Table

of Contents

Title
Inside Cover
Dedication
Special Thanks
Acknowledgements
Preface
Introduction
Part One
Tidbit
Chapter 1 | Crash Course on Batteries
Chapter 2 | Battery Types
Tidbit
Chapter 3 | Packaging and Safety
Chapter 4 | Charge Methods
Tidbit
Chapter 5 | Discharge Methods
Chapter 6 | Smart Battery
Tidbit
Part Two
Tidbit
Chapter 7 | From Birth to Retirement
Chapter 8 | How to Extend Battery Life
Tidbit
Chapter 9 | Testing and Monitoring
Tidbit
Part Three
Tidbit
Chapter 10 | Amazing Value of a Battery
Chapter 11 | Cost of Mobile Power
Tidbit
Chapter 12 | Electric Powertrain
Afterword
Tidbit
Glossary
Abbreviations - Conversions
Bibliography
Tidbit
About the Author
About Cadex
Back Cover
 Batteries in a Portable World




A Handbook on Rechargeable
Batteries for Non-Engineers



Isidor Buchmann
published by
Cadex Electronics Inc.


Third Edition

In association with www.BatteryUniversity.com
Copyright © 2011 Cadex Electronics Inc. (Cadex). All rights reserved. No part of this
publication may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed, stored in a retrieval system or
translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any means without
written permission of Cadex Electronics Inc., 22000 Fraserwood Way, Richmond, British
Columbia, Canada V6W 1J6; Phone: +1 604-231-7777; Fax: +1 604-231-7755; E-
mail: isidor.buchmann@cadex.com.

Cadex books may be purchased for educational and institutional use. For information
please contact Cadex Electronics Inc. at the address above or e-mail answers@cadex.com.

Disclaimer

While every effort was made to ensure that the information contained in this publication is
accurate, Cadex does not warrant or guarantee accuracy and completeness; nor does
Cadex take responsibility for any errors, omissions or damages that may arise from this
information.

All trademarks used in conjunction with “Cadex” are the property of
Cadex Electronics Inc.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Buchmann, Isidor, 1943–

Batteries in a portable world: a handbook on rechargeable batteries
for non-engineers.

Third edition

Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-9682118-3-0

1. Storage batteries. I. Cadex Electronics Inc. II. Title.

TK2941.B83 2000 621.31’2424 C00-901659-7

Printed in Canada

The information in this book is provided for the benefit of all battery users.
Batteries have become a steady travel companion. They help us call a friend,
enable us to work outside the confines of four walls and provide
entertainment when time permits. But most importantly, batteries illuminate
the dark and support critical missions when people are in need.

I dedicate this book to my five children who also have a keen interest in
batteries. They understand the importance of clean power to maintain
freedom of mobility while protecting our environment and liberating society
from the dependence on oil.

With Special Thanks

Jörn Tinnemeyer | Vice President, Research, Cadex Electronics Inc.

TINNEMEYER has contributed to this book on the electrical, chemical and practical
aspects of the battery. His major achievements, however, are in inventing rapid-test
technologies, for which he has earned five patents. Tinnemeyer holds a specialist degree
from the University of Toronto in mathematics and applied physics. He completed
graduate work in high-energy physics at Simon Fraser University and earned a master’s
degree in astronautics and space engineering at Cranfield University in the United
Kingdom.

Tinnemeyer has won many prestigious awards, honors and international research
scholarships. His inventions in battery diagnostics and monitoring at Cadex Electronics
Inc. (Cadex) made the company a leader in this field. As a Cadex employee, he has
traveled the world and delivered numerous papers at conferences on battery testing. His
primary expertise is in energy storage devices, system design, digital signal processing and
control theory, as well as applied non-linear algorithms and information theory.

Among his achievements are battery rapid-test technologies that measure the state-of-
health of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based batteries in seconds. In pursuit of more accurate
fuel-gauge methods, Tinnemeyer stepped outside the traditional measurements based on
voltage, current and temperature and developed quantum magnetic battery analysis called
Q-Mag™. The principle is based on spin-dependent tunneling.

With a mathematical brain rivaling that of Nikola Tesla, Tinnemeyer cares for the well
being of society and is concerned about the careless depletion of recourses, fossil fuel in
particular. His ultimate goal is to invent medical devices that will help humanity and bring
quick healing to those who are suffering.

Jeff Dahn | Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Dalhousie University

DAHN is recognized worldwide as a distinguished scientist in the field of advanced
lithium batteries. He is one of the pioneering developers of the lithium-ion battery,
authored over 430 refereed journal papers and issued or filed 54 patented inventions.
According to the Electrochemical Society Interface, Dahn is one of the most prolific
authors in the Journal of the Electrochemical Society and has one of the most-cited papers
in the journal.

Dahn obtained his B.Sc. in physics from Dalhousie University (1978) and his Ph.D. from
the University of British Columbia in 1982. He then worked at the National Research
Council of Canada (1982–85) and at Moli Energy Limited (1985–1990) before taking up a
faculty position in the Physics Department at Simon Fraser University in 1990. He
returned to Dalhousie University in 1996 as the NSERC/3M Canada Industrial Research
Chair in Materials for Advanced Batteries. He was appointed a Canada Research Chair in
2003.

Dahn has received numerous national and international awards, including the Herzberg
Medal, Canadian Association of Physicists; Battery Division Research Award of the
Electrochemical Society; NSERC University/Industry Synergy Award for collaborative
efforts with 3M Canada (2003), and the Medal for Excellence in Teaching from the
Canadian Association of Physicists.

Mark Richter | Vice President, Engineering, Cadex Electronics Inc.

RICHTER has the exceptional talent of developing complex electronic circuits, and Cadex
employs his flawless designs in the products the company manufactures. He is actively
involved in the pioneering work of modern battery diagnostics, monitoring technologies
and hardware designs. These patented inventions will change the way batteries are tested.
He is a graduate of the British Columbia Institute of Technology and has 25 years’
experience in the electronics industry.

François Girard | Manager of the Technology Evaluation Program, NRC

GIRARD received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Chemistry from Université du Québec à
Montréal with Prof. Daniel Bélanger. He earned the Ph.D. in Energy from the Institut
National de la Recherche Scientifique – Énergie et Matériaux, a collaboration with Profs
Bélanger and Jean-Pol Dodelet. His graduate work encompassed the development of
composite electrodes for secondary lithium batteries and the electrocatalytic reduction of
nitrates via inorganic cluster molecules. His postdoctoral work at the Pulp and Paper
Research Institute of Canada focused on surface modification of polymeric membranes
with ion-conducting ceramic thin films for salt electrodialysis. Girard has been with the
National Research Council for over 10 years, occupying the positions of Research Officer,
Business Development Officer and Manager of the Technology Evaluation Program, all
within NRC’s Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation.

Paul Craig | Director of Technology at E-One Moli Energy (Canada) Ltd.

Craig began his battery career in 1986 in the R&D department at Moli Energy where he
designed equipment for manufacturing and testing of rechargeable lithium batteries. As
Senior Applications Engineer, he developed fuel gauges for smart battery and was
responsible for specifying and approving batteries for military, medical and commercial
use. Craig travels the world and devotes equal time to batteries for portable applications
and the electric vehicle. He provided invaluable resources to this book, especially on the
topic of manganese-based chemistries.

Acknowledgments

The author thanks Cadex Electronics Inc. for sponsoring the publication of this book. The
Cadex staff has been most supportive in providing relevant information. The author also
thanks Charles Campbell and Naomi Pauls for their dedicated editing and proofreading
efforts. Special thanks go to Corporate Graphics Inc. for the cover design and production
assistance, as well as Ljuba Levstek for the hand drawings in Chapter 1.

No one is able to complete a book single-handedly; it’s the teamwork that adds quality and
provides completeness.

Preface to the Third Edition

Battery user groups have asked me to write the third edition of Batteries in a Portable
World and I have obliged. The first edition appeared in 1997 and the handy little book sold
out quickly. The larger second edition was published in 2001 and sold to public safety,
medical and defense industries. There was also a large interest from hobbyists. However,
ordinary battery users worldwide became the largest audience.

People want easy-to-read battery information. To share the knowledge, I condensed the
material from the book into small essays and created www.BatteryUniversity.com. The
website quickly became popular and provided me with important feedback on what people
really want to know about batteries. The many questions I received made me realize that
the battery is poorly understood.

This third edition includes information about many new battery developments; however,
I give equal importance to questions that arrived through BatteryUniversity.com. What’s
on the user’s mind is, in my opinion, more important than regurgitating reams of
laboratory test results from battery manufacturers. The actual runtime attained in the field
by the everyday user speaks louder than printed specifications.

There is no black and white in the battery field but many shades of gray. The battery
behaves much like us folks — it’s a black box with a mind of its own; it’s mystical and
unexplainable. For some users, the battery causes no problems at all; for others it’s
nothing but a problem.

Batteries in a Portable World is written for the professional user who needs some basic
understanding of battery behavior, as well as the ordinary user who wants to get the most
out of a pack. Much of the writing comes from my personal experience working with
batteries. I also draw on test results from our own laboratories at Cadex. While laboratory
analyses have their rightful place, I respect the opinions of battery users.

Manufacturers of batteries for consumer products are in close contact with customer
demands and deliver what the public wants most, which is low cost, adequate runtime and
small size. By meeting these requirements, longevity is often neglected. With the electric
vehicle, the attribute of long service life is now being brought to the foreground and this
effort will benefit the battery industry immensely.

All batteries have one thing in common: they run for a while and then need charging.
Unfortunately, the dream of a continuous energy supply as imagined with the fuel cell is
not going to happen soon, and charging will be with us for a little bit longer.

Introduction

When looking at a battery we must keep in mind that this energy source is
electrochemical. It’s a vessel that is slow to fill, holds relatively little storage capacity and
has a defined life span. Although critical improvements have been made over the years,
the progress is marginal compared with the vast advancements in microelectronics.
Consider a computer memory core of the 1960s and compare it with a modern microchip
of today. What once measured a cubic foot now sits in a tiny sliver. Applying this size
reduction to battery technology would shrink a starter battery to the size of a coin. As long
as the battery relies on an electrochemical process, limitations will prevail.

Each battery system offers distinct advantages but none provides a fully satisfactory
solution. For many years, nickel-based batteries delivered reasonably good service, but
this chemistry is gradually being replaced with lithium-ion. Lithium-ion offers higher
specific energy (capacity), is maintenance-free and has low self-discharge; however, it
also suffers from aging, like all other systems. Lead acid, with its many warts and
blemishes, holds a solid position and will continue to keep its exclusive lead as a starter,
standby and deep-cycle battery. No other system can meet the price.

As much as we would like to know everything about batteries, this book addresses only
the most commonly used battery types. It discusses consumer and industrial batteries
made with lead, nickel and lithium but excludes specialty systems for industrial, military
and aeronautical applications. It also excludes weird and wonderful battery inventions that
live in the laboratory. My background is electrical and hence I tackle batteries more from
the electrical side, with less discussion of the mechanics of chemical reaction.



Part One

Sharing Battery Knowledge





All the batteries on earth

can store only ten minutes

of the world’s energy needs.



Chapter 1 | Crash Course on Batteries

When Was the Battery Invented?

One of the most remarkable and novel discoveries in the last 400 years was electricity. We
might ask, “Has electricity been around that long?” The answer is yes, and perhaps much
longer, but its practical use has only been at our disposal since the mid to late 1800s, and
in a limited way at first. One of the earliest public works gaining attention was an
electrically illuminated bridge over the river Seine during the 1900 World Fair in Paris.

The use of electricity may go back further. While constructing a railway in 1936 near
Baghdad, workers uncovered what appeared to be a prehistoric battery, also known as the
Parthian Battery. The object dates back to the Parthian period and is believed to be 2,000
years old. The battery consisted of a clay jar that was filled with a vinegar solution into
which an iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder was inserted. This device produced 1.1
to 2.0 volts of electricity. Figure 1-1 illustrates the Parthian Battery.

.

Figure 1-1: Parthian Battery. A clay jar of a prehistoric battery holds an iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder.
When filled with vinegar or electrolytic solution, the jar produces 1.1 to 2 volts.

Not all scientists accept the Parthian Battery as a source of energy. It is possible that the
appliance was used to electroplate, such as adding a layer of gold or other precious metals
to a surface. The Egyptians are said to have electroplated antimony onto copper over
4,300 years ago. Archeological evidence suggests that the Babylonians were the first to
discover and employ a galvanic technique in the manufacturing of jewelry by using an
electrolyte based on grape juice to gold plate stoneware. The Parthians, who ruled
Baghdad (ca. 250 BC), may have utilized batteries to electroplate silver.

One of the earliest methods to generate electricity in modern times was through creating
a static charge. In 1660, Otto von Guericke constructed an electrical machine that had a
large sulfur globe which, when rubbed and turned, attracted feathers and small pieces of
paper. Guericke proved that the sparks generated were electrical in nature.

The first practical use of static electricity was the “electric pistol,” which Alessandro
Volta (1745–1827) invented. He thought of providing long-distance communications,
albeit only one Boolean bit. An iron wire supported by wooden poles was to be strung
from Como to Milan, Italy. At the receiving end, the wire would terminate in a jar filled
with methane gas. To signal a coded event, an electrical spark would be sent by wire for
the purpose of detonating the electric pistol. This communications link was never built.
Figure 1-2 shows a pencil rendering of Alessandro Volta.

Figure 1-2: Alessandro Volta, inventor of the electric battery

Volta’s discovery of the decomposition of water byan electrical current laid the foundation of electrochemistry.

Courtesy of Cadex



In 1791, while working at Bologna University, Luigi Galvani discovered that the
muscle of a frog would contract when touched by a metallic object. This phenomenon
became known as animal electricity. Prompted by these experiments, Volta initiated a
series of experiments using zinc, lead, tin and iron as negative plates; and copper, silver,
gold and graphite as positive plates. The interest in galvanic electricity soon became
widespread.

Early Batteries
Volta discovered in 1800 that certain fluids would generate a continuous flow of electrical
power when used as a conductor. This led to the invention of the first voltaic cell, more
commonly known as the battery. Volta discovered further that the voltage would increase
when voltaic cells were stacked on top of each other. Figure 1-3 illustrates such a serial
connection.

Figure 1-3: Four variations of Volta’s electric battery

Metals in a battery have different electrical effects. Volta noticed that the voltage potential with dissimilar substances got
stronger the farther apart they were from one another.

The first number in the metals listed below is the affinity to attract electrons; the second is the standard potential from
the first oxidation state.
 Zinc = 1.6 / -0.76 V
Lead = 1.9 / -0.13 V
Tin = 1.8 / -1.07 V
Iron = 1.8 / -0.04 V
Copper = 1.9 / 0.159 V
Silver = 1.9 / 1.98 V
Gold = 2.4 / 1.83 V
Carbon = 2.5 / 0.13 V
The metals determine the battery voltage; they were separated with moist paper soaked in salt water.

Courtesy of Cadex

In the same year, Volta released his discovery of a continuous source of electricity to the
Royal Society of London. No longer were experiments limited to a brief display of sparks
that lasted a fraction of a second. An endless stream of electric current now seemed
possible.

France was one of the first nations to officially recognize Volta’s discoveries. This was
during a time when France was approaching the height of scientific advancements and
new ideas were welcomed with open arms, helping to support of the country’s political
agenda. By invitation, Volta addressed the Institute of France in a series of lectures at
which Napoleon Bonaparte was present as a member of the institute (see Figure 1-4).


Figure 1-4: Volta’s experimentations at the Institute of France

Volta’s discoveries so impressed the world that in November 1800 the French National Institute invited him to lectures at
events in which Napoleon Bonaparte participated. Napoleon helped with the experiments, drawing sparks from the
battery, melting a steel wire, discharging an electric pistol and decomposing water into its elements.

Courtesy of Cadex

In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, inventor of the miner’s safety lamp, began testing the
chemical effects of electricity and found out that decomposition occurred when passing
electrical current through substances. This process was later called electrolysis. He made
new discoveries by installing the world’s largest and most powerful electric battery in the
vaults of the Royal Institution of London. Connecting the battery to charcoal electrodes
produced the first electric light. Witnesses reported that his voltaic arc lamp produced “the
most brilliant ascending arch of light ever seen.”

In 1802, William Cruickshank designed the first electric battery for mass production.
Cruickshank arranged square sheets of copper with equal-sized sheets sizes of zinc. These
sheets were placed into a long rectangular wooden box and soldered together. Grooves in
the box held the metal plates in position, and the sealed box was then filled with an
electrolyte of brine, or a watered-down acid. This resembled the flooded battery that is
still with us today. Figure 1-5 illustrates the battery workshop of Cruickshank.

Figure 1-5: Cruickshank and the first flooded battery.

William Cruickshank, an English chemist, built a battery of electric cells by joining zinc and copper plates in a wooden
box filled with an electrolyte solution. This flooded design had the advantage of not drying out with use and provided
more energy than Volta’s disc arrangement.

Courtesy of Cadex

Invention of the Rechargeable Battery
In 1836, John F. Daniell, an English chemist, developed an improved battery that
produced a steadier current than earlier devices. Until this time, all batteries were primary,
meaning they could not be recharged. In 1859, the French physician Gaston Planté
invented the first rechargeable battery. It was based on lead acid, a system that is still used
today.

In 1899, Waldmar Jungner from Sweden invented the nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd),
which used nickel for the positive electrode (cathode) and cadmium for the negative
(anode). High material costs compared to lead acid limited its use and two years later,
Thomas Edison produced an alternative design by replacing cadmium with iron. Low
specific energy (capacity), poor performance at low temperature and high self-discharge
limited the success of the nickel-iron battery. It was not until 1932 that Shlecht and
Ackermann achieved higher load currents and improved the longevity of NiCd by
inventing the sintered pole plate. In 1947, Georg Neumann succeeded in sealing the cell.

For many years, NiCd was the only rechargeable battery for portable applications. In
the 1990s, environmentalists in Europe became concerned about environmental
contamination if NiCd were carelessly disposed; they began to restrict this chemistry and
asked the consumer industry to switch to Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), an
environmentally friendlier battery. NiMH is similar to NiCd, and many predict that NiMH
will be the stepping-stone to the more enduring lithium-ion (Li-ion).

Most research activities today revolve around improving lithium-based systems.
Besides powering cellular phones, laptops, digital cameras, power tools and medical
devices, Li-ion is also used for electric vehicles. The battery has a number of benefits,
most notably its high specific energy, simple charging, low maintenance and being
environmentally benign.

Electricity Through Magnetism
The discovery of how to generate electricity through magnetism came relatively late. In
1820, André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) noticed that wires carrying an electric current
were at times attracted to and at other times repelled from one another. In 1831, Michael
Faraday (1791–1867) demonstrated how a copper disc provided a constant flow of
electricity while revolving in a strong magnetic field. Faraday, assisting Davy and his
research team, succeeded in generating an endless electrical force as long as the
movement between a coil and magnet continued. This led to the invention of the electric
generator, and reversing the process enabled the electric motor. Shortly thereafter,
transformers were developed that converted alternating current (AC) to any desired
voltage. In 1833, Faraday established the foundation of electrochemistry on which
Faraday’s law is based. Faraday’s law of induction relates to electromagnetism linked to
transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors and generators.

Once the relationship with magnetism was understood, large generators began
producing a steady flow of electricity. Motors followed that enabled mechanical
movement, and the Edison light bulb appeared to conquer darkness. The three-phase AC
technology developed by Nikola Tesla enabled transmission lines to carry electric power
over great distances. Electricity was thus made widely available to humanity to improve
the quality of life.

The invention of the electronic vacuum tube in the early 1900s formed the significant
next step towards high technology, enabling frequency oscillators, signal amplifications
and digital switching. This led to radio broadcasting in the 1920s and the first digital
computer, called ENIAC, in 1946. The discovery of the transistor in 1947 paved the way
for the arrival of the integrated circuit 10 years later, and the microprocessor ushered in
the Information Age, forever changing the way we live and work.

Humanity depends on electricity, and with increased mobility people have gravitated
more and more towards portable power — first for wheeled applications, then portability
and finally wearable use. As awkward and unreliable as the early batteries may have been,
future generations may look at today’s technologies as nothing more than clumsy
experiments.

Battery Developments
Inventions in the 1700s and 1800s are well documented and credit goes to the dignified
inventors. Benjamin Franklin invented the Franklin stove, bifocal eyeglasses and the
lightning rod. He was unequaled in American history as an inventor until Thomas Edison
emerged. Edison was a good businessman who may have taken credit for inventions
others had made. Contrary to popular belief, Edison did not invent the light bulb; he
improved upon a 50-year-old idea by using a small, carbonized filament lit up in a better
vacuum. Although a number of people had worked on this idea before, Edison gained the
financial reward by making the concept commercially viable to the public. The
phonograph is another success story for which Edison received due credit.

Countries often credit their own citizens for having made important inventions, whether
or not they deserve it. When visiting museums in Europe, the USA and Japan one sees
such bestowment. The work to develop the car, x-ray machines, telephones, broadcast
radio, televisions and computers might have been done in parallel, not knowing of others’
advancements at that time, and the rightful inventor is often not clearly identified. Similar
uncertainties exist with the invention of new battery systems, and we give respect to
research teams and organizations rather than individuals. Table 1-6 summarizes battery
advancements and lists inventors when available.


Table 1-6: History of modern battery development. No new major battery system has entered the commercial market
since the invention of Li-phosphate in 1996.

Global Battery Markets

The battery market is expanding and the global revenue in 2009 was a whopping $47.5
billion.1 With the growing demand for portable electronics and the desire to connect and
work outside the confines of four walls, experts predict that this figure will reach $74
billion in 2015. These numbers are speculative and include batteries for the electric
powertrain of cars.

An Overview of Battery Types
Batteries are divided into two categories: primary and secondary. In 2009, primary
batteries made up 23.6 percent of the global market. Frost Sullivan (2009) predict a 7.4
percent decline of the primary battery in revenue distribution by 2015. Primary batteries
are used in watches, electronic keys, remote controls, children’s toys, light beacons and
military devices.

The real growth lies in secondary batteries. Frost Sullivan say that rechargeable
batteries account for 76.4 percent of the global market, a number that is expected to
increase to 82.6 percent in 2015. Batteries are also classified by chemistry and the most
common are lithium-, lead-, and nickel-based systems. Figure 1-7 illustrates the
distribution of these chemistries.

Figure 1-7: Revenue contributions by different battery chemistries

Courtesy of Frost Sullivan (2009)

Lithium-ion is the battery of choice for consumer products, and no other systems
threaten to interfere with its dominance at this time. The lead acid market is similar in size
to Li-ion. Here the applications are divided into SLI (starter battery) for automotive,
stationary for power backup, and deep-cycle for wheeled mobility such as golf cars,
wheelchairs and scissor lifts. Lead acid holds a solid position, as it has done for the last
hundred years. There are no other systems that threaten to unseat this forgiving and low-
cost chemistry any time soon.

High specific energy and long storage has made alkaline more popular than carbon-
zinc, which Georges Leclanché invented in 1868. The environmentally benign nickel-
metal-hydride (NiMH) continues to hold an important role, as it replaces many
applications previously served by nickel-cadmium (NiCd). However, at only three percent
market share, NiMH is a minor player in the battery world and will likely relinquish more
of its market to Li-ion by 2015.

 Developing nations will contribute to future battery sales. New markets are the electric
bicycle in Asia and storage batteries to supply electric power to remote communities in
Africa and other parts of the world. Wind turbines, solar power and other renewable
sources also use storage batteries for load leveling. These large grid storage batteries
collect surplus energy from renewable resources during high activity and supply the extra
power when the demand by users is heavy (see Chapter 10, “Grid Storage Batteries,” on
page 252).

A major new battery user might be the electric powertrain for personal cars. However,
battery cost and longevity will dictate how quickly the automotive sector will adopt this
new propulsion system. Energy from oil is cheap, convenient and readily available; any
alternative faces difficult challenges. Government incentives may be provided, but such
intervention distorts the true cost of energy, shields the underlying problem with fossil fuel
and only satisfies certain lobby groups through short-term solutions.

During the last five years or so, no new battery system has emerged that can claim to
offer disruptive technology. Although much research is being done, no new concept is
ready to enter the market at the time of writing, nor are new developments close to
breakthrough point. There are many reasons for this apparent lack of progress: few
products have requirements that are as stringent as the battery. For example, battery users
want low price, long life, high specific energy (capacity), safe operation and minimal
maintenance. In addition, the battery must work at hot and cold temperatures, deliver high
power on demand and charge quickly. Only some of these attributes are achievable with
various battery technologies.

Most consumers are satisfied with the battery performance on portable devices. Today’s
battery technology also serves power backup and wheeled mobility reasonably well. Using
our current battery technology for electric powertrains on cars, however, might prove
difficult because the long-term effects in that environment are not fully understood. The
switch to a power source offering a fraction of the kinetic energy compared to fossil fuels
will be an eye-opener for motorists who continually demand larger vehicles with more
horsepower (more in Chapter 12, “Electric Powertrain,” on page 265).

Advancements in Batteries
Batteries advance on two fronts, and these developments reflect themselves in increased
specific energy for longer runtimes and improved specific power for good power delivery
on demand. Figure 1-8 illustrates the energy and power densities of lead acid, nickel-
cadmium (NiCd), nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), and the Li-ion family (Li-ion).


Figure 1-8: Specific energy and specific power of rechargeable batteries
Specific energy is the capacity a battery can hold in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg); specific power is the battery’s
ability to deliver power in watts per kilogram (W/kg).

Rechargeable lithium-metal batteries (Li-metal) were introduced in the 1980s, but
instability with metallic lithium on the anode prompted a recall in 1991. Its high specific
energy and good power density are challenging manufacturers to revisit this powerful
chemistry again. Enhanced safety may be possible by mixing metallic lithium with tin and
silicon. Experimental Li-metal batteries achieve a high 300Wh/kg, a specific energy that is
of special interest to the electric vehicle. (More is in Chapter 2, “Experimental
Rechargeable Batteries,” on page 79.)

Getting to Know the Battery

The battery dictates the speed with which mobility advances. So important is this portable
energy source that any incremental improvement opens new doors for many products. The
better the battery, the greater our liberty will become.

Besides packing more energy into the battery, engineers have also made strides in
reducing power consumption of portable equipment. These advancements go hand-in-
hand with longer runtimes but are often counteracted by the demand for additional
features and more power. The end result is similar runtimes but enhanced performance.

The battery has not advanced at the same speed as microelectronics, and the industry
has only gained 8 to 10 percent in capacity per year during the last two decades. This is a
far cry from Moore’s Law2 that specifies a doubling of the number of transistors in an
integrated circuit every two years. Instead of two years, the capacity of lithium-ion took
10 years to double.

In parallel with achieving capacity gain, battery makers must also focus on improving
manufacturing methods to ensure better safety. The recent recall of millions of lithium-
cobalt packs caused by thermal runaway is a reminder of the inherent risk in condensing
too much energy into a small package. Better manufacturing practices should make such
recalls a thing of the past. A generation of Li-ion batteries is emerging that are built for
longevity. These batteries have a lower specific energy (capacity) than those for portable
electronics and are increasingly being considered for the electric powertrain of vehicles.

