimental device (Fig. 1) allows the following:
dimensional detonation wave propagating through a fuel
concentration gradient obtained by diffusion from a lean – to obtain an explosive gaseous charge with a space-
mixture into a rich one and conversely from a rich mix- time dependant concentration (Sochet and Brossard
ture into a lean one. It resulted that the detonation adjusts 1994);
itself immediately to the compositional gradient and con- – to study the detonability conditions of this charge;
sequently to the conditions of local energy release. The – to characterize the shock wave generated by the deto-
detonation reinitiation across an inert region of air in a nation.
horizontal tube had been highlighted by Bjerketvedt et The uniform gaseous mixture is initially confined in
al. (1986) and Teodorczyk et al. (1996), and across an a hemispherical volume (soap bubble). The initial radius