Experimental physics laboratory: PHY461a/PHY462a

The scientist explores the world of phenomena by successive

approximations. He knows that his data are not precise and
that his theories must always be tested. It is quite natural that he
tends to develop healthy skepticism, suspended judgment, and
disciplined imagination.

— Edwin Powell Hubble

 Measurements:
• Example 1: Galileo discovering the pendulum time period to be
independent of the amplitude.

Photo Source: wikipedia

 Measurements:
• Example 2: Hubble and the expanding universe

Photo Source: wikipedia

 Measurements:
• Example 3: Electron g-factor

NIST CODATA recommended g-factor values[12]

Relative standard
Particle Symbol g-factor
uncertainty
electron ge −2.00231930436256(35) 1.7×10−13[8]
muon gμ −2.0023318418(13) 6.3×10−10[9]
neutron gn −3.82608545(90) 2.4×10−7[10]
proton gp +5.5856946893(16) 2.9×10−10[11]

The electron g-factor is one of the most precisely measured values in physics.

Photo Source: wikipedia

 Measurements:
• Example 4: Fine structure constant

Photo Source: wikipedia

Measurements and errors:

• “True value” and estimation of the “true value”: “Throwing dart” analogy

• “Parent” statistical distribution and inherent uncertainty:

How much information can we really extract
from a measurement?
Types of errors in measurement:

Random errors and systematic errors

 Types of errors in measurement: systematic and random
• Random errors:
• An error that varies between successive measurements
• Equally likely to be positive or negative
• Always present in an experiment
• Appears obvious from distribution of values obtained
• Can be minimised by performing multiple measurements of the
same quantity or by measuring one quantity as function of second
quantity and performing a straight line fit of the data
• Sometimes also referred to as reading errors (we will come to this
in more details at the end)
 Types of errors in measurement: systematic and random
• Systematic errors:
• Constant throughout a set of readings.
• May result from equipment which is incorrectly calibrated or how
measurements are performed.
• Cause average (mean) of measured values to depart from correct
value.
• Difficult to spot presence of systematic errors in an experiment.
Types of errors in measurement: systematic and random

• Example:
Types of errors in measurement: systematic and random

• Example:
Types of errors in measurement: systematic and random

• Example:
Types of errors in measurement:

• Precision vs accuracy:
Estimating errors:

Direct measurements vs estimation using a formulae

 Estimating errors: direct measurement

• Instrument reading error:

Digital meter – error taken as 5 in next significant figure

(3.3600.005)V

Slide from J. W. Cockburn, Univ. of Sheffeld

 Estimating errors: direct measurement

• Instrument reading error:

Analogue meter – error related to width of pointer

Value is 3.25V
Pointer has width 0.1V
(3.30.1)V

From J. W. Cockburn, Univ. of Sheffeld

 Estimating errors: direct measurement

• Instrument reading error:

16 17
•Linear scale (e.g. a ruler)
•Need to estimate precision with which measurement can be made
•May be a subjective choice
16.770.02

From J. W. Cockburn, Univ. of Sheffeld

 Estimating errors: direct measurement

• Instrument reading error:

16 17 16 17

•The reading error may be dependent on what is being measured.

•In this case the use of greater precision equipment may not help reduce the error.

From J. W. Cockburn, Univ. of Sheffeld

 Estimating errors: direct measurement

• Instrument reading error:

Oscilloscope – related to width of trace

3.8 divisions @ 1V/division = 3.8V
Trace width is ~0.1 division = 0.1V
(3.80.1)V

From J. W. Cockburn, Univ. of Sheffeld

 Estimating errors: direct measurement

• Quoting results with errors (rounding off):

• Value 44, error 5  445
• Generally state error to one significant figure • Value 128, error 32  13030
(although if one or two then two significant • Value 4.8x10-3, error 7x10-4 
figures may be used). (4.80.7)x10-3
• Quote result to same significance as error
• When using scientific notation, quote value • Value 1092, error 56  109060
and error with the same exponent • Value 1092, error 14  109214
• Value 12.345, error 0.35  12.30.4
Don’t over quote results to a level inconsistent with the error
36.6789353720.5
Estimating errors using formulas: Error propagation
• Consider a set of measurements of variables u, v … which is in turn used to estimate a quantity x.