People want an inexhaustible pool of energy in a package that is small, cheap, safe and
clean, and the battery industry can only fulfill this desire partially. As long as the battery
is an electrochemical process, there will be limitations on capacity and life span. Only a
revolutionary new storage system could satisfy the unquenchable thirst for mobile power,
and it’s anyone’s guess whether this will be lithium-air, the fuel cell, or some other
ground-breaking new power generator, such as atomic fusion. For most of us, the big
break might not come in our lifetime.

Meeting Expectations
Many battery novices argue, wrongly, that all advanced battery systems offer high energy
densities, deliver thousands of charge/discharge cycles and come in a small size. While
some of these attributes are possible, this is not attainable in one and the same battery in a
given chemistry.

A battery may be designed for high specific energy and small size, but the cycle life is
short. Another battery may be built for high load capabilities and durability, and the cells
are bulky and heavy. A third pack may have high capacity and long service life, but the
manufacturing cost is out of reach for the average consumer. Battery manufacturers are
well aware of customer needs and respond by offering products that best suit the
application intended. The mobile phone industry is an example of this clever adaptation.
The emphasis is on small size, high specific energy and low price. Longevity is less
important here.

The terms nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) do not automatically
mean high specific energy. For example, a long-life NiMH for the electric powertrain in
vehicles has a specific energy of only 45Wh/kg, a value that is not much higher than lead
acid. The consumer NiMH, in comparison, has about 90Wh/kg. The Li-ion battery for
hybrid and electric vehicles can have a specific energy as low as 60Wh/kg. Li-ion for cell
phones and laptops, on the other hand, has two to three times this specific energy.

The Cadex-sponsored website www.BatteryUniversity.com generates many interesting
questions. Those that stand out are, “What’s the best battery for a remote-controlled car, a
portable solar station, an electric bicycle or electric car?” There is no universal battery that
fits all needs and each application is unique. Although lithium-ion is often the preferred
choice, high price and the need for an approved protection circuit may eliminate this
battery for small manufacturers. Removing Li-ion brings us back to the nickel- and lead-
based options.

Will the battery replace the internal combustion engine of cars? It may come as a
surprise to many that we don’t yet have an economical battery that allows long-distance
driving and lasts as long as the car. Batteries work reasonably well for portable
applications such as cell phones, laptops and digital cameras. Low power enables an
economical price; the relative short battery life is acceptable in consumer products; and we
can live with a decreasing runtime. While the fading capacity can be annoying, it does not
endanger safety.

As we examine the characteristics of battery systems and compare alternate power
sources, such as the fuel cell and the internal combustion (IC) engine, we realize that the
battery is best suited for portable and stationary systems. For motive applications such as
trains, ocean going ships and aircraft, the battery lacks capacity, endurance and reliability.
The dividing line, in my opinion, lies with the electric vehicle. We now compare the
battery as a power source and begin with the positive traits, and then look at the
limitations.

Energy storage

Batteries store energy well and for a considerable length of time. Primary batteries (non-
rechargeable) hold more energy than secondary (rechargeable), and the self-discharge is
lower. Alkaline cells are good for 10 years with minimal losses. Lead-, nickel- and
lithium-based batteries need periodic recharges to compensate for lost power.

Specific energy (Capacity)

A battery may hold adequate energy for portable use, but this does not transfer equally
well for large mobile and stationary systems. For example, a 100kg (220lb) battery
produces about 10kWh of energy — an IC engine of the same weight generates 100kW.

Responsiveness

Batteries have a huge advantage over other power sources in being ready to deliver on
short notice — think of the quick action of the camera flash! There is no warm-up, as is
the case with the internal combustion (IC) engine; the power from the battery flows within
a fraction of a second. In comparison, a jet engine takes several seconds to gain power, a
fuel cell require a few minutes, and the cold steam engine of a locomotive needs hours to
build up steam.

Power bandwidth

Rechargeable batteries have a wide power bandwidth, a quality that is shared with the
diesel engine. In comparison, the bandwidth of the fuel cell is narrow and works best
within a fixed load. Jet engines also have a limited power bandwidth with low low-end
torque. Jet engines operate most efficiently at a defined revolution-per-minute (RPM).

Environment

The battery runs clean and stays reasonably cool. Sealed cells have no exhaust, are quiet
and do not vibrate. This is in sharp contrast with the IC engine and larger fuel cells that
require noisy compressors and cooling fans. The IC engine also needs air and exhausts
toxic gases.

Efficiency

The battery is highly efficient. Below 70 percent charge, the charge efficiency is close to
100 percent and the discharge losses are only a few percent. In comparison, the energy
efficiency of the fuel cell is 20 to 60 percent, and the thermal engine is 25 to 30 percent.
(At optimal air intake speed and temperature, the GE90-115 on the Boeing 777 jetliner is
37 percent efficient.)

Installation

The sealed battery operates in any position and offers good shock and vibration tolerance.
This benefit does not transfer to the flooded batteries that must be installed in the upright
position. Most IC engines must also be positioned in the upright position and mounted on
shock- absorbing dampers to reduce vibration. Thermal engines also need air and an
exhaust.

Operating cost

Lithium- and nickel-based batteries are best suited for portable devices; lead acid batteries
are economical for wheeled mobility and stationary applications. Cost and weight make
batteries impractical for electric powertrains of larger vehicles. The price of a 1,000-watt
battery (1kW) is roughly $1,000 and it has a life span of about 2,500 hours. Adding the
replacement cost of $0.40/h and an average of $0.10/kWh for charging, the cost per kWh
comes to about $0.50. The IC engine costs less to build per watt and lasts for about 4,000
hours. This brings the cost per 1kWh to about $0.34 (see Table 11-3 on page 259).

Maintenance

With the exception of watering of flooded lead batteries and discharging NiCds to prevent
“memory,” rechargeable batteries require low maintenance. Service includes cleaning of
corrosion buildup on the outside terminals and applying periodic performance checks.

Service life

The rechargeable battery has a relatively short service life and ages even if not in use. In
consumer products, the 3- to 5-year lifespan is satisfactory. This is not acceptable for
larger batteries in industry, and makers of the hybrid and electric vehicles guarantee their
batteries for 8 to 10 years. The fuel cell delivers 2,000 to 5,000 hours of service and,
depending on temperature, large stationary batteries are good for 5 to 20 years.

Temperature extremes

Like molasses, cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction and batteries do not
perform well below freezing (see Chapter 5, “Discharging at High and Low
Temperatures,” on page 141). The fuel cell shares the same problem, but the internal
combustion engine does well once warmed up. Charging must always be done above
freezing. Operating at a high temperature provides a performance boost but this causes
rapid aging due to added stress.

Charge time

Here, the battery has an undisputed disadvantage. Lithium- and nickel-based systems take
1 to 3 hours to charge; lead acid typically takes 14 hours. In comparison, filling up a
vehicle only takes a few minutes. Although some electric vehicles can be charged to 80
percent in less than one hour on a high-power outlet, users of electric vehicles will need to
make adjustments.

Disposal

Nickel-cadmium and lead acid batteries contain hazardous material and cannot be
disposed of in landfills. Nickel-metal-hydrate and lithium systems are environmentally
friendly and can be disposed of with regular household items in small quantities.
Authorities recommend that all batteries be recycled.

Battery Definitions

Batteries come in all shapes and sizes and there could be as many types as there are
species of dog. Rather than giving batteries unique names as we do with pets, we
distinguish batteries by chemistry, voltage, size, specific energy (capacity), specific power,
(power delivery) and more. A battery can operate as a single cell to power a cellular
phone, or be connected in series to deliver several hundred volts to serve a UPS
(uninterruptible power supply system) and electric powertrains for a vehicle. Some
batteries have high capacity but cannot deliver much power, while a starter battery has a
relatively low capacity but can crank the engine with 300A.

The largest battery systems are used for grid storage to store and delivery energy from
renewable power sources such as wind turbines and solar systems. A 30-megawatt (MW)
wind farm uses a storage battery of about 15MW. This is the equivalent of 20,000 starter
batteries and costs about $10 million. One megawatt feeds 50 houses or a super Walmart
store. Let’s now examine each of the battery characteristics further.

Chemistry

The most common chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium. Each system requires its own
charging algorithm. Unless provisions are made to change the charge setting, different
battery chemistries cannot be interchanged in the same charger. Also observe the
chemistry when shipping and disposing of batteries; each type has a different regulatory
requirement.

Voltage

Voltage describes the nominal open circuit voltage (OCV), which varies with chemistry
and number of cells connected in series. Always observe the correct voltage when
connecting to a load or a charger. Do not proceed if the voltage does not agree.

Capacity

Capacity represents the specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Manufacturers often
overrate a battery by giving a higher Ah rating than it can provide. You can use a battery
with different Ah (but correct voltage), provided the rating is high enough. Chargers have
some tolerance to batteries with different Ah ratings. A larger battery will take longer to
charge than a small one.

Cold cranking amps (CCA)

CCA specifies the ability to draw high load current at –18°C (0°F) on starter batteries.
Different norms specify dissimilar load durations and end voltages. (For more information
on BCI, IEC, DIN norms, see “Abbreviation / Conversion,” on page 303)

Specific energy and energy density

Specific energy or gravimetric energy density defines the battery capacity in weight
(Wh/kg); energy density or volumetric energy density is given in size (Wh/l). A battery can
have a high specific energy but poor specific power (load capability), as is the case with
an alkaline battery. Another battery may have a low specific energy but can deliver high
specific power, as with the supercapacitor. Specific energy is synonymous with battery
capacity and runtime.

Specific power

Specific power or gravimetric power density indicates the loading capability, or the
amount of current the battery can provide. Batteries for power tools exhibit high specific
power but have reduced specific energy (capacity). Specific power is synonymous with
low internal resistance and the delivery of power.

C-rates

C-rates specify charge and discharge currents. At 1C, the battery charges and discharges at
a current that is par with the marked Ah rating; at 0.5C the current is half, and at 0.1C it is
one tenth. On charge, 1C charges a good battery in about one hour; 0.5C takes 2 hours and
0.1C 10 to 14 hours (more in Chapter 5, “What Is C-rate?” on page 135).

Load

Also known as electromotive force (EMF), the load draws energy from the battery.
Internal battery resistance and depleting state-of-charge cause the voltage to drop.

Watts and Volt-amps (VA)

Power drawn from a battery is expressed in watts (W) or volt-amps (VA). Watt is the real
power that is being metered; VA is the apparent power that determines the wiring sizing
and the circuit breakers. On a purely resistive load, watt and VA readings are alike; a
reactive load such as an inductive motor or florescent light causes a drop in the power
factor (pf) from the ideal one (1) to 0.7 or lower. For example, a pf of 0.7 has a power
efficiency of 70.

Function of Primary Batteries
This book focuses on rechargeable batteries but also recognizes the importance of non-
rechargeable or primary batteries. With the trend towards rechargeable or secondary
batteries, primary batteries continue to fill an important niche market in applications such
as wristwatches, remote controls, electric keys and children’s toys. Primary batteries also
assist when charging is impractical or impossible, such as military combat, rescue
missions and forest-fire services. Other applications of primary batteries are tire pressure
gauges in cars and trucks, transmitters for bird tracking, pacemakers for heart patients,
intelligent drill bits for mining, as well as light beacons and remote repeater stations. High
specific energy, long storage times and operational readiness make this battery well suited
for such applications. The battery can be carried to remote locations and used instantly,
even after long storage. Most primary batteries are inexpensive, readily available and
environmentally friendly.

Carbon-zinc, also known as the Leclanché battery, is the least expensive battery and
comes with consumer devices when batteries are included. These general purpose batteries
are used for applications with low power drain, such as remote controls, flashlights,
children’s toys and wall clocks. One of the most common primary batteries for consumers
is the alkaline-manganese, or alkaline for short. Lewis Urry invented it in 1949 while
working with the Eveready Battery Company Laboratory in Parma, Ohio. Alkaline
delivers more energy at higher load currents than carbon-zinc. Best of all, alkaline does
not leak when depleted, as carbon-zinc does. On the negative side, alkaline is more
expensive than carbon-zinc.

Primary batteries have one of the highest energy densities. Although secondary batteries
have improved, a regular household alkaline provides 50 percent more energy than
lithium-ion. The most energy-dense primary is the lithium battery made for film cameras
and military combat. It holds more than three times the energy of lithium-ion and comes in
various blends, such as lithium-metal, lithium manganese dioxide, lithium-sulfur dioxide,
lithium-thionyl chloride, lithium oxygen and others. Figure 1-9 compares the typical
gravimetric energy densities of lead acid, NiMH, Li-ion, alkaline and lithium primary
batteries.

Figure 1-9: Specific energy comparison of secondary and primary batteries

Secondary batteries are typically rated at 1C; alkaline uses much lower discharge currents.

Courtesy of Cadex

Specific energy indicates the energy a battery can hold. This, however, does not
guarantee delivery. Primary batteries tend to have high internal resistance, which limits the
discharge to light loads such as remote controls, flashlights and portable entertainment
devices. Digital cameras are borderline — a power drill on alkaline would be unthinkable.

Manufacturers of primary batteries only specify specific energy; specific power (ability
to deliver power) is not published. While most secondary batteries are rated at a discharge
current of 1C, the capacity of primary batteries is measured by discharging them at a very
low current of 25mA, or a fraction of a C. In addition, the batteries are allowed to go down
to a very low voltage of 0.8 volts per cell. This evaluation method provides impressive
readings on paper, but the results are poor under a more demanding load.

To compare primary and secondary batteries side by side, we discharge both types with
a current of 1C and plot the results as “Actual” beside the already plotted “Rated,” which
the manufacturer provides (Figure 1-10). While the primary batteries do well on the rated
capacity with load currents similar to a portable entertainment device, secondary batteries
have lower capacities but are more resilient at a load of 1C.

The reason for the sharp performance drop on primary batteries is the high internal
resistance, which causes the voltage to drop under load. The already high resistance
increases further as the battery depletes on discharge. When the battery goes flat on a
digital camera, for example, precious capacity is often left behind. A spent alkaline can
often power a kitchen clock for two years. Figure 1-10 shows the largest discrepancy
between “Rated” and “Actual” on alkaline. A long-life alkaline (not shown on chart) will
deliver better results.

Figure 1-10: Energy comparison under load. ”Rated” refers to a mild discharge; “Actual” is a load at 1C. High
internal resistance limits alkaline battery to light loads.

Courtesy of Cadex

Table 1-11 illustrates the capacity of standard alkaline batteries with loads that are
typical of personal entertainment devices or small flashlights. Discharging at fractional C-
rates produces high capacities; increasing the discharge rate would drastically reduce it.

Table 1-11: Alkaline specifications. The discharge resembles entertainment devices with low loads.

Courtesy of Panasonic

The use of primary batteries can be expensive, and the inability to recharge increases
the cost of power by about thirty fold over secondary batteries. The pricing issue becomes
even more acute if the packs are being replaced after each mission, regardless of length of
service. Discarding partially used batteries is common, especially in fleet applications and
critical missions. It is more convenient and safer to simply issue the troops fresh packs
with each call rather than estimating the remaining state-of-charge. A US Army general
once said that half of the batteries discarded still have 50 percent energy left.

Estimating the battery state-of-charge would help, but such instruments are expensive
and inaccurate. The most basic method is measuring the open circuit voltage and reading
the internal resistance by applying a brief load and checking the voltage drop. A large
voltage differential would relate to rising resistance, a hint to the end of life. A more
accurate way is to count the out-flowing energy, a measurement that is also known as
coulomb counting, but this requires expensive circuitry (see Chapter 9, “Coulomb
Counting,” on page 217). Due to high cost and inherent inaccuracies, fuel gauges are
seldom used on primary batteries.

Choices of Secondary Batteries
The book now shifts to rechargeable batteries and examines today’s most popular systems.
Points of interest are specific energy, years of service life, load characteristics, safety,
price, self-discharge, environmental issues, maintenance requirements, and disposal.

Lead Acid — One of the oldest rechargeable battery systems; is rugged, forgiving if
abused and economical in price; has a low specific energy and limited cycle life. Lead acid
is used for wheelchairs, golf cars, personnel carriers, emergency lighting and
uninterruptible power supply (UPS).

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) — Mature and well understood; is used where long service life,
high discharge current, extreme temperatures and economical price are of importance. Due
to environmental concerns, NiCd is being replaced with other chemistries. Main
applications are power tools, two-way radios, aircraft and UPS.

Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) — A practical replacement for NiCd; has higher specific
energy with fewer toxic metals. NiMH is used for medical instruments, hybrid cars and
industrial applications. NiMH is available in AA and AAA cells for consumer use.

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) — Most promising battery systems; is used for portable consumer
products as well as electric powertrains for vehicles; is more expensive than nickel- and
lead acid systems and needs protection circuit for safety.

Table 1-12 compares the characteristics of four commonly used rechargeable battery
systems showing average performance ratings at time of publication.

Table 1-12: Characteristics of commonly used rechargeable batteries
The figures are based on average ratings of commercial batteries at time of publication; experimental batteries with
above-average ratings are excluded.

1 Internal resistance of a battery pack varies with milliampere-hour (mAh) rating, wiring and number of cells.
Protection circuit of lithium-ion adds about 100mW.
2 Based on 18650 cell size. Cell size and design determines internal resistance.
3 Cycle life is based on battery receiving regular maintenance.
4 Cycle life is based on the depth of discharge (DoD). Shallow DoD improves cycle life.
5 Self-discharge is highest immediately after charge. NiCd loses 10% in the first 24 hours, then declines to 10% every
30 days. High temperature increases self-discharge.
6 Internal protection circuits typically consume 3% of the stored energy per month.
7 The traditional voltage is 1.25V; 1.2V is more commonly used.
8 Low internal resistance reduces the voltage drop under load and Li-ion is often rated higher than 3.6V/cell. Cells
marked 3.7V and 3.8V are fully compatible with 3.6V.
9 Capable of high current pulses; needs time to recuperate.
10 Applies to discharge only; charge temperature is more confined.
11 Maintenance may be in the form of equalizing or topping charge to prevent sulfation.

The lithium-ion family is divided into three major battery types, so named by their
cathode oxides, which are cobalt, manganese and phosphate. (More information is in
Chapter 2, “Types of Lithium-ion Batteries,” on page 49.) The characteristics of these Li-
ion systems are as follows.

o Lithium-ion-cobalt or lithium-cobalt (LiCoO2): Has high specific energy with
moderate load capabilities and modest service life. Applications include cell phones,
laptops, digital cameras and wearable products.

o Lithium-ion-manganese or lithium-manganese (LiMn2O4): Is capable of high
charge and discharge currents but has low specific energy and modest service life;
used for power tools, medical instruments and electric powertrains.

o Lithium-ion-phosphate or lithium-phosphate (LiFePO4): Is similar to lithium-
manganese; nominal voltage is 3.3V/cell; offers long cycle life, has a good safe
record but exhibits higher self-discharge than other Li-ion systems.

There are many other lithium-ion based batteries, some of which are described in “Types of Lithium-ion Batteries,” on
page 49. Missing in the list is also the popular lithium-ion-polymer, or Li-polymer. While Li-ion systems get their name
from their unique cathode materials, Li-polymer differs by having a distinct architecture (more is in Chapter 2, “Lithium-
polymer,” on page 60). Nor is the rechargeable lithium-metal mentioned. This battery requires further development to
control dendrite growth, which can compromise safety. Once solved, Li-metal will become an alternative battery choice
with extraordinary high specific energy and good specific power. (More is in Chapter 2, “Experimental Rechargeable
Batteries,” on page 79.)

1 All references to dollar ($) pricing are in US dollars at the time of writing.

2 In 1965, Gordon Moore said that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit would double every two years. The
prediction became true and is being carried into the 21st century. Applied to a battery, Moore’s Law would shrink a
starter battery in a car to the size of a coin.


Chapter 2 | Battery Types

Lead-based Batteries

Invented by the French physician Gaston Planté in 1859, lead acid was the first
rechargeable battery for commercial use. Today, the flooded lead acid is common in
automobiles, golf cars, forklifts and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).

The first lead acids were flooded, and during the mid 1970s, the sealed or maintenance-
free version appeared. The liquid electrolyte is transformed into moistened separators and
the sealed enclosure fitted with safety valves to control venting of gas during charge and
discharge. The sealed lead acid has the advantage that it can operate in any position.

Maintenance-free Lead Acid
Driven by the advantage of being maintenance-free, two types emerged: the sealed lead
acid (SLA), also known as gel cell, and the valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA). The
systems are similar and no scientific convention exists as to what constitutes an SLA and a
VRLA. (Engineers may argue that the term “sealed lead acid” is a misnomer because no
lead acid battery can be totally sealed.)

We identify SLA as having a capacity range up to 30Ah. Typical uses are personal UPS
for PC backup, small emergency lighting units, ventilators for healthcare patients and
wheelchairs. Known for its economical price, dependable service and minimal
maintenance, the SLA is the preferred choice for biomedical and healthcare instruments in
hospitals and retirement homes. The VRLA battery is larger and mostly used for stationary
applications. Capacities range from 30Ah to several thousand Ah and make up larger UPS
systems. These may be cellular repeater towers, cable distribution centers, Internet hubs
and utilities, as well as power backup for banks, hospitals, airports and military
installations.

Unlike the flooded lead acid, both the SLA and VRLA are designed with a low over-
voltage potential to prohibit the battery from reaching its gas-generating potential during
charge. Excess charging causes gassing and water depletion. Consequently, the SLA and
VRLA can never be charged to their full potential.

Applying the right voltage limit when charging lead acid systems is critical and any
voltage level is a compromise. A low voltage may shelter the battery but this causes poor
performance and a buildup of sulfation on the negative plate. A high voltage limit
improves performance but it promotes grid corrosion on the positive plate. The corrosion
is permanent and cannot be reversed. Temperature changes the voltage threshold.

Lead acid does not lend itself to fast charging and a fully saturated charge requires 14
to16 hours. The battery must always be stored at full state-of-charge. Dwelling on low
charge causes sulfation, a condition that robs the battery of performance. (See Chapter 8,
“Sulfation,” on page 185.) The addition of carbon on the negative electrode helps to
alleviate some of these problems but lowers the specific energy.

Lead acid is not subject to memory, but correct charge and float voltages are important
to get a long life (more on charging in Chapter 4, “Charging Lead Acid,” on page 110).
Charge retention is best among rechargeable batteries, and while NiCd loses
approximately 40 percent of its stored energy in three months, lead acid self-discharges
the same amount in one year.

Lead acid batteries are inexpensive on cost-per-watt but are less suitable for repeated
deep cycling. A full discharge causes strain and each discharge/charge cycle permanently
robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. This loss is tiny while the battery is in good
operating condition; however, the fading becomes more acute once the performance drops
below 80 percent of its nominal capacity. This wear-down characteristic also applies to all
batteries in various degrees.

Depending on the depth of discharge and operating temperature, lead acid for deep-
cycle applications provides 200 to 300 discharge/charge cycles. The primary reasons for
its relatively short cycle life are grid corrosion on the positive electrode, depletion of the
active material and expansion of the positive plates. These changes are most prevalent at
higher operating temperatures and are permanent.

The optimum operating temperature for a VRLA battery is 25°C (77°F). As a guideline,
every 8°C (15°F) rise above this temperature cuts battery life in half. A lead acid that
would last for 10 years at 25°C would only be good for five years if continuously operated
at 33°C (95°F). The same battery would endure a little more than one year at a
temperature of 42°C (107°F).

Lead acid batteries are rated at a 5-hour (0.2C) and 20-hour (0.05C) discharge, and the
battery performs best when discharged slowly. The capacity readings are notably higher at
a slow discharge than with a fast rate. Lead acid can, however, deliver high pulse currents
of several C if done for only a few seconds. This makes the lead acid well suited as a
starter battery, also known as starter-light-ignition (SLI). The high lead content and the
sulfuric acid make lead acid environmentally unfriendly. The following section looks at
the different architectures and explains why one battery type does not fit all.

Starter and Deep-cycle Batteries
The starter battery is designed to crank an engine with a momentary high power burst; the
deep-cycle battery, on the other hand, is built to provide continuous power for a
wheelchair or golf car. From the outside both batteries look alike; however, there are
fundamental differences in design. While the starter battery is made for high peak power
and does not like deep cycling, the deep-cycle battery has a moderate power output but
permits cycling. Let’s examine the architectural difference between these batteries further.

Starter batteries have a CCA rating imprinted in amperes. CCA refers to cold cranking
amps, which represents the amount of current a battery can deliver at cold temperature.
SAE J537 specifies 30 seconds of discharge at –18°C (0°F) at the rated CCA ampere
without dropping below 7.2 volts. (SAE stands for Society of Automotive Engineers.)

Starter batteries have a very low internal resistance, and the manufacturer achieves this
by adding extra plates for maximum surface area (Figure 2-1). The plates are thin and the
lead is applied in a sponge-like form that has the appearance of fine foam. This method
extends the surface area of the plates to achieve low resistance and maximum power. Plate
thickness is less important here because the discharge is short and the battery is recharged
while driving; the emphasis is on power rather than capacity.

Figure 2-1: Starter battery

The starter battery has many thin plates in parallel to achieve low resistance with high surface area. The starter battery
does not allow deep cycling.

Courtesy of Cadex

Deep-cycle lead acid batteries for golf cars, scooters and wheelchairs are built for
maximum capacity and high cycle count. The manufacturer achieves this by making the
lead plates thick (Figure 2-2). Although the battery is designed for cycling, full discharges
still induce stress, and the cycle count depends on the depth-of-discharge (DoD). Deep-
cycle batteries are marked in Ah or minute of runtime.

Figure 2-2: Deep-cycle battery

The deep-cycle battery has thick plates for improved cycling abilities. The deep-cycle battery generally allows about 300
cycles.

Courtesy of Cadex

A starter battery cannot be swapped with a deep-cycle battery and vice versa. While an
inventive senior may be tempted to install a starter battery instead of the more expensive
deep-cycle on his wheelchair to save money, the starter battery won’t last because the thin
sponge-like plates would quickly dissolve with repeated deep cycling. There are
combination starter/deep-cycle batteries available for trucks, buses, public safety and
military vehicles, but these units are big and heavy. As a simple guideline, the heavier the
battery is, the more lead it contains, and the longer it will last. Table 2-3 compares the
typical life of starter and deep-cycle batteries when deep-cycled.

Table 2-3: Cycle performance of starter and deep-cycle batteries. Starter batteries and deep-cycle batteries have their
unique purposes and cannot be interchanged.

Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
AGM is an improved lead acid battery with higher performance than the regular flooded
type. Instead of submerging the plates into liquid electrolyte, the electrolyte is absorbed in
a mat of fine glass fibers. This makes the battery spill-proof, allowing shipment without
hazardous material restrictions. The plates can be made flat like the standard flooded lead
acid and placed in a rectangular case, or wound into a conventional cylindrical cell.

AGM has very low internal resistance, is capable of delivering high currents and offers
long service even if occasionally deep-cycled. AGM has a lower weight and provides
better electrical reliability than the flooded lead acid type. It also stands up well to high
and low temperatures and has a low self-discharge. Other advantages over regular lead
acid are a better specific power rating (high load current) and faster charge times (up to
five times faster). The negatives are slightly lower specific energy and higher
manufacturing costs.

AGM batteries are commonly built to size and are found in high-end vehicles to run
power-hungry accessories such as heated seats, steering wheels, mirrors and windshields.
Starter batteries also power navigation systems, traction and stability control, as well as
premium stereos. NASCAR and other auto racing leagues choose AGM products because
they are vibration resistant. Start-stop batteries are almost exclusively AGM. The classic
flooded type is not robust enough and repeated micro cycling would induce capacity fade.
(See Chapter 8, “Environment,” on page 190.)

AGM is the preferred battery for upscale motorcycles. It reduces acid spilling in an
accident, lowers weight for the same performance and allows installation at odd angles.
Because of good performance at cold temperatures, AGM batteries are also used for
marine, motor home and robotic applications.

As with all gelled and sealed units, AGM batteries are sensitive to overcharging. These
batteries can be charged to 2.40V/cell (and higher) without problem; however, the float
charge should be reduced to between 2.25 and 2.30V/cell (summer temperatures may
require lower voltages). Automotive charging systems for flooded lead acid often have a
fixed float voltage setting of 14.40V (2.40V/cell), and a direct replacement with a sealed
unit could spell trouble by exposing the battery to undue overcharge on a long drive.
(More is in Chapter 4, “Charging Lead Acid,” on page 110.)

AGM and other gelled electrolyte batteries do not like heat and should be installed
away from the engine compartment. Manufacturers recommend halting charge if the
battery core reaches 49°C (120°F). While regular lead acid batteries need a topping charge
every six months to prevent the buildup of sulfation, AGM batteries are less prone to this
and can sit in storage for longer before a charge becomes necessary.

Ever since Cadillac introduced the electric starter motor in 1912, lead acid remained the
natural choice of battery to crank the engine. Lead is toxic and environmentalists would
like to replace it with another chemistry. Europe succeeded in keeping nickel-cadmium
batteries out of consumer products, and authorities try to do the same with the starter
battery. The choice is lithium-ion, but at a price tag of $3,000, it won’t fly. Regulators
hope that advancements being made in the electric powertrain will lower the cost, but such
a large price reduction to match lead acid may not be possible. Lead acid will continue to
be the battery of choice to crank the engines.

New Lead Acid Systems
Lead acid batteries continue to hold a leading position, especially in wheeled mobility and
stationary applications. This strong market appeal entices manufacturers to explore ways
to make the batteries better. Improvements have been made and some claims are so
promising that one questions the trustworthiness. It is no secret that researchers prefer
publishing the positive attributes while keeping the negatives under wraps. The following
information on lead acid developments was obtained from available printed resources at
the time of writing.

Firefly Energy

The composite plate material of the Firefly Energy battery is based on a lead acid variant
that is lighter, longer living and has higher active material utilization than current lead acid
systems. The battery includes foam electrodes for the negative plates, which gives it a
performance that is comparable to NiMH but at lower manufacturing costs. Design
concerns include microtubule blockage through crystal growth during low charge
conditions. In addition, crystal expansion causes a reduction of the surface area, which
will result in lower capacity with aging. Pricing is also a concern. It currently costs about
$450 to manufacture a Firefly battery as opposed to $150 for a regular lead acid version.
Firefly Energy is a spin-off of Caterpillar and went into bankruptcy in 2010.

Altraverda Bipolar

Similar to the Firefly Energy battery, the Altraverda battery is based on lead. It uses a
proprietary titanium sub-oxide ceramic structure, called Ebonex®, for the grid and an
AGM separator. The un-pasted plate contains Ebonex® particles in a polymer matrix that
holds a thin lead alloy foil on the external surfaces. With 50–60Wh/kg, the specific energy
is about one-third larger than regular lead acid and is comparable with NiCd. Based in the
UK, Altraverda works with East Penn in the USA, and the battery is well suited for higher
voltage applications.

Axion Power

The Axion Power e3 Supercell is a hybrid battery/ultracapacitor in which the positive
electrode consists of standard lead dioxide and the negative electrode is activated carbon,
while maintaining an assembly process that is similar to lead acid. The Axion Power
battery offers faster recharge times and longer cycle life on repeated deep discharges than
what is possible with regular lead acid systems. This opens the door for the start-stop
application in micro-hybrid cars. The lead-carbon combination of the Axion Power battery
lowers the lead content on the negative plate, which results in a weight reduction of 30
percent compared to a regular lead acid. This, however, also lowers the specific energy to
15–25Wh/kg instead of 30–50Wh/kg, which a regular lead acid battery normally provides.

CSIRO Ultrabattery

The CSIRO Ultrabattery combines an asymmetric ultracapacitor and a lead acid battery in
each cell. The capacitor enhances the power and lifetime of the battery by acting as a
buffer during charging and discharging, prolonging the lifetime by a factor of four over
customary lead acid systems and producing 50 percent more power. The manufacturer also
claims that the battery is 70 percent cheaper to produce than current hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV) batteries. CSIRO batteries are undergoing road trials in a Honda Insight HEV and
show good results. Furukawa Battery in Japan licensed the technology. The CSIRO
battery is also being tested for start-stop applications in micro-hybrid cars to replace the
lead acid starter battery. This battery promises extended life when exposed to frequent
start-stop conditions and is able to take a fast charge.

EEStor

This is the mystery battery/ultracapacitor combination that receives much media attention.
The battery is based on a modified barium titanate ceramic powder and claims a specific
energy of up to 280Wh/kg, higher than lithium-ion. The company is very secretive about
their invention and releases only limited information. Some of their astonishing claims
are: One-tenth of the weight of a NiMH battery in a hybrid application, no deep-cycle
wear-down, three- to six-minute charge time, no hazardous material, similar
manufacturing costs to lead acid, and a self-discharge that is only 0.02 percent per month,
a fraction of that of lead acid and Li-ion.

In summary, Table 2-4 spells out the advantages and limitations of common lead acid
batteries in use today. The table does not include the new chemistries discussed above or
those under development.


Table 2-4: Advantages and limitations of lead acid batteries
Flooded and dry systems are similar.

Nickel-based Batteries

The following section describes nickel-based batteries, and we begin with nickel-cadmium
(NiCd), an older chemistry for which extensive data is available. Much of these
characteristics also apply to nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), as these two systems are close
cousins. The toxicity of NiCd is limiting this solid and robust battery to specialty
applications.

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)

The nickel-cadmium battery, invented by Waldmar Jungner in 1899, offered several
advantages over lead acid, but the materials were expensive and the early use was
restricted. Developments lagged until 1932 when attempts were made to deposit the active
materials inside a porous nickel-plated electrode. Further improvements occurred in 1947
by trying to absorb the gases generated during charge. This led to the modern sealed NiCd
battery in use today.

For many years, NiCd was the preferred battery choice for two-way radios, emergency
medical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. In the late 1980s, the
ultra-high-capacity NiCd rocked the world with capacities that were up to 60 percent
higher than the standard NiCd. This was done by packing more active material into the
cell, but the gain was met with the side effects of higher internal resistance and a reduced
cycle count.

The standard NiCd remains one of the most rugged and forgiving batteries but needs
proper care to attain longevity. It is perhaps for this reason that NiCd is the favorite battery
of many engineers. Table 2-5 lists the advantages and limitations of the standard NiCd.

Table 2-5: Advantages and limitations of NiCd batteries

Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
Research of nickel-metal-hydride started in 1967; however, instabilities with the metal-
hydride led scientists to develop the nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH) instead. Today, NiH is
mainly used in satellites (see “Nickel-hydrogen,” on page 65).

New hydride alloys discovered in the 1980s offered better stability and the development
of NiMH advanced in earnest. Today, NiMH provides 40 percent higher specific energy
than a standard NiCd, but the decisive advantage is the absence of toxic metals.

The advancements of NiMH are impressive. Since 1991, the specific energy has
doubled and the life span extended. The hype of lithium-ion may have dampened the
enthusiasm for NiMH a bit but not to the point to turn HEV makers away from this proven
technology. Batteries for the electric powertrain in vehicles must meet some of the most
demanding challenges, and NiMH has two major advantages over Li-ion here. These are
price and safety. Makers of hybrid vehicles claim that NiMH costs one-third of an
equivalent Li-ion system, and the relaxation on safety provisions contribute in part to this
price reduction.

Nickel-metal-hydride is not without drawbacks. For one, it has a lower specific energy
than Li-ion, and this is especially true with NiMH for the electric powertrain. The reader
should be reminded that NiMH and Li-ion with high energy densities are reserved for
consumer products; they would not be robust enough for the hybrid and electric vehicles.
NiMH and Li-ion for the electric powertrain have roughly one-third less capacity than
consumer batteries.

NiMH also has high self-discharge and loses about 20 percent of its capacity within the
first 24 hours, and 10 percent per month thereafter. Modifying the hydride materials
lowers the self-discharge and reduces corrosion of the alloy, but this decreases the specific
energy. Batteries for the electric powertrain make use of this modification to achieve the
needed robustness and life span.

There are strong opinions and preferences between battery chemistries, and some
experts say that NiMH will serve as an interim solution to the more promising lithium
systems. There are many hurdles surrounding Li-ion also and these are cost and safety. Li-
ion cells are not offered to the public in AA, AAA and other popular sizes in part because
of safety. Even if they were made available, Li-ion has a higher voltage compared to
nickel-based batteries.

Consumer Application

NiMH has become one of the most readily available and low-cost rechargeable batteries
for portable devices. NiMH is non-toxic and offers a higher specific energy than NiCd.
Battery manufacturers, such as Sanyo, Energizer, Duracell and GP, have recognized the
need for a durable and low-cost rechargeable battery for consumers and offer NiMH in AA
and AAA sizes. The battery manufacturers hope to persuade buyers to switch to
rechargeable batteries and reduce the environmental impact of throwaway primary cells.

The NiMH battery for the consumer market can be viewed as an alternative to the failed
reusable alkaline that appeared in the 1990s. Limited cycle life and poor loading
characteristics hindered its success. (See “Reusable Alkaline,” on page 77.)

What is of ongoing concern to the consumer using rechargeable batteries is the high
self-discharge, and NiMH behaves like a leaky basketball or bicycle tire. A flashlight or
portable entertainment device with a NiMH battery gets “flat” when put away for only a
few weeks. Having to recharge the device before each use does not sit well. The Eneloop
NiMH by Sanyo has reduced the self-discharge by a factor of six. This means that you can
store the charged battery six times longer than a regular NiMH before a recharge becomes
necessary. The drawback is a slightly lower specific energy compared to a regular NiMH.
Other NiMH manufacturers such as ReCyko by GP claim similar results.

Table 2-6 summarizes the advantages and limitations of industrial-grade NiMH. The
table does not include the Eneloop and equivalent consumer brands.


Table 2-6: Advantages and limitations of NiMH batteries

Lithium-based Batteries

Pioneer work with the lithium battery began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis, but it was not until
the early 1970s that the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries became commercially
available. Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium batteries followed in the 1980s but the
endeavor failed because of instabilities in the metallic lithium used as anode material.

Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest electrochemical potential and
provides the largest specific energy per weight. Rechargeable batteries with lithium metal
on the anode (negative electrodes)1 could provide extraordinarily high energy densities;
however, it was discovered in the mid 1980s that cycling produced unwanted dendrites on
the anode. These growth particles penetrate the separator and cause an electrical short.
When this occurs, the cell temperature rises quickly and approaches the melting point of
lithium, causing thermal runaway, also known as “venting with flame.” A large number of
rechargeable metallic lithium batteries sent to Japan were recalled in 1991 after a battery
in a mobile phone released flaming gases and inflicted burns to a man’s
face.

The inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging, shifted research to
a non-metallic solution using lithium ions. Although lower in specific energy than lithium-
metal, Li-ion is safe, provided cell manufacturers and battery packers follow safety
measures in keeping voltage and currents to secure levels (more in Chapter 3, “Protection
Circuits” on page 96). In 1991, Sony commercialized the first Li-ion battery, and today
this chemistry has become the most promising and fastest growing on the market.
Meanwhile, research continues to develop a safe metallic lithium battery.

 The specific energy of Li-ion is twice that of NiCd, and the high nominal cell voltage of
3.60V as compared to 1.20V for nickel systems contributes to this gain. Improvements in
the active materials of the electrode have the potential of further increases in specific
energy. The load characteristics are good, and the flat discharge curve offers effective
utilization of the stored energy in a desirable voltage spectrum of 3.70 to 2.80V/cell.
Nickel-based batteries
also have a flat discharge curve that ranges from 1.25 to 1.0V/cell.

In 1994, the cost to manufacture Li-ion in the 186502 cylindrical cell with a capacity of
1,100mAh was more than $10. In 2001, the price dropped to $2 and the capacity rose to
1,900mAh. Today, high energy-dense 18650 cells deliver over 3,000mAh and the costs
have dropped further. Cost reduction, increase in specific energy and the absence of toxic
material paved the road to make Li-ion the universally accepted battery for portable
application, first in the consumer industry and now increasingly also in heavy industry,
including electric powertrains for vehicles.

In 2009, roughly 38 percent of all batteries by revenue were Li-ion. Li-ion is a low-
maintenance battery, an advantage many other chemistries cannot claim. The battery has
no memory and does not need exercising (deliberate full discharge) to keep in shape. Self-
discharge is less than half that of nickel-based systems. This makes Li-ion well suited for
fuel gauge applications. The nominal cell voltage of 3.60V can directly power cell phones
and digital cameras, offering simplifications and cost reductions over multi-cell designs.
The drawbacks are the need for protection circuits to prevent abuse, as well as high price.

Types of Lithium-ion Batteries
Similar to the lead- and nickel-based architecture, lithium-ion uses a cathode (positive
electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor. The cathode is a
metal oxide and the anode consists of porous carbon. During discharge, the ions flow from
the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte and separator; charge reverses the
direction and the ions flow from the cathode to the anode. Figure 2-7 illustrates the
process.


Figure 2-7: Ion flow in lithium-ion battery.

When the cell charges and discharges, ions shuttle between cathode (positive electrode) and anode (negative electrode).
On discharge, the anode undergoes oxidation, or loss of electrons, and the cathode sees a reduction, or a gain of
electrons. Charge reverses the movement.

Li-ion batteries come in many varieties but all have one thing in common — the
catchword “lithium-ion.” Although strikingly similar at first glance, these batteries vary in
performance, and the choice of cathode materials gives them their unique personality.

Common cathode materials are Lithium Cobalt Oxide (or Lithium Cobaltate), Lithium
Manganese Oxide (also known as spinel or Lithium Manganate), Lithium Iron Phosphate,
as well as Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (or NMC)3 and Lithium Nickel Cobalt
Aluminum Oxide (or NCA). All these materials possess a theoretical specific energy with
given limits. (Lithium-ion has a theoretically capacity of about 2,000kWh. This is more
than 10 times the specific energy of a commercial Li-ion battery.)

Sony’s original lithium-ion battery used coke as the anode (coal product). Since 1997,
most Li-ion manufacturers, including Sony, have shifted to graphite to attain a flatter
discharge curve. Graphite is a form of carbon that is also used in the lead pencil. It stores
lithium-ion well when the battery is charged and has long-term cycle stability. Among the
carbon materials, graphite is the most commonly used, followed by hard and soft carbons.
Other carbons, such as carbon nanotubes, have not yet found commercial use. Figure 2-8
illustrates the voltage discharge curve of a modern Li-ion with graphite anode and the
early coke version.

Developments also occur on the anode and several additives are being tried, including
silicon-based alloys. Silicon achieves a 20 to 30 percent increase in specific energy at the
cost of lower load currents and reduced cycle life. Nano-structured lithium-titanate as an
anode additive shows promising cycle life, good load capabilities, excellent low-
temperature performance and superior safety, but the specific energy is low (see following
pages).


Figure 2-8: Voltage discharge curve of lithium-ion

A battery should have a flat voltage curve in the usable discharge range. The modern graphite anode does this better than
the early coke version.

Courtesy of Cadex

Mixing cathode and anode material allows manufacturers to strengthen intrinsic
qualities; however, enhancing one attribute may compromise another. Battery makers can,
for example, optimize the specific energy (capacity) to achieve extended runtime, increase
the specific power for improved current loading, extend service life for better longevity,
and enhance safety to endure environmental stresses. But there are drawbacks. A higher
capacity reduces the current loading; optimizing current loading lowers the specific
energy; and ruggedizing a cell for long life and improved safety increases battery size and
adds to cost due to a thicker separator. The separator is said to be the most expensive part
of a battery.

Manufacturers can attain a high specific energy and low cost relatively easily by adding
nickel in lieu of cobalt, but this makes the cell less stable. While a start-up company may
focus on high specific energy to gain quick market acceptance, safety and durability
cannot be compromised. Reputable manufacturers place high integrity on safety and
longevity.

Table 2-9 summarizes the characteristics of Li-ion with different cathode material. The
table limits the chemistries to the four most commonly used lithium-ion systems and
applies the short form to describe them. The batteries are Li-cobalt, Li-manganese, Li-
phosphate and NMC. NMC stands for nickel-manganese-cobalt, a chemistry that is
relatively new and can be tailored for applications needing either high capacity or high
loading capabilities. (More on NMC is shown on subsequent pages.) Lithium-ion-polymer
is not mentioned as this is not a unique chemistry and only differs in construction. Li-
polymer can be made in various chemistries and the most widely used format is Li-cobalt.

Table 2-9: Characteristics of the four most commonly used lithium-ion batteries
Specific energy refers to capacity (energy storage); specific power denotes load capability.

1 NMC, NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC and MCN are basically the same. The stoichiometry is usually
Li[Ni(1/3)Co(1/3)Mn(1/3)]O2. The order of Ni, Mn and Co does not matter much.
2 Application and environment govern cycle life; the numbers do not always apply correctly.
3 A fully charged battery raises the thermal runaway temperature, a partial charge lowers it.

Scientists and the media give Li-ion batteries unique names but unless you are a
scientist, this might cause confusion. Table 2-10 offers clarity by listing six of the most
common lithium-ion batteries by their full name, chemical definition, abbreviations and
short form. We then examine the attribute of each battery system further.


Table 2-10: Reference names for Li-ion batteries. The table includes the lesser known NCA and Li-titanate. We will
use the short form when appropriate.

1 Cathode material
2 Anode material

Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2)

Its high specific energy make Li-cobalt the popular choice for cell phones, laptops and
digital cameras. The battery consists of a cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite carbon
anode. The cathode has a layered structure and during discharge lithium ions move from
the anode to the cathode. The flow reverses on charge. The drawback of Li-cobalt is a
relatively short life span and limited load capabilities (specific power). Figure 2-11
illustrates the structure.


Figure 2-11: Li-cobalt structure

The cathode has a layered structure. During discharge the lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode; on charge
the flow is from anode to cathode.

Courtesy of Cadex

Li-cobalt cannot be charged and discharged at a current higher than its rating. This
means that an 18650 cell with 2,400mAh can only be charged and discharged at 2,400mA.
Forcing a fast charge or applying a load higher than 2,400mA causes overheating and
undue stress. For optimal fast charge, the manufacturer recommends a C-rate of 0.8C or
1920mA (more on C-rate is in Chapter 5, “What Is C-rate?” on page 135). The mandatory
battery protection circuit limits the charge and discharge rate to a safe level of about 1C.

Figure 2-12 summarizes the performance of Li-cobalt in terms of specific energy, or
capacity; specific power, or the ability to deliver high current; safety; performance at hot
and cold temperatures; life span reflecting cycle life and longevity; and cost. The
hexagonal spider web provides a quick and easy performance analysis of the battery
characteristics.

Figure 2-12: Snapshot of an average Li-cobalt battery

Li-cobalt excels on high specific energy but offers only moderate performance on specific power, safety and life span.

Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4)

Lithium insertion in manganese spinels was first published in the Materials Research
Bulletin in 1983. In 1996, Moli Energy commercialized a Li-ion cell with lithium
manganese oxide as a cathode material. The architecture forms a three-dimensional spinel
structure that improves ion flow on the electrode, which results in lower internal resistance
and improves current handling. A further advantage of spinel is high thermal stability and
enhanced safety, but the cycle and calendar life is limited.

Low internal cell resistance is key to fast charging and high-current discharging. In an
18650 package, Li-manganese can be discharged at currents of 20–30A with moderate
heat buildup. It is also possible to apply one-second load pulses of up to 50A. A
continuous high load at this current would cause heat buildup and the cell temperature
cannot exceed 80°C (176°F). Li-manganese is used for power tools, medical instruments,
as well as hybrid and electric vehicles.

Figure 2-13 shows the crystalline formation of the cathode in a three-dimensional
framework. This spinel structure, which is usually composed of diamond shapes
connected into a lattice, appears after initial formation.

Figure 2-13: Li-manganese structure

The cathode crystalline formation of lithium manganese oxide has a three-dimensional framework structure that appears
after initial formation. Spinel provides low resistance but has more moderate specific energy than cobalt.

Courtesy of Cadex

Li-manganese has a capacity that is roughly one-third lower compared to Li-cobalt but
the battery still offers about 50 percent more energy than nickel-based chemistries. Design
flexibility allows engineers to maximize the battery for either optimal longevity (life
span), maximum load current (specific power) or high capacity (specific energy). For
example, the long-life version in the 18650 cell has a moderate capacity of 1,100mAh; the
high-capacity version is 1,500mAh but has a reduced service life. Laptop manufacturers
would likely choose the high-capacity version for maximum runtime; whereas the maker
of cars with the electric powertrain would take the long-life version with high specific
power and sacrifice on runtime.

Figure 2-14 shows the spider web of a typical Li-manganese battery. In this chart, all
characteristics are marginal; however, newer designs have improved in terms of specific
power, safety and life span.

Figure 2-14: Snapshot of a typical Li-manganese battery

Although moderate in overall performance, newer designs of Li-manganese offer improvements in specific power, safety
and life span.

Courtesy of BCG research

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)

In 1996, the University of Texas (and other contributors) discovered phosphate as cathode
material for rechargeable lithium batteries. Li-phosphate offers good electrochemical
performance with low resistance. This is made possible with nano-scale phosphate
cathode material. The key benefits are enhanced safety, good thermal stability, tolerant to
abuse, high current rating and long cycle life. Storing a fully charged battery has minimal
impact on the life span. As trade-off, the lower voltage of 3.3V/cell reduces the specific
energy to slightly less than Li-manganese. In addition, cold temperature reduces
performance, and elevated storage temperature shortens the service life (better than lead
acid, NiCd or NiMH). Li-phosphate has a higher self-discharge than other Li-ion batteries,
which can cause balancing issues with aging. Figure 2-15 summarizes the attributes of Li-
phosphate.


Figure 2-15: Snapshot of a typical Li-phosphate battery

Li-phosphate has excellent safety and long life span but moderate specific energy and elevated self-discharge.

Courtesy of BCG research

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2)

Leading battery manufacturers focus on a cathode combination of nickel-manganese-
cobalt (NMC). Similar to Li-manganese, these systems can also be tailored to high
specific energy or high specific power, but not both. For example, NMC in an 18650 cell
for consumer use can be tweaked to 2,250mAh, but the specific power is moderate. NMC
in the same cell optimized for high specific power has a capacity of only 1,500mAh. A
silicon-based anode will be able to go to 4,000mAh; however, the specific power and the
cycle life may be compromised.

The secret of NMC lies in combining nickel and manganese. An analogy of this is table
salt, in which the main ingredients of sodium and chloride are toxic on their own but
mixing them serves as seasoning salt and food preserver. Nickel is known for its high
specific energy but low stability; manganese has the benefit of forming a spinel structure
to achieve very low internal resistance but offers a low specific energy. Combining the
metals brings out the best in each.

NMC is the battery of choice for power tools and powertrains for vehicles. The cathode
combination of one-third nickel, one-third manganese and one-third cobalt offers a unique
blend that also lowers raw material cost due to reduced cobalt content. Striking the right
balance is important and manufacturers keep their recipes a well-guarded secret. Figure 2-
16 demonstrates the characteristics of the NMC.


Figure 2-16: Snapshot of NMC

NMC has good overall performance and excels on specific energy. This battery is the preferred candidate for the electric
vehicle and has the lowest self-heating rate.

Courtesy of BCG research

Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2)

The Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide battery, or NCA, is less commonly used in
the consumer market; however, high specific energy and specific power, as well as a long
life span, get the attention of the automotive industry. Less flattering are safety and cost.
Figure 2-17 demonstrates the strong points against areas for further development.

Figure 2-17: Snapshot of NCA

High energy and power densities, as well as good life span, make the NCA a candidate for EV powertrains. High cost
and marginal safety are negatives.

Courtesy of BCG research

Lithium Titanate (Li4Ti5O12)

Batteries with lithium titanate anodes have been known since the 1980s. Li-titanate
replaces the graphite in the anode of a typical lithium-ion battery and the material forms
into a spinel structure. Li-titanate has a nominal cell voltage of 2.40V, can be fast-charged
and delivers a high discharge current of 10C, or 10 times the rated capacity. The cycle
count is said to be higher than that of a regular Li-ion; the battery is safe, has excellent
low-temperature discharge characteristics and obtains a capacity of 80 percent at –30°C (–
22°F). At 65Wh/kg, the specific energy is low. Li-titanate charges to 2.80V/cell, and the
end of discharge is 1.80V/cell. Figure 2-18 illustrates the characteristics of the Li-titanate
battery.

Figure 2-18: Snapshot of Li-titanate

Li-titanate excels in safety, low-temperature performance and life span. Efforts are being made to improve the specific
energy and lower cost.

Courtesy of BCG research

Figure 2-19 compares the specific energy of lead, nickel- and lithium-based systems.
While Li-cobalt is the clear winner by being able to store more capacity than other
systems, this only applies to specific energy. In terms of specific power (load
characteristics) and thermal stability, Li-manganese and Li-phosphate are superior. As we
move towards electric powertrains, safety and cycle life will become more important than
capacity.


Figure 2-19: Typical energy densities of lead, nickel- and lithium-based batteries
Lithium-cobalt enjoys the highest specific energy; however, manganese and phosphate are superior in terms of specific
power and thermal stability.

Courtesy of Cadex

Never was the competition to find an ideal battery more intense than today.
Manufacturers see new applications for automotive propulsion systems, as well as
stationary and grid storage, also known as load leveling. At the time of writing, the battery
industry speculates that the Li-manganese and/or NMC might be the winners for the
electric powertrain.

The experience of the battery industry has mostly been in portable applications, and the
long-term suitability of batteries for automotive use is still unknown. A clear assessment
of the cycle life, performance and long-term operating cost will only be known after
having gone through a few generations of batteries for vehicles with electric powertrains,
and more is known about the customers’ behavior and climate conditions under which the
batteries are exposed.

Lithium-polymer
The polymer hype of the early 2000s is still going strong, however, most users cannot
distinguish between a regular Li-ion and one with polymer architecture. Lithium-polymer
differs from other battery systems in the type of electrolyte used. The original polymer
design dating back to the 1970s uses a solid (dry) polymer electrolyte that resembles a
plastic-like film. This insulator allows the exchange of ions (electrically charged atoms)
and replaces the traditional porous separator that is soaked with electrolyte. A solid
polymer has a poor conductivity at room temperature and the battery must be heated to
50–60°C (122–140°F) to enable current flow. The much anticipated “true plastic battery”
promised in the early 2000s did not materialize; the conductivity could not be attained at
ambient temperature.