• The average value is then related to the averages(might not be exact always) as:

• How do we calculate the error in this estimation?

• How is this error related to the errors from the individual measurements?
Estimating errors: from formulas
• Variations of each estimated data points can be related to the variations in the variables as :

(Note: for higher errors, one would have retained higher order terms in the expansion)

• One can then use the formulae for standard deviation to calculate :
Estimating errors using formulas: Error propagation

• Using the standard definitions for variance and co-variance:

one then gets:

Estimating errors using formulas: Error propagation

• So the big lesson is: errors always add in quadratures

• For almost all measurements in the lab, the variables will be independent random numbers and
accordingly, the covariance is zero. However, one should think and discuss on conditions of
specific experiments.
Estimating errors using formulas: Error propagation
• Propagation of errors (always express errors as relative errors because they have
units):

Z  A B C  Z    A    B    C 
2 2 2 2

 Z   A   B   C 
2 2 2 2

Z  ABC or AB / C etc        
 Z   A   B   C 
 Z   A   B   C 
2 2 2 2

ZAB C n m

l
  n  m   l 
 Z   A   B   C 
A
Z  ln A Z 
A
Z
Z  exp A  A
Z
Estimating errors:

How variations in data sets and individual measurements(least count) fit

together?
 Estimating mean of the parent distribution (Maximum likelihood of data
points):
Consider an experiment where N data points are collected. If we assume the parent distribution to be
Gaussian with a mean μ and standard deviation σ (each data point is uncorrelated), then the probability for
a particular observation is:

For an unknown mean, the probability of getting the N data points is then:
Estimating mean of the parent distribution (Maximum likelihood of data
points):

The most probable data set is the one with the maximum probability P.
Maximizing this probability becomes equivalent to minimizing the numerator:

This implies:

This is our best estimate for the mean of the parent

distribution.
 Estimating mean of the parent distribution (Maximum likelihood of data
points):

What about the error in the estimation of the mean? We can estimate it by propagating the error:

Where, the partial derivatives are simply:

Assuming the uncertainty of all the data points to be equal (since they are drawn from the same parent distribution):
Estimating mean of the parent distribution (Maximum likelihood of data
points):

(This is one version of the central limit theorem. Note: if the initial distribution was not Gaussian,
you would have gotten something else.)

What is σ and how can it be estimated?

It can be estimated from the data-set (if the scatter is large):

Or from instrument limitation (least count) or physical settings(inherent measurement uncertainty).

Estimating mean of the parent distribution (Maximum likelihood of data
points):

To summarize:

1) From a data set, one can estimate the mean and standard deviation with the usual formulas.

2) However, when estimating error from a formulae, if a particular value is limited by the least count
of the instrument, then the standard practice is to take the least count as the standard deviation of the
parent distribution.
Estimating mean of the parent distribution (Maximum likelihood of data
points):

Word of caution:

1) When limited by least count, a single measurement becomes equivalent to many such repetitions: your
single measurement is then interpreted as the mean, with the least count as the standard deviation.

2) There might be serious limitations on how many data sets you can take. So indefinite increase might not
be a possibility. Systematic and non-statistical errors will keep adding to it.
Max/Min errors(?) vs statistical nature of errors:

Max/Min errors:
Max/Min errors(?) vs statistical nature of errors:
It is usually meaningless to talk about maximum errors.
Errors are only supposed to state a confidence interval, in which,
a randomly chosen measurement will fall with high probability (67%, for standard deviation)
Probability

√ 
of result

2
2

 
Summary:

• Systematic and random (reading) errors – accuracy and precision

• Quoting errors
• Estimating reading errors
• Manipulating and combining errors
• The statistical nature of errors

“There are no laws in science, only falsifiable conjectures” - Karl Popov

Course outline: Experiments
1 Stefan's Constant 1-1 1-4
2 Faraday Effect Using sodium lamp 2-1 2-5
3 Faraday Effect using tungsten lamp 3-1 3-5
4 Phase Transition of BaTiO3 4-1 4-4
5 Photoconductivity Experiment 5-1 5-5
5B Planck’s constant using Cs cell 5B-1 5B-7
6 Electrical and thermal conductivity of metals ** 6-1 6-7