To make the modern Li-polymer battery conductive at room temperature, gelled
electrolyte is added. All Li-ion polymer cells today incorporate a micro porous separator
with moisture. The correct term is “Lithium-ion polymer” (Li-ion polymer or Li-polymer
for short). Li-polymer can be built on many systems, such as Li-cobalt, NMC, Li-
phosphate and Li-manganese. For this reason, Li-polymer is not considered a unique
battery chemistry. Most Li-polymer packs for the consumer market are based on Li-cobalt.

With gelled electrolyte added, what then is the difference between a normal Li-ion and
Li-ion polymer? As far as the user is concerned, the lithium polymer is essentially the
same as the lithium-ion battery. Both systems use identical cathode and anode material
and contain a similar amount of electrolyte. Although the characteristics and performance
of the two systems are alike, the Li-polymer is unique in that a micro porous electrolyte
replaces the traditional porous separator. The gelled electrolyte becomes the catalyst that
enhances the electrical conductivity. Li-polymer offers slightly higher specific energy and
can be made thinner than conventional Li-ion, but the manufacturing cost is higher by 10–
30 percent. Despite the cost disadvantage, the market share of Li-polymer is growing.

Li-polymer cells also come in a flexible foil-type case (polymer laminate or pouch cell)
that resembles a food package. While a standard Li-ion needs a rigid case to press the
electrodes together, Li-polymer uses laminated sheets that do not need compression. A
foil-type enclosure reduces the weight by more than 20 percent over the classic hard shell.
Furthermore, thin film technology liberates the format design and the battery can be made
into any shape, fitting neatly into stylish cell phones and laptops to make them smaller,
thinner and lighter. Li-polymer can be made very slim to resemble a credit card (see
Chapter 3, “Pouch Cell” page 90).

Charge and discharge characteristics of Li-polymer are identical to other Li-ion systems
and do not require a special charger. Safety issues are also similar in that protection
circuits are needed. Gas buildup during charge can cause some Li-polymer in a foil
package to swell, and equipment manufacturers must make allowances for expansion. Li-
polymer in a foil package may be less durable than Li-ion in the cylindrical package. Li-
polymer is not limited to a foil package and can also be made into a cylindrical design.

Confusion with Voltage
The nominal voltage of lithium-ion had been 3.60V/cell. This is a practical figure because
it represents three nickel-based batteries connected in series (3 x 1.2V = 3.6V). Some cell
manufacturers mark their Li-ion products as 3.70V/cell or higher. This poses a marketing
advantage because of higher watt-hours on paper (multiplying voltage times current equals
Wh). It also creates unfamiliar references of 11.1V and 14.8V when connecting three and
four cells in series. Let this higher voltage not cause confusion; equipment manufacturers
will always adhere to the nominal cell voltage of 3.60V for most Li-ion systems, and the
standard designation of 10.8V and 14.4V will always work.

How did this higher voltage creep in? To calculate the nominal voltage, we take a fully
charged battery that measures 4.20V and then fully discharge it to 3.00V at a rate of 0.5C
while plotting the average voltage. For Li-cobalt, the average voltage comes to 3.6V/cell.
Performing the same discharge on a fully charged Li-manganese with a lower internal
resistance will result in a higher average voltage. Pure spinel has one of the lowest internal
resistances, and the plotted voltage on a load moves up to between 3.70 and 3.80V/cell.
This higher midpoint voltage does not change the full-charge and end-of-discharge voltage
threshold.

The phosphate-based lithium-ion deviates from others in the Li-ion family and the
nominal cell voltages are specified at between 3.20 and 3.30V. Because of the voltage
difference, the two lithium-ion families are not interchangeable. New lithium-based
batteries will have other voltages and specialty chargers may be needed.

Safety Concerns
Safety is a sensitive issue that has attracted much media and legal attention, especially
with Li-ion batteries. Any energy storage device carries a risk, and in the 1800s steam
engines exploded and people got hurt. Carrying highly flammable gasoline in cars was a
hot topic in the early 1900s. Battery makers are obligated to meet safety requirements, but
less reputable firms may cheat — it’s “buyer be beware!” Most OEMs use only Li-ion
batteries that comply with one or several safety standards. (Standards are listed on page
302 under UL1642).

Lithium-ion has a high specific energy and even though safe, high usage by millions of
consumers is bound to generate failures. In 2006, a one-in-200,000 breakdown triggered a
recall of almost six million lithium-ion packs. Heat-related battery failures are taken very
seriously, and manufacturers choose a conservative approach. Let’s examine this closer.

Sony, the maker of the lithium-ion cells in question, points out that on rare occasions
microscopic metal particles may come into contact with other parts of the battery cell,
leading to a short circuit within the cell. Battery manufacturers strive to minimize the
presence of such particles; however, complex assembly techniques make the elimination
of all metallic dust nearly impossible. Cells with ultra-thin separators of only 20–25µm are
more susceptible to impurities than the older designs with lower Ah ratings. Whereas the
1,350mAh cell in the 18650 package could tolerate the nail penetration test, the high-
density 2,400mAh becomes a bomb when performing the same test. New safety standards
are more relevant to how batteries will be used and the UL1642 Underwriters Laboratories
(UL) test no longer mandates nail penetration for safety acceptance of lithium-based
batteries.

Li-ion using conventional metal oxides is nearing its theoretical limit on specific
energy. Rather than optimizing runtime, battery makers are improving manufacturing
methods to enhance safety and increase the calendar life. The real problem lies in rare
occasions when an electrical short develops inside the cell. In such a case, the external
protection peripherals are ineffective to stop the thermal runaway, once in progress. The
batteries recalled in 2006 passed the UL safety requirements — yet they failed in normal
use.

Let’s examine the inner workings of the cell closer. A mild short will only cause
elevated self-discharge and the heat buildup is minimal because the discharging power is
very low. If, however, enough microscopic metallic particles converge on one spot, a
sizable current begins to flow between the electrodes of the cell, and the spot heats up.

Uneven separators may also trigger cell failure. Poor conductivity due to dry area
increases the resistance, which can generate local heat spots that weaken the integrity of
the separator. Heat is always an enemy of the battery. When fully charged, elevated
temperature causes a harmful reaction between the positive and negative electrodes and
the electrolyte. As a small water leak in a faulty hydro dam can develop to a torrent and
take a structure down, so also can heat buildup damage the insulation layer in a cell and
cause an electrical short. The temperature can quickly reach 500°C (932°F), at which
point the cell catches fire or explodes. This thermal runaway that occurs is known as
“venting with flame.” “Rapid disassembly” is the preferred term by the battery industry.

If the battery gets very hot, immediately remove the device from proximity to
flammable materials and bring it to a non-combustible surface. If at all possible, put a
disintegrating laptop or cell phone outdoors and let it burn out. If the fire occurs in an
airplane, the FAA instructs flight attendants not to use fire extinguishers but recommends
the use of water or pop (soda). Water cools the adjacent material and prevents the fire
from spreading. Many research laboratories and factories also use water to put out battery
fires. Allow good ventilation while the battery burns itself out. Li-ion contains no lithium
metal and does not react with water. A fire with batteries containing lithium metal requires
a different extinguishing method.

During a thermal runaway, the high heat of the failing cell may propagate to the next
cells, causing them to become thermally unstable also. A chain reaction can occur in
which each cell disintegrates on its own timetable. A pack can thus be destroyed in a few
seconds or over several hours as each cell is being consumed one by one. To increase
safety, packs should include dividers to protect the failing cell from spreading to the
neighboring one. (In the Tesla Roadster car, each cell is encased in its own metal
compartment.) Figure 2-20 shows a laptop that was damaged by a faulty Li-ion battery.


Figure 2-20: Suspected Li-ion battery destroys laptop

The owner says the laptop popped, hissed, sizzled and began filling the room with smoke.

Courtesy of Shmuel De-Leon

While Li-ion is being scrutinized for safety, other chemistries also have problems.
Nickel- and lead-based batteries cause fires too, and some are being recalled. The reasons
of these failures are faulty separators resulting from aging, rough handling, excessive
vibration and high-temperature.

Let me assure you that lithium-ion batteries are safe and that heat-related failures are
rare. While the safety measures are especially critical for larger multi-cell batteries, small
packs for cell phones need fewer safety precautions. Table 2-21 summarizes the
advantages and limitations of Lithium-ion.

Table 2-21: Advantages and limitations of Li-ion batteries

Alternate Battery Systems

The media tells us of wonderful new batteries being developed that promise long runtimes
and are paper-thin, durable, cheap and environmental friendly. While these experimental
packs may be able to produce a voltage, the downsides are seldom revealed. The typical
shortcomings are weak load capabilities and short cycle life. Yes, even a lemon can be
made into a battery. Just poke a copper coin and galvanized nail into the innards. The
power is low and you need 500 lemons to light a flashlight bulb.

Using seawater as electrolyte has also been tried. The sea would produce an endless
supply of electricity, but the retrieved energy is only good to light a flashlight and
corrosion buildup limits the service life. Outside the much-talked-about lead, nickel- and
lithium-based batteries, other systems show promise. Let’s have a closer look at them in
roughly the sequence of age.

Nickel-iron
After inventing nickel-cadmium in 1899, Sweden’s Waldemar Jungner tried to substitute
iron for cadmium to save money; however, poor charge efficiency and gassing (hydrogen
formation) prompted him to abandon the development without securing a patent. In 1901,
Thomas Edison continued the development of the nickel-iron battery as a substitute to lead
acid for electric vehicles. He claimed nickel-iron was “far superior to batteries using lead
plates and acid” and counted on the emerging electric vehicle market. He lost out when
gasoline-powered cars took over and was deeply disappointed when the auto industry did
not adopt nickel-iron as the starter, lighting and ignition battery (SLI) for cars.

The nickel-iron battery (NiFe) uses an oxide-hydroxide cathode and an iron anode with
potassium hydroxide electrolyte and produces a nominal cell voltage of 1.2V. NiFe is
resilient to overcharge and over-discharge and can last for more than 20 years in standby
applications. Resistance to vibrations and high temperatures made NiFe the preferred
battery for mining in Europe, and during World War II the battery powered the German V-
1 flying bomb and the V-2 rockets. Other applications are railroad signaling, forklifts, and
power for stationary applications. NiFe has a low specific energy of about 50Wh/kg, has
poor low-temperature performance and exhibits high self-discharge of 20 to 40 percent a
month. This, with high manufacturing cost, prompted the industry to stay faithful to lead
acid.

Nickel-zinc
Nickel-zinc batteries are similar to nickel-cadmium in that they use an alkaline electrolyte
and a nickel electrode, but differ in voltage; NiZn provides 1.6V/cell rather than 1.2V,
which NiCd delivers. Nickel-zinc was first developed in the 1920s but it suffered from
short cycle life caused by dendrite growth. This led to electrical shorting. Improvements in
the electrolyte have reduced this problem, and NiZn is being considered again for
commercial uses. Low cost, high power output and good temperature operating range
make this chemistry attractive. NiZn charges at a constant current to 1.9V/cell and cannot
take trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge. The specific energy is similar to
other nickel-based systems. NiZn can by cycled 200–300 times, has no heavy toxic
materials and can easily be recycled. Some are available in AA cells.

Nickel-hydrogen
When research for nickel-metal-hydride began in 1967, problems with metal instabilities
caused a shift towards the development of the nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH). NiH uses a
steel canister to store the hydrogen gases at a pressure of 1,200psi (8,270kPa). The cell
includes solid nickel electrodes, hydrogen electrodes, gas screens and electrolyte. These
components are encapsulated in the pressurized vessel.

NiH has a nominal cell voltage of 1.25V and the specific energy is 40–75Wh/kg. The
advantages are long service life even with full discharge cycles, good calendar life due to
low corrosion, minimal self-discharge, and a remarkable temperature performance of –
28°C to 54°C (–20°F to 130°F). These attributes make NiH ideal for satellite use.
Scientists are developing NiH batteries for terrestrial use and hope to supply markets for
energy storage systems and the electric vehicle. The negatives are low specific energy and
high cost. A single cell for a satellite application costs thousands of dollars.

Zinc-air
Zinc-air batteries generate electrical power by an oxidation process of zinc and oxygen
from the air. The cell can produce 1.65V, however, 1.4V and lower achieves a longer
lifetime. To activate the battery, the user removes a sealing tab that enables airflow and the
battery reaches full operating voltage within five seconds. Once turned on, the battery
cannot be reverted back to the standby mode, the chemicals dry out, and the battery has a
short shelf life. Adding a tape to stop airflow slows the degeneration

Zinc-air batteries have similarities to the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
in that they use oxygen in the air as fuel for the positive electrode (see page 70, “Fuel
Cell”). Air can, to a certain extent, control the rate of the reaction. Zinc-air is considered a
primary battery, however, there are recharging versions for high-power applications.
Recharging occurs by replacing the spent zinc electrodes, which can be in the form of a
zinc electrolyte paste. Other zinc-air batteries use zinc pellets.

At 300–400Wh/kg, zinc-air has a high specific energy but the specific power is low.
Manufacturing cost is low and in a sealed state, zinc-air has a two percent self-discharge
per year. Zinc-air is sensitive to extreme temperatures and high humidity. Pollution also
affects performance, and high ambient carbon dioxide reduces the performance by
increasing the internal resistance. Typical applications include hearing aids; high-power
versions operate remote railway signaling and safety lamps at construction sites.

Silver-zinc
The silver-zinc battery has served a critical role for defense and space applications, as well
as TV cameras and other professional equipment needing extra runtime. High cost and
short service life locked the battery out of the commercial market but it’s on the verge of a
rebirth.

The zinc electrode and separator were the primary cause of failure in the original
design; the zinc electrode degraded rapidly when cycled. The battery developed zinc
dendrites that pierced the separator, causing electrical shorts. Furthermore, the separator
degraded whether used or not by simply sitting in the potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
This limited the calendar life to about two years. Improvements in the zinc electrode and
separator promise a longer service life and a 40 percent higher specific energy than Li-ion.
Silver-zinc is safe, has no toxic metals and can be recycled, but the use of silver makes the
battery expensive to manufacture.

Sodium-sulfur
Sodium batteries, also known as molten salt or thermal battery, come in primary and
secondary versions. The battery uses molten salts as an electrolyte and operates at a
temperature of 400–700°C (752–1,292°F). Newer designs run at a lower 245–350°C
(473–662°F) temperature.

Conceived by the Germans during World War II and used in their V-2 rockets, the
electrolyte of the molten salt batteries is inactive when cold and has a long storage of more
than 50 years. Once activated with a heat source, the battery can provide a high power
burst for a fraction of a second or deliver energy over several hours. The high power is
made possible by the good ionic conductivity of the molten salt. Primary sodium batteries
are almost exclusively used for the military as a “one-shot” engagement in guided
missiles. However, interest of the reader lies in the rechargeable version.

The rechargeable sodium-sulfur (NaS) gained worldwide attention during the 1970s and
1980s, but short service life and high cost dampened the enthusiasm. The sodium-nickel-
chloride battery, also known as ZEBRA,4 came to the rescue and today this battery is
being used successfully in many applications.

ZEBRA has a nominal cell voltage of 2.58 volts and a specific energy of 90–120Wh/kg,
a level comparable with Li-manganese and Li-phosphate. The service life is about eight
years and 3,000 cycles. It can be fast-charged, is non-toxic and the raw materials are
abundant and low-cost. ZEBRA batteries come in large sizes of 10kWh or higher and
typical applications are forklifts, railways, ships, submarines and electric cars. A growing
market for sodium-based batteries is load leveling, also known as grid storage. The Think
City EV has a choice of ZEBRA and Li-ion. ZEBRA has advantages when operating at
extreme temperatures and when the battery is in continuous use, such as in taxis and
delivery vans.

The ZEBRA battery must be heated to 270–350°C (518–662°F), a temperature that is
lower than the original sodium-sulfur battery. Even though special insulation minimizes
heat loss, heating consumes 14 percent of the battery’s energy per day, which results in a
self-discharge of 18 percent. An active ZEBRA battery should be on charge or in use. It
takes 3–4 days to cool down, and reheating takes about two days depending on the SoC at
time of shutdown. Common failures include electrical shorts due to corrosion of the
insulators, which then become conductive, as well as growth of dendrites, which increases
self-discharge.

Supercapacitor
The supercapacitor, also known as ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor, differs from a
regular capacitor in that it has a very high capacitance. A capacitor stores energy by means
of a static charge as opposed to an electrochemical reaction. Applying a voltage
differential on the positive and negative plates charges the capacitor. This is similar to the
buildup of electrical charge when walking on a carpet. Touching an object releases the
energy through the finger.

We group capacitors into three family types and the most basic is the electrostatic
capacitor, with a dry separator. This capacitor has a very low capacitance and is used to
filter signals and tune radio frequencies. The size ranges from a few pico-farad (pf) to low
microfarad (mF). The next member is the electrolytic capacitor, which is used for power
filtering, buffering and coupling. Rated in microfarads (mF), this capacitor has several
thousand times the storage capacity of the electrostatic capacitor and uses a moist
separator. The third type is the super-capacitor, rated in farads, which is again thousands of
times higher than the electrolytic capacitor. The supercapacitor is ideal for energy storage
that undergoes frequent charge and discharge cycles at high current and short duration.

Farad is a unit of capacitance named after the English physicist Michael Faraday. One
farad stores one coulomb of electrical charge when applying one volt. One microfarad is
one million times smaller than a farad, and one pico-farad is again one million times
smaller than the microfarad.

Engineers at General Electric first experimented with the electric double-layer
capacitor, which led to the development of an early type of supercapacitor in 1957. There
were no known commercial applications then. In 1966, Standard Oil rediscovered the
effect of the double-layer capacitor by accident while working on experimental fuel cell
designs. The company did not commercialize the invention but licensed it to NEC, which
in 1978 marketed the technology as “supercapacitor” for computer memory backup. It was
not until the 1990s that advances in materials and manufacturing methods led to improved
performance and lower cost.

The modern supercapacitor is not a battery per se but crosses the boundary into battery
technology by using special electrodes and electrolyte. Several types of electrodes have
been tried and the book focuses on the double-layer capacitor (DLC) concept. It is carbon-
based, has an organic electrolyte that is easy to manufacture and is the most common
system in use today.

All capacitors have voltage limits. While the electrostatic capacitor can be made to
withstand high volts, the supercapacitor is confined to 2.5–2.7V. Voltages of 2.8V and
higher are possible but they would reduce the service life. To achieve higher voltages,
several supercapacitors are connected in series. This has disadvantages. Serial connection
reduces the total capacitance, and strings of more than three capacitors require voltage
balancing to prevent any cell from going into over-voltage. This is similar to the
protection circuit in lithium-ion batteries.

The specific energy of the supercapacitor is low and ranges from 1 to 30Wh/kg.
Although high compared to a regular capacitor, 30Wh/kg is one-fifth that of a consumer
Li-ion battery. The discharge curve is another disadvantage. Whereas the electrochemical
battery delivers a steady voltage in the usable power band, the voltage of the
supercapacitor decreases on a linear scale from full to zero voltage. This reduces the
usable power spectrum and much of the stored energy is left behind. Consider the
following example.

Take a 6V power source that is allowed to discharge to 4.5V before the equipment cuts
off. With the linear discharge, the supercapacitor reaches this voltage threshold within the
first quarter of the cycle and the remaining three-quarters of the energy reserve become
unusable. A DC-to-DC converter could utilize some of the residual energy, but this would
add to the cost and introduce a 10 to 15 percent energy loss. A battery with a flat discharge
curve, on the other hand, would deliver 90 to 95 percent of its energy reserve before
reaching the voltage threshold. Table 2-22 compares the supercapacitor with a typical Li-
ion.


Table 2-22: Performance comparison between supercapacitor and Li-ion

Courtesy of Maxwell Technologies, Inc.

Rather than operating as a stand-alone energy storage device, supercapacitors work well
as low-maintenance memory backup to bridge short power interruptions. Supercapacitors
have also made critical inroads into electric powertrains. The virtue of ultra-rapid charging
and delivery of high current on demand makes the supercapacitor an ideal candidate as a
peak-load enhancer for hybrid vehicles, as well as fuel cell applications.

The charge time of a supercapacitor is about 10 seconds. The charge characteristic is
similar to an electrochemical battery and the charge current is, to a large extent, limited by
the charger. The initial charge can be made very fast, and the topping charge will take
extra time. Provision must be made to limit the initial current inrush when charging an
empty supercapacitor. The supercapacitor cannot go into overcharge and does not require
full-charge detection; the current simply stops flowing when the capacitor is full.

The supercapacitor can be charged and discharged virtually an unlimited number of
times. Unlike the electrochemical battery, which has a defined cycle life, there is little
wear and tear by cycling a supercapacitor. Nor does age affect the device, as it would a
battery. Under normal conditions, a supercapacitor fades from the original 100 percent
capacity to 80 percent in 10 years. Applying higher voltages than specified shortens the
life. The supercapacitor functions well at hot and cold temperatures.

The self-discharge of a supercapacitor is substantially higher than that of an electrostatic
capacitor and somewhat higher than the electrochemical battery. The organic electrolyte
contributes to this. The stored energy of a supercapacitor decreases from 100 to 50 percent
in 30 to 40 days. A nickel-based battery self-discharges 10 to 15 percent per month. Li-ion
discharges only five percent per month. Table 2-23 summarizes the advantages and
limitations of the supercapacitor.


Table 2-23: Advantages and limitations of supercapacitors

Supercapacitors are expensive in terms of cost per watt. Some design engineers argue that the money for the
supercapacitor would better be spent on a larger battery. We need to realize that the supercapacitor and chemical battery
are not in competition; rather they are different products serving unique applications.

Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen fuel with oxygen to
produce electricity, heat and water. The fuel cell is similar to a battery in that an
electrochemical reaction takes place as long as fuel is available. The hydrogen fuel is
stored in a pressurized container and oxygen is taken from the air. Because of the absence
of a burning process, there are no harmful emissions, and the only by-product is fresh
water. The water emitted from the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is so
pure that visitors to Vancouver’s Ballard Power Systems were served hot tea made from
this clean water.

Fundamentally, a fuel cell is electrolysis in reverse, using two electrodes separated by
an electrolyte. The anode (negative electrode) receives the hydrogen and the cathode
(positive electrode) collects the oxygen. A catalyst at the anode separates hydrogen into
positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons; the oxygen is ionized and migrates across
the electrolyte to the anodic compartment, where it combines with hydrogen. A single fuel
cell produces 0.6–0.8V under load. To obtain higher voltages, several cells are connected
in series. Figure 2-24 illustrates the concept of a fuel cell.


Figure 2-24: Concept of a fuel cell

The anode (negative electrode) receives the hydrogen and the cathode (positive electrode) collects the oxygen.

Source: US Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Fuel cell technology is twice as efficient as combustion in turning carbon fuel to energy.
Hydrogen, the simplest chemical element (one proton and one electron), is plentiful and
exceptionally clean as a fuel. Hydrogen makes up 90 percent of the universe and is the
third most abundant element on the earth’s surface. Such a wealth of fuel would provide
an almost unlimited pool of clean energy at relatively low cost. But there is a hitch.

Hydrogen is usually bound to other substances and “unleashing” the gas takes
technology and a substantial amount of energy. In terms of net calorific value (NCV),
hydrogen is more costly to produce than gasoline. Some say that hydrogen is nearly
energy neutral, meaning that it takes as much energy to produce as it delivers at the end
destination.

Storage of hydrogen poses a further disadvantage. Pressurized hydrogen requires heavy
steel tanks, and the NCV by volume is about 24-times lower than a liquid petroleum
product. In liquid form, which is much denser, hydrogen needs extensive insulation for
cold storage.

Hydrogen can also be produced with a reformer by means of extraction from an existing
fuel, such as methanol, propane, butane or natural gas. Converting these fossil fuels into
pure hydrogen releases some leftover carbon, but this is 90 percent less harmful than what
comes from the tailpipe of a car. Carrying a reformer would add weight to the vehicle and
increase its cost. Reformers are also known to be sluggish.

The net benefit of hydrogen conversion is in question because it does not solve the
energy problem. With the availability of hydrogen through extraction, the fuel cell core
(stack) to convert hydrogen and oxygen to electricity is expensive and the stack has a
limited life span. Burning fossil fuels in a combustion engine is the simplest and most
effective means of harnessing energy, but this contributes to pollution.

Sir William Grove, a Welsh judge and gentleman scientist, developed the fuel cell
concept
in 1839, but the invention never took off. This was in part due to the rapidly advancing
internal combustion engine, which promised better results. It was not until the 1960s that
the fuel cell was put to practical use during the Gemini space program. NASA preferred
this clean power source to nuclear or solar power. The alkaline fuel cell system generated
electricity and produced the drinking water for the astronauts.

High material costs made the fuel cell prohibitive for commercial use at that time. This
did not hinder Karl Kordesch, the co-inventor of the alkaline battery, from converting his
car’s power source to an alkaline fuel cell in the early 1970s. Kordesch drove his car for
many years in Ohio, USA. He placed the hydrogen tank on the roof and utilized the trunk
to place the fuel cell as well as backup batteries. According to Kordesch, there was
“enough room for four people and a dog.” The 1990s brought renewed interest in the fuel
cell; however, this enthusiasm started to diminish again in the 21st century.

Just as there are different battery chemistries, so also are there several fuel cell systems
to choose from. Let’s look at the most common types and examine the applications.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
The proton exchange membrane, also known as PEM, uses a polymer electrolyte. PEM is
one of the furthest developed and most commonly used fuel cell systems; it powers cars,
serves as a portable power source and provides backup power in lieu of stationary
batteries in offices. The PEM system allows compact design and achieves a high energy-
to-weight ratio. Another advantage is a relatively quick start-up when applying hydrogen.
The stack runs at a moderate temperature of 80°C (176°F) and has an efficiency of 50
percent. (In comparison, the internal combustion engine is only about 25 percent
efficient.)

The limitations of the PEM fuel cell are high manufacturing costs and complex water
management systems. The stack contains hydrogen, oxygen and water. If dry, water must
be added to get the system going; too much water causes flooding. The system requires
pure hydrogen; lower fuel grades can cause decomposition and clogging of the membrane.
Testing and repairing a stack is difficult, given that a 150V, 50kW stack to power a small
car requires 250 cells.

Extreme operating temperatures are a further challenge. Freezing water can damage the
stack, and the manufacturer recommends heating elements to prevent ice formation. When
the fuel cell is cold, start-up is slow and the performance is poor at first. Excessive heat
can also cause damage. Controlling the operating temperatures as well as supplying
enough oxygen requires compressors, pumps and other accessories that consume about 30
percent of the energy generated.

If operated in a vehicle, the PEMFC stack has an estimated service life of 2,000-4,000
hours. Start-and-stop conditions induce drying and wetting that contribute to membrane
stress. Running continuously, the stationary stack is good for about 40,000 hours. Stack
replacement is a major expense. Figure 2-25 illustrates a portable fuel cell.

Figure 2-25: Portable fuel cell for the consumer market

The fuel cell converts hydrogen and oxygen to electricity and clean water is the only by-product. Fuel cells can be used
indoors as an electricity generator.

Courtesy of SFC Smart Fuel Cell AG (2010)

Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
The alkaline fuel cell has become the preferred technology for aerospace, including the
space shuttle. Manufacturing and operating costs are low, especially for the stack. While
the separator for the PEM costs between $800 and $1,100 per square meter, the same
material for the alkaline system is almost negligible. (The separator for a lead acid battery
costs $5 per square meter.) Water management is simple and does not need compressors
and other peripherals. A negative is that AFC is larger in physical size than the PEM and
needs pure oxygen and hydrogen as fuels. Carbon dioxide in a polluted city can poison the
stack.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

Electric utilities use three types of fuel cells, which are molten carbonate, phosphoric acid
and solid oxide fuel cells. Among these choices, the solid oxide (SOFC) is the least
developed but has received renewed attention because of breakthroughs in cell material
and stack design. Rather than operating at the very high operating temperature of 800–
1,000°C (1,472–1,832°F), a new generation of ceramic material has brought the core
down to a more manageable 500–600°C (932–1,112°F). This allows the use of
conventional stainless steel rather than expensive ceramics for auxiliary parts.

High temperature allows direct extraction of hydrogen from natural gas through a
catalytic reforming process. Carbon monoxide, a contaminant for the PEM, is a fuel for
the SOFC. Being able to accept carbon-based fuels without a designated reformer and
delivering high efficiency pose significant advantages for this type of fuel cell.
Cogeneration by running steam generators from the heat by-product raises the SOFC to 60
percent efficiency, one of the highest among fuel cells. As a negative, high stack
temperatures require exotic materials for the core that add to manufacturing costs, lower
longevity and decrease reliability. With the newer SOFC systems operating at lower
temperatures, however, this drawback has been reduced.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
During the past years, portable fuel cells have gained public attention, and the most
promising development is the direct methanol fuel cell. This small fuel cell is inexpensive
to manufacture, convenient to use and does not require pressurized hydrogen gas. DMFC
provides a reasonably good electrochemical performance, and charging occurs by simply
replacing the fuel cartridge. This enables continued operation without downtime. Fuel
cells with liquid fuels (ethanol or methanol) have a further advantage over hydrogen in the
automotive market in that the fuel can be transported, stored and dispensed with known
technologies. Hydrogen, on the other hand, exhibits safety risks, storage problems and
needs large investments in special pipelines.

Figure 2-26 shows a micro fuel cell by Toshiba and Figure 2-27 demonstrates refueling
with methanol that is 99.5 percent pure. Manufactures of small fuel cells admit that a
direct battery replacement offering high power, small size and competitive price is still
several years away. Rather than offering a battery replacement, today’s micro fuel cell
serves as a charger to provide continuous operation for the onboard battery.


Figure 2-26: Micro fuel cell. This prototype micro fuel cell is capable of providing 300mW of continuous power.

Courtesy of Toshiba

Figure 2-27: Toshiba fuel cell with refueling cartridge. The fuel in a 10ml tank is 99.5 percent pure methanol.

Courtesy of Toshiba

The reasons why portable fuel cells are still in development are multifold. A typical
micro fuel cell has an output of 300mW and can only supply enough power to keep a cell
phone battery charged. A laptop consuming 30 watts would need 100 micro fuel cells to
sustain continuous operation. Furthermore, transportation authorities prohibit passengers
from carrying bottled fuel on an aircraft, a rule that might soon change. The Dangerous
Goods Panel (DGP) of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has already
made an exclusion to allow the transport and operation of methanol fuel cells on
commercial flights. This provision does not yet extend to bottled hydrogen.

Improvements are being made, and Toshiba unveiled prototype fuel cells for laptops
and other applications generating 20 to 100 watts of power. At 100 Wh/l, the units are
compact and the specific energy is comparable with a NiCd battery. (I appreciate the
honesty of Japanese manufacturers in describing the technology as being in its “infancy.”)
Toshiba has given no indication when the product could be commercially available.
Meanwhile, Panasonic claims to have doubled the power output from 10 watts to 20 watts
with similar size. The manufacturer specifies a calendar life of 5,000 hours if the fuel cell
is used intermittently
for eight hours per day. Durability had been standing in the way of commercializing its
use.

Table 2-28 describes the applications and summarizes the advantages and limitations of
common fuel cells. For completeness of listing, the table also includes the Molten
Carbonate (MCFC) and Phosphoric Acid (PAFC), two varieties not described in the text
above. These two fuel cell versions have been around for a long time also but have
received less publicity than the others.

Table 2-28: Advantages and disadvantages of various fuel cell systems
The development of the fuel cell has not advanced at the same pace as batteries; a direct battery replacement is not yet
feasible.

Developments
In spite of environmental benefits, the fuel cell requires extensive development before it
can compete in industrial and consumer markets. The existing problems revolve around
slow start-up times, low power output, sluggish response on power demand, poor loading
capabilities, narrow power bandwidth, short service life and high cost. These negative
traits are especially noticeable for the direct methanol fuel cell. Similar to batteries, the
performance of all fuel cells degrades with age, and the stack gradually loses efficiency.

The relatively high internal resistance of full cells poses a challenge. Each cell of a
stack produces about one volt when in open-circuit condition, and a heavy load causes a
notable voltage drop. Figure 2-29 illustrates the voltage and power bandwidth as a
function of load.

Figure 2-29: Power band of a portable fuel cell

High internal resistance causes the cell voltage to drop rapidly with load. The power band is limited to between 300 and
800mA.

Courtesy of Cadex

Fuel cells operate best at a 30 percent load factor; higher loads reduce efficiency. A load
factor approaching 100 percent, as is common with a battery, is not practical with the fuel
cell. In addition, the fuel cell has poor response characteristics and takes a few seconds to
react to power demands. Rather than acting as a stand-alone engine, as the developers had
hoped, the fuel cell works as a support function by giving the battery the master status.
The fuel cell becomes a slave providing the charge duty. This relationship enables both
parties to deliver continuous service.

Having failed in the automotive field, fuel cell manufacturers explore new applications.
Large 40,000kW fuel cells are being built to generate electricity in remote locations. Fuel
cells also replace battery banks and diesel generators in office buildings, as they can be
installed in tight storage places and on rooftops with minimal maintenance. Forklifts
running non-stop are further candidates for fuel cell technology, which allows continuous,
pollution-free operation.

Paradox of the Fuel Cell
The fuel cell enjoyed the height of popularity in the 1990s, when scientists and stock
promoters envisioned a world run on a clean and inexhaustible resource — hydrogen.
They predicted that cars would run on fuel cells and households would generate electricity
from back-yard fuel cells. The stock prices skyrocketed, and it took a few years before
marginal performance, high manufacturing costs and short service life brought the
hydrogen dream down. Hype and investment funding have since moderated, and it is
hoped that a more sensible approach will eventually find the proper use for the fuel cell.

It had been said that the fuel cell would transform the world as the microprocessor did.
Experts further claimed that using an inexhaustible source of fuel, hydrogen, would
improve the quality of life, and the environmental consequences of burning fossil fuels
would be solved forever. From 1999 through 2001, more than 2,000 organizations were
actively involved in fuel cell development, and four of the largest public fuel cell
companies in North American raised over a billion dollars in public stock offerings. What
went wrong?

Hydrogen is not a source of energy per se. We must look at it as a medium to transport
and store energy. When envisioning “burning an endless supply of hydrogen,” we need to
first produce the resource because hydrogen is not available abundantly in the earth, ready
to burn, as oil and natural gas are. To retrieve the hydrogen for fuel, we need energy to
convert the resource into a usable product in a similar way as we use electricity to charge a
flat battery. If electricity produces hydrogen, then this energy source should come from a
renewable resource. This is often not the case; much of our current energy comes from
burning coal, oil and natural gas.

Fossil fuel lends itself well to producing hydrogen, but taking this valuable fuel to
unleash hydrogen does not make much sense when it costs as much or more for extraction
than burning it directly. It is conceivable that the fuel cell will never become the engine
that scientists had hoped, just as the attempt to fly airplanes on steam failed in the mid
1800s.

Hydrogen is, however, being used to propel satellites and space vehicles into orbit.
Liquid hydrogen has the highest energy-to-mass ratio; but the specific energy by volume
reveals a truer picture when considering storage and delivery for terrestrial use. Gasoline
has almost 24 times the specific energy of pure hydrogen by volume. (See Chapter 11,
Table 11-3, regarding cost of mobile power, on page 259.)

Is there hope for the fuel cell? Many hope it will succeed. Taxpayers may one day need
to subsidize this clean energy source similar to subsidizing the electric car. Furthermore,
governments may mandate its use for environmental reasons or as an alternative for the
dwindling fossil fuels. We hope that the development of fuel cells will eventually succeed
in finding a replacement for the polluting internal combustion engine.

Reusable Alkaline
Introduced in 1992, the reusable alkaline serves as an alternative to disposable batteries;
however, the anticipated breakthrough never occurred and today the reusable alkaline
satisfies only a small market niche. The lack of consumer appeal is regrettable when
considering the environmental benefit of having to discard fewer batteries. It is said that
the manufacturing cost of the reusable battery is similar to that of a regular alkaline and
the ability to recharge, although only for a limited time, offers definite advantages.

Recharging alkaline batteries is not new. Ordinary alkaline batteries have been
recharged in households for many years, but manufacturers do not endorse this practice for
safety reasons. Recharging is only effective if the alkaline is discharged to less than 50
percent before recharging. The number of recharges depends on the depth of discharge and
is limited to just a few cycles at best. Each recharge stores less capacity until the battery is
finally worn out. There is a cautionary advisory: charging ordinary alkaline batteries may
generate hydrogen gas that can lead to explosion.

The reusable alkaline overcomes some of these deficiencies, but not all. With each
recharge, the battery loses charge acceptance, and the longevity is in direct relationship to
the depth of discharge. The deeper the discharge, the fewer cycles the battery can endure.
At 50 percent depth of discharge, we can expect 50 cycles. The manufacturer may have
overestimated the eagerness of the user wanting to recharge early; most users run a battery
empty and recharge when necessary.

Tests performed by Cadex on “AA” reusable alkaline cells show a capacity reading on
the first discharge that is similar to that of a regular alkaline. After the first recharge using
the manufacturer’s charger, however, the reusable alkaline settles at only 60 percent, a
capacity slightly below that of NiCd. Repeat cycling in the same manner resulted in
further capacity losses. The discharge current was 200mA (0.2 C-rate, or one-fifth of the
rated capacity) and the end-of-discharge threshold was set to 1V/cell.

An additional limitation of the reusable alkaline system is its low permissible load
current of 400mA (lower than 400mA provides better results). Although adequate for
flashlights and personal entertainment devices, 400mA is insufficient to power most
digital cameras and communication devices.

Table 2-30 compares the specific energy, voltage, self-discharge and runtime of over-
the-counter batteries. Available in AA, AAA and other sizes, these cells can be used in
portable devices designed for these norms. Even though the cell voltages may vary, the
end-of-discharge voltages are common, which is typically 1V/cell. Portable devices have
some flexibility in terms of voltage range. It is important not to mix and match cells and to
always use the same type of batteries in the holder. Safety concerns and voltage
incompatibility prevent the sales of lithium-ion batteries in AA and AAA formats.

Karl Kordesch, professor and co-inventor of the reusable alkaline, expressed
disappointment in the market failure of this battery by saying, and I paraphrase, “If only
people could be taught to recharge the battery sooner, before the energy is fully depleted.”
The reusable alkaline could indeed provide extended service life if the user discharged the
battery by only a small amount before recharging, but this does not suit consumer
behavior. A user expects to get the full use of a battery before having to recharge.

NiMH has since replaced the reusable alkaline. Price is important and to lower cost for
the consumer market, some battery manufacturers have reduced the capacity of the AA
cell from 2,700mAh to 2,000mAh (the 2,700mAh AA cell is still available).
Manufacturers are well tuned to customer needs and make the necessary adjustments to
maximize market penetration.

Table 2-30: Comparison of alkaline, reusable alkaline, Eneloop5 and NiMH

Experimental Rechargeable Batteries
Experimental batteries live mostly in sheltered laboratories, communicating to the outside
world through rosy reports generated for investors. Some systems show good potential,
but many are years away from becoming commercially viable. Others disappear from the
scene and die gracefully in the lab without hearing of their passing. Below are the most
promising experimental batteries worth mentioning in alphabetical order.

Lithium-air (Li-air)
Li-air batteries borrow the idea from zinc-air and the fuel cell in that they breathe air. The
battery uses a catalytic air cathode that supplies oxygen, an electrolyte and a lithium
anode. Scientists anticipate an energy storage potential that is 5 to 10 times larger than that
of Li-ion but speculate it will take one to two decades before the technology can be
commercialized. Depending on materials used, Li-ion-air will produce voltages in
between 1.7 and 3.2V/cell. IBM, Excellatron, Liox Power, Lithion-Yardney, Poly Plus,
Rayovac and others are developing the technology. The theoretical specific energy of
lithium-air is 13kWh/kg; aluminum-air has similar qualities, with an 8kWh/kg theoretical
specific energy.

Lithium-metal (Li-metal)
Most lithium-metal batteries are non-rechargeable. Moli Energy of Vancouver was first to
mass-produce a rechargeable Li-metal battery for mobile phones, but occasional shorts
from lithium dendrites caused thermal runaway conditions and the batteries were recalled
in 1989. Li-metal has a very high specific energy. In 2010, a trial Li-metal-polymer with a
capacity of 300Wh/kg was tested in an experimental electric vehicle (this compares to
80Wh/kg for the Nissan Leaf). DBM Energy, the German manufacturer of this battery,
claims 2,500 cycles, short charge times and competitive pricing if the battery were mass-
produced. Safety remains a major issue.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S)
By virtue of the low atomic weight of lithium and the moderate weight of sulfur, lithium-
sulfur batteries offer a very high specific energy of 550Wh/kg, about three times that of
Li-ion, and a specific power potential of 2,500Wh/kg. During discharge, the lithium
dissolves from the anode surface, and reverses itself when charging by plating itself back
onto the anode. Li-S has good cold temperature discharge characteristics and can be
recharged at –60°C (–76°F). The challenges are limited cycle life of only 40 to 50
charges/discharges and poor stability at high temperature. Since 2007, Stanford engineers
have been experimenting with nanowire and this technology offers promise. Li-S has a
cell voltage of 2.10V and is environmentally friendly. Sulfur as the main ingredient is
abundantly available.

Silicon-carbon Nanocomposite Anodes for Li-ion
Researchers have developed a new high-performance anode structure for lithium-ion
batteries based on silicon-carbon nanocomposite materials. The material contains rigid and
robust silicon spheres with irregular channels to promote the access of lithium ions into
the particle mass. With graphite anodes, researchers have achieved stable performance and
capacity gains of five times that of regular Li-ion. Manufacturing is said to be simple and
low-cost, and the battery is safe and broadly applicable. However, the cycle life is limited
due to structural problems when inserting and extracting lithium-ion at high volume.

Cycling Performance

As part of ongoing research to examine performance degradation caused by cycling,
Cadex tested a large volume of portable batteries for wireless communication devices. The
population consists of nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride and lithium-ion. The
batteries were prepared by applying an initial charge, followed by a regime of full
discharge/charge cycles. The internal resistance was measured with OhmTest™ and the
self-discharge was obtained from time to time by reading the capacity loss incurred during
a 48-hour rest period. The tests were carried out on the Cadex 7000 Series battery
analyzers.

Nickel-cadmium

In terms of life cycling, nickel-cadmium is the most enduring battery. Figure 2-31
illustrates the capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge of a 7.2V, 900mA pack with
standard NiCd cells. Due to time constraints, the test was terminated after 2,300 cycles.
The capacity remained steady; the internal resistance stayed low at 75mW and the self-
discharge was stable. This battery receives a grade “A” rating for almost perfect
performance.

Figure 2-31: Performance of standard NiCd (7.2V, 900mAh)

This battery receives an “A” rating for a stable capacity, low internal resistance and moderate self-discharge over many
cycles.

Courtesy of Cadex

The ultra-high-capacity nickel-cadmium offers up to 60 percent higher specific energy
compared to the standard version, however, this comes at the expense of reduced cycle
life. In Figure 2-32 we observe a steady drop of capacity during 2,000 cycles, a slight
increase in internal resistance and a rise in self-discharge after 1,000 cycles.


Figure 2-32: Performance of ultra-high-capacity NiCd (6V, 700mAh)

This battery offers higher specific energy than the standard version at the expense of reduced cycle life.

Courtesy of Cadex

Nickel-metal-hydride
Figure 2-33 examines NiMH, a battery that offers high specific energy at a reasonably low
cost. We observe good performance at first but past the 300-cycle mark, the capacity starts
to drift downwards rapidly. One can detect a swift increase in internal resistance and self-
discharge after cycle count 700. NiMH has a higher specific energy than nickel-cadmium
and does not contain toxic metals. The test battery was an older generation; new NiMH
performs better.

Figure 2-33: Performance of NiMH (6V, 950mAh)

This battery offers good performance at first but past 300 cycles, the capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge start
to increase rapidly. Newer NiMH is better.

Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium-ion
Figure 2-34 examines the capacity and internal resistance of lithium-ion. We observe a
gentle and predictable capacity drop over 1,000 cycles while the internal resistance
increases only slightly. Because of low readings, we omit self-discharge. Lithium-ion
offers the highest specific energy among the above-mentioned chemistries, contains little
or no toxic metals, but needs protection circuits to ensure safe operation. Li-ion is also
more expensive to manufacture than the nickel-based equivalent.

Batteries tested in a laboratory environment tend to give better results than when used
in the field; elements of stress in everyday use do not transfer well into the laboratory.
Aging plays a minimal role in a lab because the batteries are cycled over a period of a few
months rather than the expected service life of a few years. The temperature is often
moderate and the batteries are charged with proper charge equipment, an advantage that
the field cannot always claim.

Figure 2-34: Performance of lithium-ion (3.6V, 500mA)

Lithium-ion offers good capacity and steady internal resistance over 1,000 cycles.
Self-discharge was omitted because of low readings

Courtesy of Cadex

The load signature of the discharge plays an important role when testing batteries, and
our laboratory batteries were discharged with an even DC load. Cellular phones and other
digital devices draw pulsed loads that stress the battery more than with DC. One could
argue, however, that the lab tests apply a full discharge whereas the field user discharges
the battery to about 80 percent. The degradation of a battery receiving a 100 percent
discharge with a DC load may not be the same as an 80 percent discharge on a pulsed
load, and we keep this possible discrepancy in mind when studying the results.

The tests were done with batteries from an earlier generation. Newer models show
improved results, and this is especially apparent with NiMH. The internal resistance of the
modern NiMH is similar to NiCd, so is the cycle life. The Li-ion battery tested was Li-
cobalt for cellular phones. We excluded lead acid from the test because this battery is
seldom used for portable applications. Lead acid is heavy and does not cycle well,
especially on full discharges.

The outcome of battery tests depends very much on the application for which the
battery
is designed, and we distinguish between consumer and industrial use. With the advent of
the electric powertrain, a new category of batteries is emerging. Built for safety and
longevity, these batteries have a specific energy that is typically only one-half that of
consumer batteries.

1 When consuming power, as in a diode, vacuum tube or a battery on charge, the anode is positive; when withdrawing
power, as in a battery on discharge, the anode becomes negative.
2 Standard of a cylindrical Li-ion cell developed in the mid 1990s; measures 18mm in diameter and 65mm in length;
commonly used for laptops. More in Chapter 3, “Battery Formats,” on page 85.

3 Some Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide systems go by designation of NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC and MCN.
The systems are basically the same.
4 ZEBRA battery, so-called for the Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project.

5 Eneloop is a Sanyo trademark, based on NiMH.








Batteries exhibit human-like

characteristics. They need good

nutrition and prefer moderate

temperature. Batteries also suffer

from abuse, as humans do.



Chapter 3 | Packaging and Safety

Battery Formats

Early batteries of the 1700s and 1800s were mostly encased in glass jars, and as the
batteries grew in size, sealed wooden containers were used. With the need for portability,
sealed cylindrical cells appeared that eventually led to some standardization in size format.
To satisfy our curiosity, let’s explore the history of these battery norms.

In the early days, standardization involved primary cells mostly in carbon-zinc; alkaline
came only in the early 1960s. With the advent of the sealed nickel-cadmium batteries in
the 1950s and 1960s, new sizes appeared, many of which were derived from the standard
“A” and “C” sizes established at the end of the 1800s. Manufacturers of lithium-ion
departed from the conventional sizes and invented their own formats of cylindrical,
prismatic and pouch shapes. Looking at the many formats of cell phone batteries alone,
one realizes that standardizing has begun to drift. Table 3-1 summarizes historic and
current battery sizes.

When first invented, a battery was perceived as being “big” and this reflects in the
sizing convention. While “F” was chosen as a medium-size battery in the late 1800s, our
forefathers did not anticipate the need for miniature batteries. Running out of letters
towards smaller sizes brought on the awkward designations of AA, AAA and AAAA. It’s
also interesting that many sizes never took off and “A” was replaced with the thinner
“AA.”

A successful standard for a cylindrical cell is the 18650. Developed in the mid 1990s for
lithium-ion, these cells are used for laptops, electric bicycles and even electric vehicles,
such as the Tesla Roadster car. You’ll find more information under “Cylindrical Cell,” on
page 87.

Since the introduction of the 9V battery in 1956, no new consumer format has emerged.
Meanwhile, portable devices have lowered the operating voltages and 9V is overkill. The
9V battery is expensive to manufacture and has a low specific energy. A 3.6V battery
alternative should be offered in primary and secondary versions with different chemistries.
Similar in size to the 9V, this pack would be protected with unique battery terminals that
would only allow charging secondary batteries. A code would apply the appropriate
algorithm.

Starter batteries for cars also follow battery norms, which consist of the North
American BCI, the European DIN and the Japanese JIS standards. These batteries are
similar in footprint to allow easy interchange. In an effort to standardize, all American car
manufacturers are in the process of converting to the American DIN size batteries. Most
manufacturers of deep-cycle and stationary batteries produce their own sizes and the
replacement must be sourced from the original maker. Standardizing of the electric vehicle
may be too early. Forcing the issue could follow the failed attempt to standardize laptop
batteries in the 1990s.

Table 3-1: Common old and new battery norms. Some sizes come in fractural lengths mostly in nickel-based
chemistries.

Cylindrical Cell
The cylindrical cell continues to be one of the most widely used packaging styles for
primary and secondary batteries. The advantages are ease of manufacture and good
mechanical stability. The tubular cylinder has the ability to withstand internal pressures
without deforming. Figure 3-2 shows a cross section of a cell.

Figure 3-2: Cross section of a lithium-ion cylindrical cell

The cylindrical cell design has good cycling ability, offers a long calendar life, is economical but is heavy and has low
packaging density due to space cavities.

Courtesy of Sanyo

Typical applications for the cylindrical cell are power tools, medical instruments and
laptops. Nickel-cadmium offers the largest variety of cell choices, and some popular
formats have spilled over to nickel-metal-hydride. To allow variations within a given size,
manufacturers use fractural cell length, such as half and three-quarter formats.

The established standards for nickel-based batteries did not catch on with lithium-ion
and the chemistry has established its own formats. One of the most popular cell packages
is the 18650, as illustrated in Figure 3-3. Eighteen denotes the diameter and 65 is the
length of the cell in millimeters. The Li-manganese version 18650 has a capacity of
1,200–1,500mAh; the Li-cobalt version is 2,400–3,000mAh. The larger 26650 cells have a
diameter of 26mm with a length of 65mm and deliver about 3,200mAh in the manganese
version. This cell format is used in power tools and some hybrid vehicles.


Figure 3-3: Popular 18650 lithium-ion cell

The metallic cylinder measures 18mm in diameter and 65mm in length. The larger 26650 cell measures 26mm in
diameter.

Courtesy of Cadex

Lead acid batteries come in flooded and dry formats; portable versions are packaged in
a prismatic design resembling a rectangular box made of plastic. Some lead acid systems
also use the cylindrical design by adapting the winding technique, and the Hawker
Cyclone is in this format. It offers improved cell stability, higher discharge currents and
better temperature stability than the conventional prismatic design.

Cylindrical cells include a venting mechanism that releases excess gases when pressure
builds up. The more simplistic design utilizes a membrane seal that ruptures under high
pressure. Leakage and subsequent dry-out may occur when the membrane breaks. The re-
sealable vents with a spring-loaded valve are the preferred design. Cylindrical cells make
inefficient use of space, but the air cavities that result with side-by-side placement can be
used for air-cooling.

Button Cell
Smaller devices required a more compact cell design, and in the 1980s the button cell met
this need. The desired voltage was achieved by stacking the cells into a tube. Early
cordless telephones, medical devices and security wands at airports used these batteries.

Although small and inexpensive to build, the stacked button cell fell out of favor, and
newer designs reverted to more conventional battery configurations. A drawback of the
button cell is swelling if charged too rapidly. Button cells have no safety vent and can only
be charged at a 10- to 16-hour charge. However, newer designs claim rapid charge
capability. Most button cells in use today are non-rechargeable and can be found in
medical implants, watches, hearing aids, car keys and memory backup. Figure 3-4
illustrates the button cells with accompanying cross section.

Figure 3-4: Button cells

Button cells, also known as coin cells, offer small size and ease of stacking but do not allow fast charging. Most
commercial button cells are non-rechargeable.

Courtesy of Sanyo and Panasonic

Prismatic Cell
Introduced in the early 1990s, the prismatic cell satisfies the demand for thinner sizes and
lower manufacturing costs. Wrapped in elegant packages resembling a box of chewing
gum or a small chocolate bar, prismatic cells make optimal use of space by using the
layered approach. These cells are predominantly found in mobile phones with lithium-ion.
No universal format exists and each manufacturer designs its own. If the housing design
allows a few millimeters extra in a cell phone or laptop, the manufacturer designs a new
pack for the sake of higher capacity. High volume justifies this move.

Prismatic cells are also making critical inroads into larger formats. Packaged in welded
aluminum housings, the cells deliver capacities of 20 to 30Ah and are primarily used for
electric powertrains in hybrid and electric vehicles. Figure 3-5 shows the prismatic cell.

The prismatic cell requires a slightly thicker wall size to compensate for the decreased
mechanical stability from the cylindrical design, resulting in a small capacity drop.
Optimizing use of space makes up this loss. Prismatic cells for portable devices range
from 400mAh to 2,000mAh.




Figure 3-5: Cross section of a prismatic cell

The prismatic cell improves space utilization and allows flexible design but it can be more expensive to manufacture,
less efficient in thermal management and have a shorter cycle life than the cylindrical design.

Courtesy of Polystor Corporation

Pouch Cell
In 1995, the pouch cell surprised the battery world with a radical new design. Rather than
using a metallic cylinder and glass-to-metal electrical feed-through for insulation,
conductive foil tabs welded to the electrode and sealed to the pouch carry the positive and
negative terminals to the outside. Figure 3-6 illustrates such a pouch cell.

Figure 3-6: The pouch cell

The pouch cell offers a simple, flexible and lightweight solution to battery design. Exposure to high humidity and hot
temperature can shorten service life.

Courtesy of Cadex

 The pouch cell makes the most efficient use of space and achieves a 90 to 95 percent
packaging efficiency, the highest among battery packs. Eliminating the metal enclosure
reduces weight but the cell needs some alternative support in the battery compartment.
The pouch pack finds applications in consumer, military, as well as automotive
applications. No standardized pouch cells exist; each manufacturer builds the cells for a
specific application.