7 P-E Hysteresis 7-1 7-10

8 Hall Effect 8-1 8-4

8B Temperature dependence of Hall coefficient 8B-1 8B-2
9 Magnetoresistance and its Field Dependence 9-1 9-3
10 Magnetic Hysteresis using anchor ring 10-1 10-9

11 Magnetic Hysteresis with cobra interfacing unit 11-1 11-7

12 Ionic Conductivity of Alkali Halides (NaCl) * 12-1 12-5
13 Characteristic X-Rays of copper 13-1 13-7

14 Electrical Resistance of a Conductor between 77 K and 300 K ** 14-1 14-4

15 Electrical Resistance of a Superconductor 15-1 15-2

16 AC Susceptibility of a high Tc superconductor * 16-1 16-5
Course outline: Experiments

17 Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) 17-1 17-9

18 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 18-1 18-8
19 Characteristics of Microwave generators (Klystron) 19-1
27 Beta19-9
Ray Spectroscopy 27-1 27-7
20 Study of Gunn oscillator 20-1 20-5 Oil Drop Experiment
28 Millikan's 28-1 28-3
21 Electro Optic Effect 21-1 21-5
29 Bragg Diffraction with Microwaves 29-1 29-5
22 Kerr effect 30 Electrical
22-1 22-5 Conductivity and Band Gap Determination of Ge using two 30-1 30-3
probe method
23 Study of Thermoluminescence of Colour Centers in Crystals * 23-1 23-9
31 Electrical Conductivity and Band Gap Measurement of Ge using four 31-1 31-4
probe method
24 G-M Counter, Counting Statics and  absorption cross-section 24-1 24-13
25 Proportional Counter ** 32 Michelson
25-1 25-8 Interferometer using a He-Ne Laser 32-1 32-3

26 -ray Spectrometer 33 Michelson

26-1 26-12 Interferometer using a Sodium Lamp 33-1 33-3
34 Mach. Zehnder Interferometer 34-1 34-4
35 Electron diffraction ** 35-1 35-9
36 Diffraction of He-Ne Laser Radiation by 2-d Objects 36-1 36-3

37 Zeeman effect 37-1 37-10

38 Concave Grating Spectrometer, Rowland Mounting 38-1 38-3
39 Iodine Absorption Spectrum 39-1 39-9
40 Fluorescence of Uranyl Nitrate Hexahydrate (UNH) 40-1 40-6
41 Measurement of life time of photoluminecence 41-1 41-7
Course outline: Basic Rules

• “Data never lies” : every observation or data set is trying to communicate something.

• Lab notebook: note down your observations, strange behaviors, subsidiary data sets and anything
you think is important to understand the measurement or the instrument

• Come prepared: you can then use the time in the lab to delve into the measurement. Finish the lab report
in the lab, so that you can save time for other things.

Laboratory classes will start on Jan 13, 2020 (Monday)at 1400 hrs.
It will run from 14:00 - 18:00 hrs on four days of the week with one group
(A) coming on Mondays and Tuesdays and the other group
(B) coming on Wednesdays and Fridays.
Course outline: Basic Rules
Rule 1: Lab experiments

Each student is supposed to perform at least 7 experiments during the

course of the semester. You will get a broad range of physics to choose
from for your 7 choices.

Rule 2: Relative weightage

There will be 70 % weight on the combined labs while 30 % on the
end-semester exam.

Rule 3: Laboratory Reports submission

All students are required to submit lab report with in one week of
completion of experiment. It should contain a brief introduction to the
theory of experiment, principle involved with relevant diagram (s) etc,
methodology of performing the experiment, data in tabular form, error
analysis, precautions, answer to questions given at the end of each
experiment in the lab manual.
Course outline: Basic Rules

Rule 4: If two lab reports go pending for a student, new lab will not be
assigned, unless the pending reports are cleared.

Rule 5: Students are expected to come prepared with the experiment you are
allotted,each day evaluation depends on your preparedness of the
experiment. There will be viva conducted by TAs to check this.

Rule 6: Distribution of marks for laboratory report (out of 40):

a. Data + theory (primarily diagram/sketch (s)): 10 marks

b. Analysis + Results + Error analysis: 20 marks
c. Viva-voce + daily evaluation: 10 marks

https://sites.google.com/site/msclabphy/annoncements