Pouch packs are commonly Li-polymer. Its specific energy is often lower and the cell is
less durable than Li-ion in the cylindrical package. Swelling or bulging as a result of gas
generation during charge and discharge is a concern. Battery manufacturers insist that
these batteries do not generate excess gases that can lead to swelling. Nevertheless, excess
swelling can occur and most is due to faulty manufacturing, and not misuse. Some dealers
have failures due to swelling of as much as three percent on certain batches. The pressure
from swelling can crack a battery cover, and in some cases break the display and
electronic circuit board. Manufacturers say that an inflated cell is safe. While this may be
true, do not puncture a swollen cell in close proximity to heat or fire; the escaping gases
can ignite. Figure 3-7 shows a swelled pouch cell.

Figure 3-7: Swelling pouch cell

Swelling can occur as part of gas generation. Battery manufacturers are at odds why this happens. A 5mm (0.2”) battery
in a hard shell can grow to 8mm (0.3”) after 500 cycles, more in a foil package.

Courtesy of Cadex

To prevent swelling, the manufacturer adds excess film to create a “gas bag” outside the
cell. During the first charge, gases escape into the gasbag, which is then cut off and the
pack resealed as part of the finishing process. Expect some swelling on subsequent
charges; 8 to 10 percent over 500 cycles is normal. Provision must be made in the battery
compartment to allow for expansion. It is best not to stack pouch cells but to lay them flat
side by side. Prevent sharp edges that could stress the pouch cell as they expand.

Summary of Packaging Advantages and Disadvantages

A cell in a cylindrical metallic case has good cycling ability, offers a long calendar
life, is economical to manufacture, but is heavy and has low packaging density.

The prismatic metallic case has improved packaging density but can be more
expensive to manufacture, is less efficient in thermal management and may have a
shorter cycle life.

The prismatic pouch pack is light and cost-effective to manufacture. Exposure to high
humidity and hot temperature can shorten the service life. A swelling factor of 8–10
percent over 500 cycles is normal.

Series and Parallel Connection

Battery packs achieve the desired operating voltage by connecting several cells in series,
with each cell adding to the total terminal voltage. Parallel connection attains higher
capacity for increased current handling, as each cell adds to the total current handling.
Some packs may have a combination of serial and parallel connections. Laptop batteries
commonly have four
3.6V Li-ion cells in series to achieve 14.4V and two in parallel to boost the capacity from
2,400mAh to 4,800mAh. Such a configuration is called 4S2P, meaning 4 cells are in series
and 2 in parallel. Insulating foil between the cells prevents the conductive metallic skin
from causing an electrical short. The foil also shields against heat transfer should one cell
get hot.

Most battery chemistries allow serial and parallel configuration. It is important to use
the same battery type with equal capacity throughout and never mix different makes and
sizes. A weaker cell causes an imbalance. This is especially critical in a serial
configuration and
a battery is only as strong as the weakest link.

Imagine a chain with strong and weak links. This chain can pull a small weight but
when the tension rises, the weakest link will break. The same happens when connecting
cells with different capacities in a battery. The weak cells may not quit immediately but
get exhausted more quickly than the strong ones when in continued use. On charge, the
low cells fill up before the strong ones and get hot; on discharge the weak are empty
before the strong ones and they are getting stressed (see Chapter 8, “Cell Mismatch,
Balancing,” on page 179).

Single Cell Applications

The single-cell design is the simplest battery pack. A typical example of this configuration
is the cellular phone battery with a 3.6V lithium-ion cell. Other uses of a single cell are
wall clocks, which typically use a 1.5V alkaline cell, as well as wristwatches and memory
backup.

The nominal cell voltage of nickel is 1.2V. There is no difference between the 1.2V and
1.25V cell; the marking is simply preference. Whereas consumer batteries use 1.2V/cell as
the nominal rating, industrial, aviation and military batteries adhere to the original 1.25V.
The alkaline delivers 1.5V, silver-oxide 1.6V, lead acid 2V, primary lithium 3V, Li-
phosphate 3.3V and regular lithium-ion 3.6V. Li-manganese and other lithium-based
systems sometimes use 3.7V. This has nothing to do with electrochemistry and these
batteries can serve as 3.6V cells. Manufacturers like to use a higher voltage because low
internal resistance causes less of a voltage drop with a load. (See also Chapter 2,
“Confusion with Voltages,” on page 61 and “Lithium-based Batteries,” on page 48.)

Serial Connection

Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs with two or more cells
connected in series. Figure 3-8 shows a battery pack with four 1.2V nickel-based cells in
series to produce 4.8V. In comparison, a four-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will
generate 8V, and four Li-ion with 3.6V/cell will give 14.40V. If you need an odd voltage
of, say, 9.5 volts, you can connect five lead acid, eight NiMH/NiCd), or three Li-ion in
series. The end battery voltage does not need to be exact as long as it is higher than what
the device specifies. A 12V supply should work; most battery-operated devices can
tolerate some over-voltage.

Figure 3-8: Serial connection of four NiCd or NiMH cells
Adding cells in a string increases the voltage; the current remains the same.

Courtesy of Cadex

A higher voltage has the advantage of keeping the conductor size small. Medium-priced
cordless power tools run on 12V and 18V batteries; high-end power tools use 24V and
36V. The car industry talked about increasing the starter battery from 12V (14V) to 36V,
better known as 42V, by placing 18 lead acid cells in series. Logistics of changing the
electrical components and arcing problems on mechanical switches derailed the move.
Early hybrid cars run on 148V batteries; newer models have batteries with 450–500V.
Such a high-voltage battery requires 400 nickel-based cells in series. Li-ion cuts the cell
count by three.

High-voltage batteries require careful cell matching, especially when drawing heavy
loads or when operating in cold temperatures. With so many cells in series, the possibility
of one failing is real. One open cell would break the circuit and a shorted one would lower
the overall voltage.

Cell matching has always been a challenge when replacing a faulty cell in an aging
pack. A new cell has a higher capacity than the others, causing an imbalance. Welded
construction adds to the complexity of repair and for these reasons, battery packs are
commonly replaced as a unit when one cell fails. High-voltage hybrid batteries, in which a
full replacement would be prohibitive, divide the pack into blocks, each consisting of a
specific number of cells. If one cell fails, the affected block is replaced.

Figure 3-9 illustrates a battery pack in which “cell 3” produces only 0.6V instead of the
full 1.2V. With depressed operating voltage, this battery reaches the end-of-discharge point
sooner than a normal pack and the runtime will be severely shortened. The remaining
three cells are unable to deliver their stored energy when the equipment cuts off due to low
voltage. The cause of cell failure can be a partial short cell that consumes its own charge
from within through elevated self-discharge, or a dry-out in which the cell has lost
electrolyte by a leak
or through inappropriate usage.

Figure 3-9: Serial connection with one faulty cell
Faulty “cell 3” lowers the overall voltage from 4.8V to 4.2V, causing the equipment to cut off prematurely. The
remaining good cells can no longer deliver the energy.

Courtesy of Cadex

Parallel Connection

If higher currents are needed and larger cells with increased ampere-hour (Ah) ratings are
not available or the design has constraints, one or more cells are connected in parallel.
Most chemistries allow parallel configurations with little side effect. Figure 3-10
illustrates four cells connected in parallel. The voltage of the illustrated pack remains at
1.2V, but the current handling and runtime are increased fourfold.

Figure 3-10: Parallel connection of four cells

With parallel cells, the current handling and runtime increases while voltage stays the same.

Courtesy of Cadex

A high-resistance cell, or one that is open, is less critical in a parallel circuit than in
serial configuration, however, a weak cell reduces the total load capability. It’s like an
engine that fires on only three cylinders instead of all four. An electrical short, on the other
hand, could be devastating because the faulty cell would drain energy from the other cells,
causing a fire hazard. Most so-called shorts are of mild nature and manifest themselves in
elevated self-discharge. Figure 3-11 illustrates a parallel configuration with one faulty cell.


Figure 3-11: Parallel/connection with one faulty cell

A weak cell will not affect the voltage but will provide a low runtime due to reduced current handling. A shorted cell
could cause excessive heat and become a fire hazard.

Courtesy of Cadex

Serial/Parallel Connection

The serial/parallel configuration shown in Figure 3-12 allows superior design flexibility
and achieves the wanted voltage and current ratings with a standard cell size. The total
power is the product of voltage times current, and the four 1.2V/1000mAh cells produce
4.8Wh. Serial/parallel connections are common with lithium-ion, especially for laptop
batteries, and the built-in protection circuit must monitor each cell individually. Integrated
circuits (ICs) designed for various cell combinations simplify the pack design.

Figure 3-12: Serial/ parallel connection of four cells

This configuration provides maximum design flexibility.

Courtesy of Cadex

Simple Guidelines for Using Household Primary Batteries

Keep the battery contacts clean. A four-cell configuration has eight contacts (cell to
holder and holder to next cell); each contact adds resistance.

Never mix batteries; replace all cells when weak. The overall performance is only as
good as the weakest link in the chain.

Observe polarity. A reversed cell subtracts rather than adds to the cell voltage.

Remove batteries from the equipment when no longer in use to prevent leakage and
corrosion. While spent alkaline normally do not leak, spent carbon-zinc discharge
corrosive acid that can destroy the device.

Don’t store loose cells in a metal box. Place individual cells in small plastic bags to
prevent an electrical short. Don’t carry loose cells in your pockets.

Keep batteries away from small children. If swallowed, the current flow of the
battery can ulcerate the stomach wall. The battery can also rupture and cause
poisoning.

Do not recharge non-rechargeable batteries; hydrogen buildup can lead to an
explosion. Perform experimental charging only under supervision.

Simple Guidelines for Using Household Secondary Batteries

Observe polarity when charging a secondary cell. Reversed polarity can cause an
electrical short that can lead to heat and fire if left unattended.

Remove fully discharged batteries from the charger. A consumer charger may not
apply the optimal trickle charge and the cell could be stressed with overcharge.

Protection Circuits

Batteries can release high power, and most packs include protection to safeguard against
malfunction. The most basic safety device in a battery is a fuse that opens on high current.
Some devices open permanently and render the battery useless; others are more forgiving
and reset. The Polyswitch™ is such a re-settable device. It creates a high resistance on
excess current and reverts back to the low ON position when the condition normalizes. A
third method is a solid-state switch that measures the current and disconnects on excessive
load conditions. All switching devices have a residual resistance during normal operation,
which causes a slight increase in overall battery resistance and a subsequent voltage drop.

Intrinsically Safe Batteries
Intrinsically safe (IS) batteries contain protection circuits that prevent the formation of
high currents, which could lead to excess heat, sparks and explosion. Authorities mandate
intrinsically safe batteries for two-way radios, gas detectors and other electronic
instruments operating in hazardous areas such as oil refineries, chemical plants and grain
elevators. There are several levels of intrinsic safety, each serving a specific hazard level,
and the requirements vary from country to country. The provisions are in addition to the
protection circuit for lithium-ion, and the approval standards are rigorous. This results in a
high price for the battery.

Making Lithium-ion Safe
Battery packs for laptops and other portable devices contain many levels of protection to
assure safety under (almost) all circumstances when in the hands of the public. The safety
begins with the battery cell, which includes: [1] a built-in temperature switch called PTC
that protects against high current surges, [2] a circuit interrupt device (CID) that opens the
electrical path if an over-charge raises the internal cell pressure to 1000 kPa (145psi), and
[3] a safety vent that releases gas in the event of a rapid increase in cell pressure.

In addition to these internal safeguards, an external electronic protection circuit
prevents the charge voltage of any cell from exceeding 4.30V. Furthermore, a fuse cuts the
current if the skin temperature of any cell approaches 90°C (194°F). To prevent the battery
from over-discharging, a control circuit cuts off the current path at about 2.20V/cell.

Each cell in a string needs independent voltage monitoring. The higher the cell count,
the more complex the protection circuit becomes. Four cells in series had been the
practical limit for consumer applications. Today, new chips accommodate 5–7, 7–10 and
13 cells in series. For specialty applications, such as the hybrid or electric vehicle
delivering several hundred volts, specialty protection circuits are made, which sharply
increases the overall cost of the battery. Monitoring two or more cells in parallel to get
higher current is less critical than controlling voltages in a string configuration.

 Protection circuits can only shield abuse from the outside, such as an electrical short or
faulty charger. If, however, a defect occurs within the cell, such as contamination caused
by microscopic metal particles, the external protection circuit has little effect and cannot
arrest the reaction. Reinforced and self-healing separators are being developed for cells
used in electric powertrains, but this makes the batteries large and expensive. While a Li-
ion for a laptop provides a capacity of 170–200Wh/kg, the EV Li-ion has only 100–
110Wh/kg.

The gas released by venting of a Li-ion cell as part of pressure buildup is mainly carbon
dioxide (CO2). Other gases that form through abusive heating are vaporized electrolyte
consisting of ethylene and/or propylene. Burning gases include combustion products of
the organic solvents.

Li-ion commonly discharges to 3.0V/cell. This is the threshold at which most portable
equipment stops working. The lowest “low-voltage” power cut-off is 2.5V/cell, and during
prolonged storage, the self-discharge causes the voltage to drop further. This causes the
protection circuit to turn off and the battery goes to sleep as if dead. Most chargers ignore
Li-ion packs that have gone to sleep and a charge is no longer possible.

While in the ON position, the internal protection circuit has a resistance of 50 to
100mOhm. The circuit typically consists of two switches connected in series; one is
responsible for the high cut-off, and the other for the low cut-off. The protection circuit of
some smaller cellular batteries can be relaxed, and some get away with only the cell’s
intrinsic protection and/or an external fuse. The absence of a full protection circuit saves
money, but a new problem arises. Here is what can happen.

Some low-cost chargers rely solely on the battery’s protection circuit to terminate
charge current. Without a functioning voltage termination switch in the battery, the cell
voltage can rise too high and overcharge the battery. Heat buildup and bulging are early
indications of pending failures before potential disintegration occurs. Figure 3-13 shows a
battery that has fragmented while charging in a car.


Figure 3-13: Exploded cellular phone

Generic cell phone disintegrated while charging in the back of a car. Combination of unsafe battery and charger can have
a lethal effect. Manufacturers advise only to use approved batteries and chargers.

By owner’s permission

A concern also arises if static electricity or a faulty charger has destroyed the battery’s
protection circuit. This can fuses the solid-state switches into a permanent ON position
without the user’s knowledge. A battery with a faulty protection circuit may function
normally but fail to provide the required safety.

Low price makes generic replacement batteries from Asia popular with cell phone
users. While the quality and performance of these batteries is improving, some do not
provide the same high safety as the original branded version. A wise shopper spends a
little more and replaces the battery with an approved model.

I receive many questions on www.BatteryUniversity.com from visitors wanting to know
why the aftermarket does not provide low-cost laptop batteries as readily as cellular
batteries. This is mainly due to safety. While a 1,400mAh cellular battery stores only 4Wh
of energy, a laptop battery holds about 60Wh, 15 times more. Many manufacturers of
consumer batteries protect the batteries with a security inscription that very few can break.
Although aftermarket batteries are available, many do not offer all the functions of the
branded version. Typical problems are fuel-gauge errors and not being able to charge
correctly.

Manufacturers of lithium-ion batteries do not mention the word “explosion” and refer to
“venting with flame” or “rapid disassembly.” Although seen as a slower and more
controlled process than explosion, venting with flame, or rapid disassembly, can
nevertheless be violent and inflict injury to those in close proximity. The court hears many
legal cases involving laptops and other batteries that are said to have caused property
damage, fire and personal injury. This is also a large concern in the aviation industry. Most
of the batteries for consumer products are shipped by air just in time for improved
inventory control.

Building a Lithium-ion Pack
Reputable battery manufacturers do not supply Li-ion cells to uncertified battery
assemblers. This precaution is reasonable when considering the danger of explosion and
fire when charging and discharging a Li-ion pack beyond safe limits without an approved
protection circuit.

Authorizing a battery pack for the commercial market and for air transport can cost
$10,000 to $20,000. Such a high price is troubling when considering that obsolescence in
the battery industry is common. Manufacturers often discontinue a cell in favor of higher
capacities. The switch to the improved cell will require a new certification even though the
dimensions of the new cell are the same as the previous model.

Chapter 2, “Safety Concerns,” on page 61 explains how cell manufacturers must
comply with their own vigorous cell testing and we ask, “Why are additional tests required
when using an approved cell?” The cell approvals cannot be transferred to the pack
because the regulatory authorities do not recognize the safety confirmation of the naked
cell. The finished battery must be tested separately to assure correct assembly and is
registered as a standalone product.

As part of the test, the finished battery must undergo electrical and mechanical
assessment to meet the Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods on
lithium-ion batteries for air shipment, rules set by the United Nations (UN). The electrical
test stresses the battery by applying high heat, followed by a forced charge, abnormal
discharge and an electrical short. During the mechanical test, the battery is crush-tested
and exposed to high impact, shock and vibration. The UN Transport test also requires
altitude, thermal stability, vibration, shock, short circuit and overcharge checks. The UN
Transport works in conjunction with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the US
Department of Transport (US DOT) and the International Air Transport Association
(IATA).1

The authorized laboratory performing the tests needs 24 battery samples consisting of
12 new packs and 12 specimens that have been cycled for 50 times. IATA wants to assure
that the batteries in question are airworthy and have field integrity. Cycling them for 50
times before the test satisfies this requirement.

The high certification costs make many small manufacturers shy away from using Li-
ion for low-volume products; they choose nickel-based systems instead. While strict
control is justified, an uncertified Li-ion kept in the hands of the expert and out of aircraft
would be acceptable, but controlling such movement in the public domain is next to
impossible. This makes it hard for the hobbyist who wants to win a race with a high-
powered Li-ion battery but is bogged down
by many rules.

With recurring accidents while transporting lithium-based batteries by air, regulatory
authorities will likely tighten the shipping requirements further. However, anything made
too cumbersome and difficult will entice some battery manufacturers to trick the system,
defeating the very purpose of protecting the traveling public. (More is in Chapter 7, “How
to Transport Batteries,” on page 160.)

Simple Guidelines for Using Lithium-ion Batteries

Exercise caution when handling and testing lithium-ion batteries.

Do not short-circuit, overcharge, crush, drop, mutilate, penetrate with foreign objects,
apply reverse polarity, expose to high temperature or disassemble packs and cells.

Use only lithium-ion cells with a designated protection circuit and approved charger.

High temperature during charge or discharge may hint of pending failure.
Discontinue using the battery and/or charger.

The electrolyte is highly flammable and battery rupture can cause physical injury.

In case of fire, use water to prevent propagation; allow the battery to burn out in a
ventilated room. Different methods apply to lithium batteries containing lithium
metal.

If the fire of a burning lithium-ion battery cannot be extinguished, allow the pack to
burn out on its own in a controlled and safe way.

1 IATA (International Air Transport Association) works with airlines and air transport industry to promote safe, reliable,
secure and economical air travel.


Chapter 4 | Charge Methods

The performance and longevity of rechargeable batteries are to a large extent governed by
the quality of the charger. In a price-competitive world, battery chargers are often given
low priority, especially as consumer products. Choosing a quality charger is important
considering the cost of battery replacement and the frustration poorly performing batteries
create. The charger should serve as a quintessential master and guardian angel to protect
the environment and save money by extending battery life.

All About Chargers

There are two types of charger: the personal chargers and the fleet chargers. For cell
phones, laptops or digital cameras, manufacturers include personal chargers. These are
made for one battery type, are economically priced and perform well when used for the
device intended.

The fleet charger serves employees in a team environment and often has multi bays.
The original equipment manufacturer (OEM) sells the chargers and third parties also
provide them. While the OEMs meet the basic requirements, third-party manufacturers
often include special features, such as a discharge function for battery conditioning and
calibration.

Some manufacturers of third-party chargers have become creative and offer advanced
charge methods for lead- and nickel-based batteries. While pulse charging may be
beneficial for nickel-based batteries, this method is not recommended for Li-ion. The
voltage peaks are too high and cause havoc with the protection circuit. Battery
manufacturers do not support alternative charging methods and say that pulse charging
could shorten the life of Li-ion.

There are many valuable additional features for chargers, and hot- and cold-temperature
protection is one. Below freezing, the charger lowers or prevents charge depending on the
type of battery. When hot, the charger only engages when the battery temperature has
normalized to a safe level. Advanced lead acid chargers offer temperature-controlled
voltage thresholds, as well as adjustments to optimize charging for aging batteries.

Some chargers, including Cadex chargers, feature a wake-up feature or “boost” to allow
charging Li-ion batteries that have fallen asleep. This can occur if a Li-ion battery is stored
in a discharged condition and self-discharge has depressed the voltage to the cut-off point.
Regular chargers read these batteries as unserviceable and the packs are discarded. The
boost feature applies a small charge current to activate the protection circuit to 2.20–
2.90V/ cell, at which point a normal charge commences. Caution should be applied not to
boost lithium-based batteries back to life that have dwelled below 1.5V/cell for a week or
longer.

There are two common charge methods, which are voltage limiting (VL) and current
limiting (CL). Lead- and lithium-based chargers cap the voltage at a fixed threshold.
When reaching the cut-off voltage, the battery begins to saturate and the current drops
while receiving the remaining charge on its own timetable. Full charge detection occurs
when
the current drops to a designated level.

Nickel-based batteries, on the other hand, charge with a controlled current and the
voltage is allowed to fluctuate freely. This can be compared to lifting a weight with an
elastic band. The slight voltage drop after a steady rise indicates a fully charged battery.
The voltage drop method works well in terminating the fast charge, however, the charger
should include other safeguards to respond to anomalies such as shorted or mismatched
cells. Most batteries and chargers also include temperature sensors to end the charge if the
temperature exceeds a safe level.

A temperature rise is normal, especially when nickel-based batteries move towards full-
charge state. When in “ready” mode, the battery must cool down to room temperature.
Heat causes stress and prolonged exposure to elevated temperature shortens battery life. If
the temperature remains above ambient, the charger is not performing right and the battery
should be removed when “ready” appears. Extended trickle charge also inflicts damage,
and nickel-based batteries should not be left in the charger for more than a few days.

A lithium-based battery should not get warm in a charger and if this happens, the battery
or charger might be faulty. Discontinue using the battery and/or charger. Li-ion chargers
do not apply a trickle charge and disconnect the battery electrically when fully charged. If
these packs are left in the charger for a few weeks, a recharge may occur when the open
circuit voltage drops below a set threshold. It is not necessary to remove Li-ion from the
charger when full; however, if not used for a week or more, it is better to remove the pack
and recharge before use.

A mobile phone charger draws about 2 watts on charge, while a laptop on charge takes
close to 100 watts. The standby current must be low and Energy Star offers mobile phone
chargers drawing 30mW or less five stars for high efficiency; 30–150mW earns four stars,
150–250mW three stars, and 250–350mW two stars. The industry average is 300mW on
no-load consumption and this gets one star; higher than 500mW earns no star. Low
standby wattage is only possible with small chargers, such as the four billion mobile
phone chargers that are mostly plugged in.

Simple Guidelines When Buying a Charger

Use the correct charger for battery chemistry. Most chargers serve one chemistry
only.

The battery voltage must agree with the charger. Do not charge if different.

Within reasons, the Ah rating of a battery can be higher or lower than specified. A
larger battery will take longer to charge than a smaller one and vice versa.

The higher the amperage of the charger, the shorter the charge time will be.
There are limitations as to how fast a battery can be charged.

Accurate charge termination and correct trickle charge prolong battery life.

When fully saturated, a lead acid charger should switch to a lower voltage; a nickel-
based charger should have a trickle charge NiMH; a Li-ion charger provides no
trickle charge.

Chargers should have a temperature override to end charge on a malfunctioning
battery.

Observe the temperature of the charger and battery. Lead acid batteries stay cool
during charge; nickel-based batteries elevate the temperature towards the end of
charge and should cool down after charge; Li-ion batteries should stay cool
throughout charge.

Slow Charger
Also known as an “overnight charger,” the slow charger goes back to the old nickel-
cadmium days and applies a fixed charge of about 0.1C (one-tenth of the rated capacity) as
long as the battery is connected. Slow chargers are very simple; they have no full-charge
detection, the charge current is always engaged, and the charge time on an empty battery
is 14 to 16 hours.

When fully charged, a slow charger keeps NiCd lukewarm to the touch. Some
overcharge is acceptable and the battery does not need to be removed immediately when
ready. However, the pack should not stay in the charger for more than a day or two
because of “memory,” also known as crystalline formation (see Chapter 8, “Memory:
Myth or Fact?” on page 193).

A problem arises when charging a battery with a lower mAh rating than specified.
Although the slow charger will charge the battery normally at first, higher than 0.1C
current for this smaller battery will heat up the pack towards the full-charge state. Because
there is no provision to lower the current or terminate the charge, excessive heat will
shorten the life of this pack. Observe the battery temperature while charging and remove
the battery when warm to the touch. Most slow chargers have no “ready” light.

The opposite can also occur when the slow charger charges a larger battery. In this case,
the battery may never reach full charge and remains cold. Performance is poor because the
battery does not receive a full charge. A nickel-based battery that is undercharged will
eventually lose the ability to accept a full charge due to crystalline formation.

Slow chargers are found in cordless phones, electric toothbrushes and children’s toys. A
slow charger works well for these products because battery and charger are harmonized.
Chargers servicing a broader range of batteries need some intelligence to supervise the
charge, control the current when full, and provide safety if an anomaly occurs.

Rapid Charger
The rapid charger falls between the slow and fast chargers and services nickel- and
lithium-based batteries. Unless specially designed, the rapid charger cannot service both
nickel- and lithium-based chemistries on the same platform; it needs a designated
platform.

The rapid charger is most commonly used for consumer products. The charge time of an
empty pack is 3 to 6 hours (less for a partially charged battery), and when the battery is
full, the charger switches to “ready.” Most rapid chargers include temperature protection
to safeguard against failures. This and other features offer improved service over the slow
charger, and batteries tend to perform better. Although they are more expensive to build,
high-volume production makes the rapid charger available at a moderate price.

Fast Charger
The fast charger offers several advantages over others. The obvious one is shorter charge
times. Because of the need for a larger power supply and more complex control circuits,
fast chargers are reserved for commercial application, such as medical, military,
communications and power tools. Let’s not forget the hobbyist who must rely on a fast
charger with minimal interruptions.

The faster the charge time gets, the better the communication must be managed between
charger and battery. At a 1C charge rate, which the fast charger typically uses, an empty
NiCd and NiMH charges in a little more than an hour. As a battery approaches full charge,
some nickel-based chargers reduce the charge current to adjust to the lower charge
acceptance, and when the battery is full the charger switches to trickle charge, also known
as maintenance charge.

Most nickel-based fast chargers accommodate NiCd and NiMH batteries on the same
algorithm, but not Li-ion. To service a Li-ion pack, specialty dual-mode chargers can read
a security code on the battery that allows switching to the right charger setting.

Lead acid batteries cannot be fast-charged and the term “fast-charge” is a misnomer.
Most lead acid chargers charge the battery in 14 hours; anything slower may be a
compromise. As with all chemistries, lead acid can be charged relatively quickly to 70
percent; the all-important saturation charge consumes the remaining time. A partial charge
at a high rate is fine provided the battery receives a fully saturated charge once every few
weeks to prevent sulfation. Fast chargers serve the medical, military, power tool and
communication markets. Let’s not forget the hobbyist who wants minimal disruptions
caused by flat batteries.

Ultra-fast Chargers
Ultra-fast chargers have been around for many years. Large NiCds and specialty Li-ion
batteries can be charged at a very high rate up to 70 percent charge. At a rate of 10C, or 10
times the rated current, a 1A battery could theoretically be charged in six minutes, but
there are limits. To apply an ultra-fast charge, the following conditions must be observed:

The battery must be designed to accept an ultra-fast charge.

Ultra-fast charging only applies during the first charge phase, and the charge current
must be lowered once the 70 percent state-of-charge (SoC) threshold is reached.

All cells in the pack must be balanced and in good condition. Older batteries with
high internal resistance would heat up and are no longer suitable for ultra-fast
charging.

Ultra-fast charging can only be done under moderate temperatures. Low temperature
slows the chemical reaction, and energy not absorbed causes gassing and heat
buildup.

The charger must include temperature compensations and other safety provisions to
halt the charge if the battery gets unduly stressed.

An ultra-fast charger is similar to a high-speed train that is capable of traveling at
300km per hour (188 mph). Although made to go fast, the conditions of the tracks and not
the machinery govern the maximum speed. Adding power to a charger is relatively simple;
the intelligence to prevent overcharge on anomalies is the more complex task. A properly
designed ultra-fast charger only provides the amount of charge the battery can absorb
safely. Older batteries with high internal resistance and unmatched cells would not be
suitable for ultra-fast charging.

If at all possible, do not charge batteries the ultra-fast way. This causes undue stress. If
time permits, charge the battery at a more moderate current. An ultra-fast charger should
offer user-selectable charge rates to optimize the charging requirements.

Figure 4-1 compares the cycle life of a lithium-ion battery when charged and discharged
at 1C, 2C and 3C rates. Although the battery performs best at a gentle rate of 1C and less,
we must keep in mind that many applications require high rate-charging and discharging,
and hence the user must take the shorter life expectation into account.

Figure 4-1: Cycle performance of Li-ion with 1C, 2C and 3C charge and discharge

Charging and discharging Li-ion above 1C reduces service life. Use a slower charge and discharge if possible. This
applies to most batteries.

Charging from a USB Port
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) was introduced in 1996 and has since become one of the
most widespread and convenient interfaces for electronic devices. The USB port is a bi-
directional data port that provides a supply voltage to power memory sticks, keyboards,
mice, wireless interfaces, cameras, MP3 players and chargers.

With 5V and 500mA of available current, the USB bus can charge a small single-cell
Li-
ion pack, but there is a danger of overloading the USB hub when attaching too many
gadgets. Plugging in a charger that draws 500mA along with other devices will exceed the
port’s current limit, leading to a voltage drop and a possible system failure. To prevent
overload, some hosts include current-limiting circuits that shut down the supply when
overdrawn. Another method is limiting the current of all attachments to 400mA to reserve
100mA for housekeeping.

The most common USB chargers are designed for single-cell Li-ion. The charge begins
with a constant current charge to 4.20V/cell, at which point the voltage caps and the
current begins to decrease. Due to a voltage drop in the cable, which is about 350mV, and
losses in the charger circuit, it is possible that the 5V supply cannot supply the battery’s
4.2V charge threshold. This is no problem; the battery does not suffer but will deliver
shorter than expected runtimes.

The rectangular Type A USB plug has four connector pins and a shield. The rightmost
contact is number 1 and carries 5V; the leftmost contact is number 4 and forms the ground.
The two shorter pins in the middle are reserved for data transfer and have no function in
the USB charger. Figure 4-2 illustrates the rectangular Type A USB plug. Adapters are
available that convert the cigarette lighter to a USB port to charge a cell phone in a car.
You can also charge a cell phone from a laptop USB port. Note that the USB port is
unidirectional and cannot take power from an outside source. In other words, power only
flows out.

4 1

Figure 4-2: Rectangular Type A USB plug

The rightmost contact is number 1 and carries +5VDC; the leftmost pin is number 4 and is the ground. The housing
connects to the ground and provides shielding. Pins 2 and 3 carry data.

Charging Without Wires
Cellular phones, cameras, MP3 players and headsets can be charged without wire by
adding a transmitting and receiving coil to transfer magnetic power from the base to the
receiver. The Wireless Power Consortium (WPC) calls the transmitter the Base Station and
the receiver on the mobile device the Power Receiver. The base station contains one or
more transmitter coils to provide inductive coupling to the receiver(s). This is similar to a
transformer with a primary and secondary coil. Smaller base stations can deliver up to 5
watts; larger systems for appliances can go up to 300 watts. We focus on the smaller
station for mobile devices.

The base station is mostly in form of a charging mat. The power receiver consists of a
sleeve that fits snug over the housing of a mobile device with connection to the auxiliary
port for charging. Besides converting the magnetic power to electricity, the power receiver
also provides communication to the base station. This is in form of modulating the load
with an 8-bit data string to control power requirements.

The transmitter first sends a control signal to sense the presence of an object on the
charging mat. The receiver reacts and requests power, to which the transmitter complies.
With no object on the mat, or when the battery is fully charged, the transmitter is in
standby mode. Detection occurs by noticing a change in capacitance or resonance when
placing an object is on the mat.

The transmitter and receiver must be tuned to achieve the most efficient transfer of
power. Resonant circuits are not new and already Nikola Tesla used this technology in his
experiments with inductive power more than hundred years ago. Capacitors assist in
tuning the coils.

The mat achieves good coupling by matching the coils, adding shielding on the opposite
side of the coil, keeping the distances small and aligning them with the receiver. Guiding
the receiver into position accomplishes this, and the electric toothbrush in the cradle is a
typical example. Another system uses a free moving transmit coil that mates with the
receiver. A third design uses an array transmit coils. The transmitter on this method only
activates the coils that are in close proximity with the receiver coil.

Inductive charging offers the ultimate in convenience. With the 2010 Qi-agreement by
WPC on a global standard, many manufacturers of portable devices will include the power
receiver with the devices. This frees up the auxiliary jack for other uses, an advantage that
is not possible when the retrofit sleeve occupies it. Offering the receiver as part of the
finished product also reduces price. The aftermarket sleeve is expensive and makes the
mobile devices bulky.

Wireless charging is also feasible for larger appliances and the electric car. Charging on
an EV occurs by driving on top of the inductive coils embedded on the floor. The power
transfer is limited to 3,000 to 4,000 watts.

Charging by inductive coupling is not without drawbacks. With an efficiency of only
70 to 80 percent, lost energy turns into heat. Higher frequencies and tuned circuits promise
to improve the transfer efficiency and allow greater distances between the base station and
receiver. Concerns with electromagnetic field (EMF) and increased power consumption
are issues that must also be addressed. In the case of charging a cell phone battery, the
energy requirement is low and the battery will only request current when it is needed and
in the right amount. Drawing wireless power for kitchen appliances or charging a car
battery is different. Convenience could become a burden and the government-backed
Energy Star program (see page 102) is helping businesses and individuals to protect the
environment through greater energy efficiency.

Charging with Solar, Turbine

Can I charge cellular phones, laptops or power tools with solar power or a wind turbine?
Absolutely. This is an exciting way to step outside our four walls and use renewable
energy. The sun provides peak energy of about 1,000 watts per square meter (93W/sq.ft.).
From that source, a solar panel will generate roughly 130W/m2 (12W/sq.ft.). Photovoltaic
systems are 10 to 20 percent efficient.

A solar cell produces an open circuit voltage of 0.5–0.65V. Like batteries, solar cells can
be connected in series and parallel to achieve higher voltages and load currents (see
Chapter 3, “Series and Parallel Connection,” on page 92).

Solar energy can be expensive. It costs $8 to $10 in materials to generate one watt.
Producing 50W from solar panels to operate a laptop continuously, or charge a 50Wh
battery in two hours will cost $400 to $500. A system to charge a larger 12V, 150Wh, lead
acid battery for a cottage will cost between $1,200 and $1,500. Arguably, you can use
smaller solar panels and charge the battery longer. This, however, may not be enough to
keep your laptop and other appliances running all day. For example, a 20-watt solar
charger costs between $200 and $250 and the output on an overcast day may not be
sufficient for continuous operation.

In addition to the solar panels, you also need an inverter and charge controller. It’s best
to get a combined unit and most charge 12-volt lead acid batteries. An advanced charge
controller takes any energy, even if very low, and converts it by boosting and decreasing
the voltage to the desired level. The advanced controller also prevents overloading the
source if the output is weak. A device that offers the three functions of boosting and
lowering of voltage, as well as adjusting the load to the best power factor is complex and
would be out of price-range for casual users. Most commercial charger controllers require
a high enough voltage to allow down-regulation. Boosting and adjusting to the power
bandwidth of a source is seldom done. If a dark cloud covers the sun, most charge
controllers simply shut down.

To charge a laptop or cell phone, you need an inverter that transforms the DC voltage
from the solar panel to the correct supply voltage. Do not connect the raw voltage from a
solar panel or wind turbine directly to the device. Over-voltage on a high-output day could
overload the system. If the device has no DC input for charging, boost the DC source with
an inverter to 115AC or 230VAC, and then use a regular charger. Observe the input
voltage of the inverter. You may need additional DC regulation if the voltage swing from
the source is too large.

A solar-powered cottage would be the ultimate, however, a photovoltaic system costs
about $20,000. To produce one kW of power, you would need 10 to 12 large panels, which
would occupy about 33 square meters (355 square feet). According to Solarbuzz, the cost
to generate one kWh on a photovoltaic system is about $0.35. This compares to about
$0.10 for grid electricity. Charging with solar panels in the winter is a challenge. The
panels provide low power and batteries charge poorly at freezing temperatures. Li-ion
should not be charged below 0ºC (32ºF). For more detail please see page 128, “Charging
at High and Low Temperatures.”

Charger Chips
Charger design has been simplified through chips that embed charge intelligence. When
first introduced in the 1980s, these chips were hot commodities and were made popular
with the arrival of NiMH and Li-ion that need special charging algorithms. Charger chips
have since matured and serve in more basic charging devices.

Although charger chips are easy to use, they have limitations. Most offer a fixed charge
algorithm that does not permit fine-tuning for specialty uses. Features such as “boost,”
which reactivates the protection circuit when a Li-ion battery falls asleep, do not exist, nor
can a charger chip accommodate different chemistries selectable by a code, or do ultra-fast
charging with safeguards that include scaling the charge current to battery condition and
temperature. Temperature control is mostly through an on/off switch.

Microcontrollers offer an alternative to charger chips. Although the design cost is
higher because of programming, manufacturing costs are compatible to charger chips. We
must keep in mind that the charge chip or microcontroller form only a small part of the
charger circuit, and the bulk of the cost lies in the peripheral components, which include
solid-state switches and the power supply. The cost of these parts is in direct relationship
to current handling. To summarize the characteristics of chargers, Table 4-3 shows the
benefits and limitations of different charge methods. The emphasis is on performance,
simplicity and pricing.

Table 4-3: Charger characteristics. Each chemistry uses a unique charge termination.

Simple Guidelines on Chargers

Turn the portable device off while charging. A parasitic load confuses the charger.

Charge battery at a moderate rate. Ultra-fast charging causes undue stress.

Ultra-fast charge only fills the battery partially. A slower charge does the rest.

Do not apply ultra-fast charge when the battery is cold or hot. Charge batteries at
moderate temperatures only.

Do not apply ultra-fast charge to low-performing batteries. Very few chargers are
able to assess battery condition and govern charge accordingly.

Charging Lead Acid

We now study various charging methods and examine why some systems work better than
others. We focus on closed-loop techniques that communicate with the battery and
terminate charge when certain responses occur.

Lead acid charging uses a voltage-based algorithm that is similar to lithium-ion. The
charge time of a sealed lead acid battery is 12–16 hours, up to 36–48 hours for large
stationary batteries. With higher charge currents and multi-stage charge methods, the
charge time can be reduced to 10 hours or less; however, the topping charge may not be
complete. Lead acid is sluggish and cannot be charged as quickly as other battery systems.

Lead acid batteries should be charged in three stages, which are [1] constant-current
charge, [2] topping charge and [3] float charge. The constant-current charge applies the
bulk of the charge and takes up roughly half of the required charge time; the topping
charge continues at a lower charge current and provides saturation, and the float charge
compensates for the loss caused by self-discharge. Figure 4-4 illustrates these three stages.

During the constant-current charge, the battery charges to 70 percent in 5–8 hours; the
remaining 30 percent is filled with the slower topping charge that lasts another 7–10
hours. The topping charge is essential for the well-being of the battery and can be
compared to a little rest after a good meal. If deprived, the battery will eventually lose the
ability to accept a full charge and the performance will decrease due to sulfation. The float
charge in the third stage maintains the battery at full charge.

The switch from Stage 1 to 2 occurs seamlessly and happens when the battery reaches
the set voltage limit. The current begins to drop as the battery starts to saturate, and full
charge is reached when the current decreases to the three percent level of the rated current.
A battery with high leakage may never attain this low saturation current, and a plateau
timer takes over to initialize the charge termination.


Figure 4-4: Charge stages of a lead acid battery

The battery is fully charged when the current drops to a pre-determined level or levels out in stage 2. The float voltage
must be reduced at full charge.

Courtesy of Cadex

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Voltage rises at Voltage peaks, Float charge compensates for
constant current current decreases self-discharge. Voltage is lowered

The correct setting of the charge voltage is critical and ranges from 2.30 to 2.45V per
cell. Setting the voltage threshold is a compromise, and battery experts refer to this as
“dancing on the head of a needle.” On one hand, the battery wants to be fully charged to
get maximum capacity and avoid sulfation on the negative plate; on the other hand, an
over-saturated condition causes grid corrosion on the positive plate and induces gassing.

To make “dancing on the head of a needle” more difficult, the battery voltage shifts
with temperature. Warmer surroundings require slightly lower voltage thresholds and a
cold ambient prefers a higher level. Chargers exposed to temperature fluctuations should
include temperature sensors to adjust the charge voltage for optimum charge efficiency. If
this is not possible, it is better to choose a lower voltage for safety reasons. Table 4-5
compares the advantages and limitations of various peak voltage settings.


Table 4-5: Effects of charge voltage on a small lead acid battery (SLA)
Cylindrical lead acid cells have higher voltage settings than VRLA and starter batteries.

Once fully charged through saturation, the battery should not dwell at the topping
voltage for more than 48 hours and must be reduced to the float voltage level. This is
especially critical for sealed systems because these systems are less able to tolerate
overcharge than the flooded type. Charging beyond what the battery can take turns the
redundant energy into heat and the battery begins to gas. The recommended float voltage
of most low-pressure lead acid batteries is 2.25 to 2.27V/cell. (Large stationary batteries
float at 2.25V at 25°C (77°F.) Manufacturers recommend lowering the float charge at
ambient temperatures above 29°C (85°F). Not all chargers feature float charge. If your
charger stays on topping charge and does not drop below 2.30V/cell, remove the charge
after 48 hours of charge.

Whereas the voltage settings in Table 4-5 apply to low-pressure lead acid batteries with
a pressure relief valve of about 34kPa (5psi), cylindrical sealed lead acid, such as the
Hawker Cyclon cell, requires higher voltage settings and the limits should be set
according to the manufacturer’s specifications. Failing to apply the recommended voltage
will cause a gradual decrease in capacity due to sulfation. The Hawker Cyclon cell has a
pressure relief setting of 345kPa (50psi) and this allows some recombination of the gases
generated during charge.

Aging batteries pose a challenge when setting the optimal float charge voltage because
each cell has its own age-related condition. Weak cells may go into hydrogen evolution as
part of overcharge early on, while the stronger ones undergo oxygen recombination in an
almost starved state. Connected in a string, all cells receive the same charge current and
controlling individual cell voltages is almost impossible. A float current that is too high for
the faded cell might starve the strong neighbor and cause sulfation due to undercharge.
Companies have developed cell-balancing devices, which are placed on the battery and
compensate the differences in cell voltages that occur as a result of cell imbalance.

Ripple voltage imposed on the voltage of large stationary batteries also causes a
problem. The voltage peak constitutes an overcharge, causing hydrogen evolution, while
the valleys induce a brief discharge that creates a starved state that results in electrolyte
depletion. Manufacturers typically limit the ripple to five percent, or 5A for a 100Ah
battery.

Much has been said about pulse charging of lead acid batteries. There are apparent
advantages in reducing sulfation; however, the results are inconclusive and manufacturers
as well as service technicians are divided on the benefit. If sulfation could be measured
with accuracy and the right amount of pulses applied as a corrective service, then the
remedy could be beneficial. Giving an abrasive cure without knowing the underlying
results can be harmful.

Most stationary batteries are kept on float charge. To reduce stress, the so-called
hysteresis charge disconnects the float current when the battery is full. As the terminal
voltage drops due to self-discharge, an occasional topping charge replenishes the lost
energy. In essence, the battery is only “borrowed” from time to time for brief moments.
This mode works well for installations that do not draw a load when on standby.

Lead acid batteries must always be stored in a charged state. A topping charge should be
applied every six months to prevent the voltage from dropping below 2.10V/cell. With
AGM, these requirements can be somewhat relaxed.

Measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV) while in storage provides a reliable
indication as to the state-of-charge of the battery. A voltage of 2.10V at room temperature
reveals a charge of about 90 percent. Such a battery is in good condition and needs only a
brief full charge prior to use. If the voltage drops below 2.10V, the battery must be charged
to prevent sulfation. Observe the storage temperature when measuring the open circuit
voltage. A cool battery increases the voltage slightly and a warm one lowers it. Using
OCV to estimate state-of-charge works best when the battery has rested for a few hours,
because a charge or discharge agitates the battery and distorts the voltage.

Some buyers do not accept shipments of new batteries if the OCV at incoming
inspection is below 2.10V per cell. A low voltage suggests partial charge due to long
storage or a high self-discharge induced by a possible micro-short. Battery users have
indeed found that a pack arriving at a lower than specified voltage has a higher failure rate
than the others. Although in-house service can often bring such batteries to full
performance, the time and equipment required adds to operational costs. (Please note that
the 2.10V/cell acceptance threshold does not apply to all lead acid types.)

Watering
Watering is the single most important step in maintaining a flooded lead acid battery, a
requirement that is all to often neglected. The frequency of watering depends on usage,
charge method and operating temperature. A new battery should be checked every few
weeks to determine the watering requirement. This prevents the electrolyte from falling
below the plates. Avoid exposed plates at all times, as this will sustain damage, leading to
reduced capacity and lower performance.

If the plates are exposed, immediately fill the battery with distilled or de-ionized water
to cover the plates, and then apply a charge. Do not fill to the correct level before charging
as this could cause an overflow during charging. Always top up to the desired level after
charging. Never add electrolyte as this upsets the specific gravity and induces rapid
corrosion. Watering systems eliminate low electrolyte levels by automatically adding the
right amount of water.

Equalizing Charge
Stationary batteries are almost exclusively lead acid and some maintenance is required,
one of which is equalizing charge. Applying an equalizing charge every six months or
after 20 cycles brings all cells to similar levels by increasing the voltage to 2.50V/cell, or
10 percent higher than the recommended charge voltage.

An equalizing charge is nothing more than forced overcharge. It removes sulfation that
may have formed during low-charge conditions. Battery manufacturers recommend first
measuring sulfation. One method is to apply a saturated charge and then to compare the
specific gravity readings (SG) on the individual cells of a flooded lead acid battery. Only
apply equalization if the SG difference between the cells is 0.030. During equalizing
charge, check the changes in the SG reading every hour and disconnect the charge when
the gravity no longer rises. This is the time when no further improvement is possible, and
a continued charge would cause damage. The battery must be kept cool and under close
observation for unusual heat rise and excessive venting. Some venting is normal and the
hydrogen emitted is highly flammable. The battery room must have good ventilation.

Equalizing VRLA and other sealed batteries involves guesswork. Good judgment plays
a pivotal role when estimating the frequency and duration of the service. Some
manufacturers recommend monthly equalizations for 2 to 16 hours. Most VRLAs vent at
34kPa (5psi), and repeated venting leads to the depletion of the electrolyte that can lead to
a dry-out condition.

How to Charge with a Power Supply
With technical knowledge, batteries can be charged manually with a power supply
featuring user-adjustable voltage and current limiting. I stress manual because charging
cannot be left unattended; charge termination is not automated. You need to observe the
state-of-charge according to voltage and current behaviors. Lower the charge voltage or
disconnect the charge when the battery is full. Because of difficulties in detecting full
charge with nickel-based batteries, I recommend only charging lead acid and Li-ion
batteries manually.

Before connecting the battery, calculate the charge voltage according to the number of
cells in series, and then set the desired voltage and current limit. To charge a 12-volt lead
acid battery (six cells) to a voltage limit of 2.40V, set the voltage to 14.40V (6 x 2.40).
Select the charge current according to battery size. For lead acid this is between 10 and 30
percent of the rated capacity. A 10Ah battery at 30 percent charges at about 3A. Starter
batteries charge at lower currents, and an 80Ah pack would charge at about 10 percent of
the rating, or 8A. Higher currents are possible.

Observe the battery temperature, voltage and current during charge. Charge only at
ambient temperatures in a well-ventilated room. Once the battery is fully charged and the
current has dropped to three percent of the rated Ah, the charge is completed. Disconnect
the charge. High self-discharge (soft electrical short) may prevent the current from going
to the anticipated low current level when fully charged. Disconnect the charge also when
the current has bottomed out and cannot go lower. If you need float charge for operational
readiness, lower the charge voltage to about 2.25V/cell.

You can also use the power supply to equalize a lead acid battery by setting the charge
voltage 10 percent higher than recommended. The time in overcharge is critical and must
be carefully observed. When using the power supply to perform equalizing, refer to the
previous section entitled “Equalizing Charge.”

A power supply can also reverse sulfation but there is no guarantee of success. When
applying a charge, a totally sulfated lead acid may draw very little current at first, and as
the sulfation layer dissolves the current will gradually increase. If you must increase the
charge voltage above the recommended level, set the current limiting to the lowest
practical value and observe the battery voltage. If the battery does not accept a charge after
24 hours, restoration is unlikely. Chapter 8, “Sulfation,” on page 185 provides useful hints
on sulfation.

Lithium-ion charges similarly to lead acid and you can use the power supply also but
use extra caution. Set the voltage threshold to 4.20V/cell and make certain that none of the
cells connected in series exceeds this voltage. (The protection circuit in a commercial pack
does this.) Full charge is reached when the cell(s) reach 4.20V/cell voltage and the current
drops to three percent of the rated current, or has bottomed out and cannot go down
further. Once fully charged, disconnect the battery. Never allow a cell to dwell at 4.20V
for more than a few hours. More on this is under “Charging Lithium-ion,” on page 122.

I do not recommend charging nickel-based batteries with a power supply. Full-charge
detection is difficult to assess because the voltage signature varies with the applied charge
current. If you must charge, use the temperature rise on a rapid charge as an indication for
full charge. When charging at a low current, estimate the level of remaining charge and
calculate the charge time. An empty 2Ah NiMH will charge in three hours at 500mA. The
trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge, must be reduced to 0.05C. “Charging
Nickel-cadmium,” on page 117 and “Charging Nickel-metal-hydride,” on page 120
provide more information.

Battery as a Buffer
The main purpose of a stationary battery is to provide power during power outage. A
battery bank can also provide supplementary power during high-traffic periods. In
essence, the battery acts as a buffer to assist the AC power supply when so needed. The
term “AC power supply” refers to the unit that provides electrical power to the system and
charges stationary batteries.

Cellular repeater towers are an example where the battery serves as a buffer to bridge
heavy usage times. During off-peak periods, the batteries are fully charged, and at peak
times when the load exceeds the capacity of the power supply, the batteries kick in to
provide the extra power. A starter battery in a vehicle works in a similar way. While the
motor is on idle at a traffic light, the battery complements the power to run the lights,
windshield wipers and other accessories. Driving at highway speed replenishes the
borrowed power.

When relying on the battery as buffer, make certain that the battery has enough time to
charge between peak periods. The net charge must always be greater than what was drawn
from the battery. Avoid deep discharges and make sure that the float charge voltage is set
correctly. Stationary and starter batteries are not made for deep cycling. If excessively
cycled, the battery will experience unwanted stresses that will shorten the life.

Simple Guidelines for Charging Lead Acid Batteries

Charge in a well-ventilated area. Hydrogen gas generated during charging is

explosive.

Choose the appropriate charge program for flooded, gel and AGM batteries. Check
manufacturer’s specifications on recommended voltage thresholds.

Charge lead acid batteries after each use to prevent sulfation. Do not store on low
charge.

 The plates of flooded batteries must always be fully submerged in electrolyte. Fill
battery with distilled or de-ionized water to cover the plates if low. Tap water may be
acceptable in some regions. Never add electrolyte.

Fill water level to designated level after charging. Overfilling when the battery is
empty can cause acid spillage.

Formation of gas bubbles in a flooded lead acid indicates that the battery is reaching
full state-of-charge (hydrogen on negative plate and oxygen on positive plate).

Reduce float charge if the ambient temperature is higher than 29°C (85°F).

Do not allow a lead acid to freeze. An empty battery freezes sooner than one that is
fully charged. Never charge a frozen battery.

Do not charge at temperatures above 49°C (120°F).

Charging Nickel-cadmium

Battery manufacturers recommend that new batteries be slow-charged for 16 to 24 hours
before use. A slow charge brings all cells in a battery pack to an equal charge level. This is
important because each cell within the nickel-cadmium battery may have self-discharged
at its own rate. Furthermore, during long storage the electrolyte tends to gravitate to the
bottom of the cell and the initial trickle charge helps redistribute the electrolyte to
eliminate dry spots on the separator.

Battery manufacturers do not fully format the batteries before shipment. The cells reach
optimal performance after priming that involves several charge/discharge cycles. This is
part of normal use and can also be done with a battery analyzer. Early readings are often
inconsistent and a battery may require 50–100 charge/discharge cycles to reach the best
formation. Quality cells are known to perform to full specifications after only 5–7 cycles.
Peak capacity occurs between 100–300 cycles, after which the performance starts to drop
gradually.

Most rechargeable cells include a safety vent that releases excess pressure if incorrectly
charged. The vent on a NiCd cell opens at 1,000–1,400kPa (150–200psi). Pressure release
through a re-sealable vent causes no damage; however, with each venting, some
electrolyte escapes and the seal may begin leaking. The formation of a white powder at the
vent opening makes this visible, and multiple venting will eventually result in a dry-out
condition. A battery should never be stressed to the point of venting.

Full-charge Detection by Temperature

Full-charge detection of sealed nickel-based batteries is more complex than that of lead
acid and lithium-ion. Low-cost chargers often use temperature sensing to end the fast-
charge, but this can be inaccurate. The core of a cell is several degrees warmer than the
skin where the temperature is measured, and the delay that occurs causes over-charge.
Charger manufacturers use 50°C (122°F) as temperature cut-off. Although any prolonged
temperature above 45°C (113°F) is harmful to the battery, a brief overshoot is acceptable
as long as the battery temperature will drop quickly when the “ready” light appears.

With microprocessors, advanced chargers no longer rely on a fixed temperature
threshold, but sense the rate of temperature increase over time, also known as delta
Temperature over delta time, or dT/dt. Rather than waiting for an absolute temperature to
occur, this method uses the rapid temperature increase towards the end of charge to trigger
the “ready” light. The delta Temperature method keeps the battery cooler than a fixed
temperature cut-off, but the cells need to charge reasonably fast to trigger the temperature
rise. Charge termination occurs when the temperature rises 1°C (1.8°F) per minute. If the
battery cannot achieve the pace of temperature rise, an absolute temperature cut-off set to
60°C (140°F) terminates the charge.

Chargers relying on temperature inflict harmful overcharges when a fully charged
battery is removed and reinserted. This is the case with chargers in vehicles and desktop
stations where a two-way radio is being removed with each use. Every reconnection
initiates a fast-charge cycle that raises the battery temperature to the triggering point again.
Li-ion systems have an advantage in that state-of-charge is being detected by voltage.
Reinserting a fully charged Li-ion battery pushes the voltage to the full-charge threshold,
and the charger turns
off shortly without needing to create a temperature signature.

Full-charge Detection by Voltage Signature

Advanced chargers terminate charge when a defined voltage signature occurs. This
provides more precise full-charge detection of nickel-based batteries than temperature-
based methods. Monitoring time and voltage, a microcontroller in the charger looks for a
voltage drop that occurs when the battery has reached full charge. This method is called
negative delta V (NDV).

NDV is the recommended full-charge detection for “open-lead” nickel-based chargers.
“Open-lead” refers to batteries that have no thermistor. NDV offers a quick response time
and works well with a partially or fully charged battery. When inserting a fully charged
battery, the terminal voltage rises quickly, and then drops sharply to trigger the ready state.
The charge in this case lasts only a few minutes and the cells remain cool. NiCd chargers
based on the NDV full-charge detection typically respond to a voltage drop of 10mV per
cell.

To obtain voltage drop of 10mV per cell, the charge rate must be 0.5C and higher.
Slower charging produces a less defined voltage drop and this becomes difficult to
measure, especially if the cells are mismatched. In this case, each cell in a mismatched
pack reaches the full charge at a different time and the voltage curve flattens out.

Failing to achieve a sufficient negative slope would allow the fast charge to continue.
To prevent this, most chargers combine NDV with a voltage plateau detector that
terminates the charge when the voltage remains in a steady state for a given time. For
additional safety, most advanced chargers also include delta temperature, absolute
temperature and a time-out timer.

NDV works best with fast charging. A fast charge also improves charge efficiency. At a
1C charge rate, the charge efficiency of a standard NiCd is 91 percent, and the charge time
is about an hour (66 minutes at an assumed charge efficiency of 91 percent). A battery that
is partially charged or has reduced capacity due to age will have a shorter charge time
because there is less to fill. In comparison, the efficiency on a slow charger drops to 71
percent. At a charge rate of 0.1C, the charge time is about 14 hours.

During the first 70 percent of charge, the efficiency of a NiCd is close to 100 percent;
the battery absorbs almost all energy and the pack remains cool. NiCd batteries designed
for fast charging can be charged with currents that are several times the C-rating without
much heat buildup. Ultra-fast chargers use this quality and charge to 70 percent in
minutes. The full charge must be done with a reduced current. (More on page 104, “Ultra-
fast Chargers.”)

Figure 4-6 illustrates the relationship of cell voltage, pressure and temperature of a
charging NiCd. We observe an almost perfect charge behavior up to about 70 percent,
after which the battery loses the ability to accept charge. The cells begin to generate gases,
the pressure rises and the temperature increases rapidly. One can appreciate the
importance of accurate full-charge detection to terminate the fast charge before damaging
overcharge occurs. In an attempt to gain a few extra capacity points, however, some
chargers allow a limited amount of overcharge.


Figure 4-6: Charge characteristics of a NiCd cell

Above 70 percent state-of-charge, temperature and cell pressure rise quickly. NiMH has similar charge characteristics.

Courtesy of Cadex

Ultra-high-capacity NiCd batteries tend to heat up more than standard NiCds when
charging at 1C and higher, and this is partly due to the higher internal resistance. Applying
a high current at the initial charge and then tapering to a lower rate as the charge
acceptance decreases achieves good results with all nickel-based batteries. This moderates
excess temperature rise while assuring fully charged batteries.

Interspersing discharge pulses between charge pulses is known to improve charge
acceptance of nickel-based batteries. Commonly referred to as a “burp” or “reverse load”
charge, this method assists in the recombination of gases generated during charge. The
result is a cooler and more effective charge than with conventional DC chargers. There is
also the believed benefit of reduced “memory” effect, as the battery is being exercised
while charging with pulses (see Figure 8-20 on the breakdown of crystallization, on page
193). While pulse charging may be valuable for NiCd and NiMH batteries, this type of
charge does not apply to lead- and lithium-based systems. These batteries work best with a
pure DC charge voltage.

After full charge, the NiCd battery receives a trickle charge of between 0.05C and 0.1C
to compensate for the self-discharge. To reduce possible overcharge, charger designers
aim for the lowest possible trickle charge current. Even though the trickle charge is
carefully measured, it is best not to leave nickel-based batteries in a charger for more than
a few days. Remove them and recharge before use.

Charging Flooded Nickel-cadmium Batteries

The flooded NiCd is charged with a constant voltage to about 1.55V/cell. The current is
then reduced to 0.1C-rate and the charge continues until 1.55V/cell is reached again. At
this point, a trickle charge is applied and the voltage is allowed to float freely. Higher
charge voltages are possible but this generates excess gas and causes rapid water
depletion.

Charging Nickel-metal-hydride

The charge algorithm for NiMH is similar to NiCd with the exception that NiMH is more
complex. The NDV method to measure full charge shows only a faint voltage drop,
especially when charging at less than 0.5C. A hot battery or one with mismatched cells
works against the already minute voltage drop.

The NDV in a NiMH charger must respond to a voltage drop of 5mV per cell. To assure
reliable charging, NiMH chargers must include electronic filtering to compensate for noise
and voltage fluctuations induced by the battery and the charger. Modern chargers achieve
this by combining NDV, voltage plateau, delta temperature (dT/dt), temperature threshold
and time-out timers into the full-charge detection algorithm. These “or-gates” utilize
whatever comes first depending on battery condition. Many chargers include a 30-minute
topping charge of 0.1C to add a few percentage points of extra charge.

Some advanced chargers apply an initial fast charge of 1C. When reaching a certain
voltage threshold, a rest of a few minutes is added, allowing the battery to cool down. The
charge continues at a lower current and applies further current reductions as the charge
progresses. This scheme continues until the battery is fully charged. Known as the “step-
differential charge,” this method works well for all nickel-based batteries.

Chargers utilizing step-differential or other aggressive charge methods achieve a
capacity gain of about six percent over a more basic charger, an increase that is not
possible without stressful overcharge. Although a higher capacity is desirable, filling the
battery to the brim has a negative effect in that it will shorten the overall battery life.
Rather than achieving 350 to 400 service cycles, the aggressive charger might exhaust the
pack after 300 cycles.

NiMH cannot absorb overcharge well and the trickle charge is set to around 0.05C. In
comparison, the older NiCd charger trickle charges at 0.1C, double that rate. Differences
in trickle charge and the need for a more sensitive full-charge detection render the original
NiCd charger unsuitable for NiMH batteries. A NiMH in a NiCd charger would overheat,
but a NiCd in a NiMH charger does well because the lower trickle charge is also sufficient
for NiCd.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to slow-charge a NiMH battery. At a C-rate of 0.1 to
0.3C, the voltage and temperature profiles fail to exhibit defined characteristics to measure
the full-charge state accurately and the charger must depend on a timer. Harmful
overcharge will occur if a fixed timer controls the charge. This is especially apparent when
charging partially or fully charged batteries.

The same scenario occurs if the battery has lost capacity due to aging and can only hold
half the capacity. In essence, this battery has electrically shrunk to half size while the fixed
timer is programmed to apply a 100 percent charge without regard for the battery
condition. In most cases an overcharge will heat the battery, but this is not always the case.
A poorly designed NiMH charger is capable of overcharging a battery without heat
buildup. At a sufficiently low charge rate, NiMH can remain totally cool and yet suffer
from overcharge.

Battery users are often dissatisfied with shorter than expected service life of a battery.
Let’s not blame the battery manufacturer, because the fault might lie in the charger. Low-
priced consumer chargers are especially prone to incorrectly charging. If you use such a
charger and want to improve battery performance, estimate the battery state-of-charge and
capacity and set the charge time accordingly. Remove the batteries when you think they
are full. If your charger charges at a high charge rate, do a temperature touch. Lukewarm
indicates that the batteries may be full enough for removal. It is far better to remove the
batteries and then recharge before use than to leave them in the charger for eventual use.

Note that some nickel-based batteries heat up during charge and this is in part due to
high internal resistance. Such a battery may be warm to the touch even though it is only
partially charged. Another battery might be fully charged and remain cool. Charging NiCd
and NiMH batteries on an inexpensive charger is guesswork, and it is best not to charge
them longer than necessary. Remove the batteries when perceived full and give them a
quick charge before use.

Simple Guidelines on Charging Nickel-based Batteries

Consumer chargers do not always terminate the charge correctly. Remove the
batteries when perceived full.

Do not charge at high or freezing temperatures. Room temperature is best.

Do not use chargers that cook batteries. If no alternative exists, charge under
supervision and remove the battery when warm to the touch.

Nickel-based batteries are best fast charged; a lingering slow charge causes memory.

NiMH chargers can charge NiCd, but not the other way. NiCd chargers overcharge
NiMH.

To charge NiMH with a NiCd charger, estimate the charge time and remove the
battery when perceived full (trickle charge of NiCd charger is too high for NiMH).

High charge current, overcharge, or an aging battery may cause heat build-up

Do not leave a nickel-based battery in the charger for more than a few days, even
with correct trickle charge. Remove and apply a brief charge before use.

Nickel- and lithium-based batteries require different charge algorithms. Unless
provisions are made, these two chemistries cannot share the same charger.

Charging Lithium-ion

Charging and discharging batteries is a chemical reaction, but Li-ion is claimed as an
exception. Here, battery scientists talk about energies flowing in and out as part of ion
movement between anode and cathode. This claim has merits, but if the scientists were
totally right then the battery would live forever, and this is wishful thinking. The experts
blame capacity fade on ions getting trapped. For simplicity, we consider aging a corrosion
that affects all battery systems.

The Li-ion charger is a voltage-limiting device that is similar to the lead acid system.
The difference lies in a higher voltage per cell, tighter voltage tolerance and the absence of
trickle or float charge at full charge. While lead acid offers some flexibility in terms of
voltage cut-off, manufacturers of Li-ion cells are very strict on the correct setting because
Li-ion cannot accept overcharge. The so-called miracle charger that promises to prolong
battery life and methods that pump extra capacity into the cell do not exist here. Li-ion is a
“clean” system and only takes what it can absorb. Anything extra causes stress.

Most cells charge to 4.20V/cell with a tolerance of +/–50mV/cell. Higher voltages
could increase the capacity, but the resulting cell oxidation would reduce service life.
More important is the safety concern if charging beyond 4.20V/cell. Figure 4-7 shows the
voltage and current signature as lithium-ion passes through the stages for constant current
and topping charge.

The charge rate of a typical consumer Li-ion battery is between 0.5 and 1C in Stage 1,
and the charge time is about three hours. Manufacturers recommend charging the 18650
cell at 0.8C or less. Charge efficiency is 97 to 99 percent and the cell remains cool during
charge. Some Li-ion packs may experience a temperature rise of about 5ºC (9ºF) when
reaching full charge. This could be due to the protection circuit and/or elevated internal
resistance. Full charge occurs when the battery reaches the voltage threshold and the
current drops to three percent of the rated current. A battery is also considered fully
charged if the current levels off and cannot go down further. Elevated self-discharge might
be the cause of this condition.

Increasing the charge current does not hasten the full-charge state by much. Although
the battery reaches the voltage peak quicker with a fast charge, the saturation charge will
take longer accordingly. The amount of charge current applied simply alters the time
required for each stage; Stage 1 will be shorter but the saturation Stage 2 will take longer.
A high current charge will, however, quickly fill the battery to about 70 percent.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Voltage rises at Voltage peaks, Charge Occasional
constant current current decreases terminates topping charge

Figure 4-7: Charge stages of lithium-ion. Li-ion is fully charged when the current drops to a predetermined level or
levels out at the end of Stage 2. In lieu of trickle charge, some chargers apply a topping charge when the voltage drops to
4.05V/cell (Stage 4).

Courtesy of Cadex

Li-ion does not need to be fully charged, as is the case with lead acid, nor is it desirable
to do so. In fact, it is better not to fully charge, because high voltages stresses the battery.
Choosing a lower voltage threshold, or eliminating the saturation charge altogether,
prolongs battery life but this reduces the runtime. Since the consumer market promotes
maximum runtime, these chargers go for maximum capacity rather than extended service
life.

Some lower-cost consumer chargers may use the simplified “charge-and-run” method
that charges a lithium-ion battery in one hour or less without going to the Stage 2
saturation charge. “Ready” appears when the battery reaches the voltage threshold at Stage
1. Since the state-of-charge (SoC) at this point is only about 85 percent, the user may
complain of short runtime, not knowing that the charger is to blame. Many warranty
batteries are being replaced for this reason, and this phenomenon is especially common in
the cellular industry.

Avoiding full charge has benefits, and some manufacturers set the charge threshold
lower on purpose to prolong battery life. Table 4-8 illustrates the estimated capacities
when charged to different voltage thresholds with and without saturation charge.

Table 4-8: Typical charge characteristics of lithium-ion. Adding full saturation at the set voltage boosts the capacity
by about 10 percent but adds stress due to high voltage.

When the battery is first put on charge, the voltage shoots up quickly. This behavior can
be compared to lifting a heavy weight with an elastic band. The lifting arm moves up but
the weight lags behind. The voltage of the charging battery will only catch up when the
battery is almost fully charged (see Figure 4-9). This charge characteristic is typical of all
batteries.

Relying on voltage to read the available capacity during charge is impractical. The open
circuit voltage (OCT) can, however, be used to predict state-of-charge after the battery has
rested for a few hours. The rest period calms the agitated battery to regain equilibrium. As
with all batteries, temperature affects the OCV. (More on this subject is in Chapter 9,
“How to measure State-of-charge,” on page 215.)

Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge, and when fully charged the charge current must be cut
off. A continuous trickle charge (maintenance charge) would cause plating of metallic
lithium, and this could compromise safety. To minimize stress, keep the lithium-ion
battery at the 4.20V/cell peak voltage as short a time as possible.

Once the charge is terminated, the battery voltage begins to drop, and this eases the
voltage stress. Over time, the open-circuit voltage will settle to between 3.60 and
3.90V/cell. Note that a Li-ion battery that received a fully saturated charge will keep the
higher voltage longer than one that was fast-charged and terminated at the voltage
threshold without a saturation charge.

Figure 4-9: Capacity as a function of charge voltage on a lithium-ion battery

The capacity trails the charge voltage, like lifting a heavy weight with an elastic band.

Courtesy of Cadex

If a lithium-ion battery must be left in the charger for operational readiness, some
chargers apply a brief topping charge to compensate for the small self-discharge the
battery and its protective circuit consume. The charger may kick in when the open-circuit
voltage drops to 4.05V/cell and turn off again at a high 4.20V/cell. Chargers made for
operational readiness, or standby mode, often let the battery voltage drop to 4.00V/cell
and recharge to only 4.05V/cell instead of the full 4.20V/cell. This reduces voltage-related
stress and prolongs battery life.

Some portable devices sit in a charge cradle in the on position. The current drawn
through the device is called the parasitic load and can distort the charge cycle. Battery
manufacturers advise against parasitic load because it induces mini-cycles. The battery is
continuously being discharged to 4.20V/cell and then charged by the device. The stress
level on the battery is especially high because the cycles occur at the 4.20V/cell threshold.

A portable device must be turned off during charge. This allows the battery to reach the
set threshold voltage unhindered, and enables terminating charge on low current. A
parasitic load confuses the charger by depressing the battery voltage and preventing the
current in the saturation stage to drop low. A battery may be fully charged, but the
prevailing conditions prompt a continued charge. This causes undue battery stress and
compromises safety.

Battery professionals agree that charging lithium-ion batteries is simpler and more
straight-forward than nickel-based systems. Besides meeting the voltage tolerances, the
charge circuits are relatively simple. Limiting voltage and observing low current in
triggering “ready” is easier than analyzing complex signatures that may change with age.
Charge currents with Li-ion are less critical and can vary widely. Any charge will do,
including energy from a renewable resource such as a solar panel or wind turbine. Charge
absorption is very high and with a low and intermittent charge, charging simply takes a
little longer without negatively affecting the battery. The absence of trickle charge further
helps simplify the charger.

Overcharging Lithium-ion
Lithium-ion operates safely within the designated operating voltages; however, the battery
becomes unstable if inadvertently charged to a higher than specified voltage. Prolonged
charging above 4.30V forms plating of metallic lithium on the anode, while the cathode
material becomes an oxidizing agent, loses stability and produces carbon dioxide (CO2).
The cell pressure rises, and if charging is allowed to continue the current interrupt device
(CID) responsible for cell safety disconnects the current at 1,380kPa (200psi).

Should the pressure rise further, a safety membrane bursts open at 3,450kPa (500psi)
and the cell might eventually vent with flame. The thermal runaway moves lower when
the battery is fully charged; for Li-cobalt this threshold is between 130–150C°C (266–
302°F), nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) is 170–180°C (338–356°F), and manganese is
250°C (482°F). Li-phosphate enjoys similar and better temperature stabilities than
manganese.

Lithium-ion is not the only battery that is a safety hazard if overcharged. Lead- and
nickel-based batteries are also known to melt down and cause fire if improperly handled.
Nickel-based batteries have also been recalled for safety concerns. Properly designed
charging equipment is paramount for all battery systems.

Over-discharging Lithium-ion
Li-ion should never be discharged too low, and there are several safeguards to prevent this
from happening. The equipment cuts off when the battery discharges to about 3.0V/cell,
stopping the current flow. If the discharge continues to about 2.70V/cell or lower, the
battery’s protection circuit puts the battery into a sleep mode. This renders the pack
unserviceable and a recharge with most chargers is not possible. To prevent a battery from
falling asleep, apply a partial charge before a long storage period.

Battery manufacturers ship batteries with a 40 percent charge. The low charge state
reduces aging-related stress while allowing some self-discharge during storage. To
minimize the current flow for the protection circuit before the battery is sold, advanced Li-
ion packs feature a sleep mode that disables the protection circuit until activated by a brief
charge or discharge. Once engaged, the battery remains operational and the on state can no
longer be switched back to the standby mode.

Do not recharge lithium-ion if a cell has stayed at or below 1.5V for more than a week.
Copper shunts may have formed inside the cells that can lead to a partial or total electrical
short. If recharged, the cells might become unstable, causing excessive heat or showing
other anomalies. Li-ion packs that have been under stress are more sensitive to mechanical
abuse, such as vibration, dropping and exposure to heat.

Charging Lithium-ion Polymer
Charging Li-ion polymer, also referred as Li-polymer, is very similar to a regular lithium-
ion battery and no changes in algorithm are necessary. Most users won’t even know if
their battery is Li-ion or Li-polymer. The word “polymer” has been used as promotional
hype and does not reflect special attributes other than to know that the battery is built in a
different way to a standard Li-ion.

Most polymer batteries are based on a hybrid architecture that is a cross between Li-ion
and Li-polymer. There are many variations within the polymer family, and the true dry
polymer battery for the consumer market is still years away. Also known as the “plastic
battery,” this system was first announced in early 2000 but was never able to attain the
conductivity needed for most applications at ambient temperatures. For more information
on the Li-polymer battery, please see Chapter 2, “Lithium-polymer,” on page 60. Chapter
3, “Pouch Cell,” on page 90 describes the packages.

Simple Guidelines for Charging Lithium-based Batteries

A portable device should be turned off while charging. This allows the battery to
reach the threshold voltage unhindered and reflects the correct saturation current
responsible to terminate the charge. A parasitic load confuses the charger.

Charge at a moderate temperature. Do not charge below freezing.

Lithium-ion does not need to be fully charged; a partial charge is better.

Chargers use different methods for “ready” indication. The light signal may not
always indicate a full charge.

Discontinue using charger and/or battery if the battery gets excessively warm.

Before prolonged storage, apply some charge to bring the pack to about half charge.

Over-discharged batteries can be “boosted” to life again. Discard pack if the voltage
does not rise to a normal level within a minute while on boost.

Charging at High and Low Temperatures

Rechargeable batteries operate in a wide temperature range but this does not give license
to charge them at extreme temperatures. Extreme cold and high heat reduce charge
acceptance, and the battery must be brought into moderate temperature conditions before
charging.

Older battery technologies, such as lead acid and NiCd, have higher charging tolerances
than newer systems and can be charged below freezing at a reduced 0.1C rate. This is not
possible with most NiMH and lithium-ion systems. Table 4-10 summarizes the
permissible charge and discharge temperatures of common lead acid, NiCd, NiMH and Li-
ion. We exclude specialty batteries designed to charge outside these parameters.


Table 4-10: Permissible temperature limits for various batteries. Batteries can be discharged over a large temperature
range but charge temperature is limited. For best results, charge between 10°C and 30°C (50°F and 86°F). Lower the
charge current when cold.

Low-temperature Charge
Fast charging of most batteries is limited to a temperature of 5 to 45°C (41 to 113°F); for
best results consider narrowing the temperature bandwidth to between 10°C and 30°C
(50°F and 86°F). Nickel-based batteries are most forgiving in accepting charge at low
temperatures, however, when charging below 5°C (41°F), the ability to recombine oxygen
and hydrogen diminishes. If NiCd and NiMH are charged too rapidly, pressure builds up
in the cell that will lead to venting. Not only do escaping gases deplete the electrolyte, the
hydrogen released is highly flammable. The charge current of all nickel-based batteries
should be reduced to 0.1C below freezing.

Nickel-based chargers with NDV full-charge detection offer some protection when fast-
charging at low temperatures. The resulting poor charge acceptance mimics a fully
charged battery. This is in part due to the pressure buildup caused by gas recombination
problems. Pressure rise and a voltage drop at full charge appear to be synonymous.

To enable fast-charging at all temperatures, some industrial batteries include a thermal
blanket that heats the battery to an acceptable temperature; other chargers adjust the
charge rate to prevailing temperatures. Consumer chargers do not have these provisions
and users should make all attempts to only charge batteries at room temperatures.

Lead acid is reasonably forgiving when it comes to temperature extremes, as we know
from the starter batteries in our cars. Part of this tolerance is their sluggish behavior. The
recommended charge rate at low temperature is 0.3C, which is almost the same as under
normal conditions. At a comfortable temperature of 20°C (68°F), gassing starts at
2.415V/cell, and by lowering the temperature to –20°C (0°F), the gassing voltage rises to
2.97V/cell.

Do not freeze a lead acid battery. This would causes permanent damage. Always keep
the batteries fully charged. In the discharged state the electrolyte becomes more water-like
and freezes earlier than a fully charged battery. According to BCI, a specific gravity of
1.15 has a freezing temperature of –15°C (5°F). This compares to 1.265 of a fully charged
starter battery. Flooded lead acid batteries tend to crack the case and cause leakage if
frozen; sealed lead acid packs lose potency and only deliver a few cycles before a
replacement is necessary.

Li-ion batteries offer reasonably good charging performance at cooler temperatures and
allow fast-charging in a temperature bandwidth of 5 to 45°C (41 to 113°F). Below 5°C,
the charge current should be reduced, and no charging is permitted at freezing
temperatures. During charge, the internal cell resistance causes a slight temperature rise
that compensates for some of the cold. With all batteries, cold temperature raises the
internal resistance.

Many battery users are unaware that consumer-grade lithium-ion batteries cannot be
charged below 0°C (32°F). Although the pack appears to be charging normally, plating of
metallic lithium can occur on the anode during a subfreezing charge. The plating is
permanent and cannot be removed with cycling. Batteries with lithium plating are known
to be more vulnerable to failure if exposed to vibration or other stressful conditions.
Advanced chargers, such as those made by Cadex, prevent charging Li-ion below
freezing.

Manufactures continue to seek ways to charge Li-ion below freezing and low-rate
charging is indeed possible with most lithium-ion cells; however, it is outside the specified
(and tested) limits of most manufacturers’ products. Low-temperature charging would
need to be addressed on a case-by-case basis and would be manufacturer and application
dependent. According to information received from university research centers, the
allowable charge rate at –30°C (–22°F) is 0.02C. At this low current, a 1,000mAh Li-ion
could only charge at 20mA, and this would take more than 50 hours to reach full charge.

Some Li-ion cells developed for power tool and EV applications can be charged at
temperatures down to –10°C (14°F) at a reduced rate. To charge at a higher rate, Li-ion
systems for automotive propulsion systems require a heating blanket. Some hybrid cars
circulate warm cabin air through the batteries to raise the battery temperature, while high-
performance electric cars heat and cool the battery with a liquid agent.

High-temperature Charge

Heat is the worst enemy of most batteries, including lead acid. Adding temperature
compensation on a lead acid charger to adjust for temperature variations prolongs battery
life by up to 15 percent. The recommended compensation is 3mV per cell per degree
Celsius applied on a negative coefficient, meaning that the voltage threshold drops as the
temperature increases. For example, if the continued float voltage were set to 2.30V/cell at
25°C (77°F), the recommended setting would be 2.27V/cell at 35°C (95°F) and 2.33V/cell
at 15°C (59°F). This represents a 30mV correction per cell per 10°C (18°F). Table 4-11
indicates the optimal peak voltage at various temperatures when charging lead acid
batteries. The table also includes the recommended float voltage while in standby mode.

Table 4-11: Recommended voltage limits when recharging and maintaining stationary lead acid batteries on float
charge. Voltage compensation prolongs battery life when operating at temperature extremes.

Charging nickel-based batteries at high temperatures lowers oxygen generation, which
reduces charge acceptance. Heat fools the charger into thinking that the battery is fully
charged when it’s not.

NiCd has the largest pool of published information on this subject, and Figure 4-12
demonstrates a strong decrease in charge efficiency above 30°C (86°F). At 45°C (113°F),
the battery can only accept 70 percent of its full capacity; at 60°C (140°F) the charge
acceptance is reduced to 45 percent. NDV for a full-charge detection becomes unreliable
at higher temperature and temperature sensing is essential for backup. Newer type NiMH
batteries perform better at elevated temperatures than NiCd.



Figure 4-12: NiCd charge acceptance as a function of temperature. High temperature reduces charge acceptance. At
55°C, commercial NiMH has a charge efficiency of 35–40%; newer industrial NiMH attains 75–80%.

Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium-ion performs well at elevated temperatures; however, prolonged exposure to
heat reduces longevity. The charge efficiency is 97 to 99 percent, regardless of
temperature. In fact, high temperature increases charge effectiveness slightly by improving
the internal resistance.

While other chemistries can tolerate stepping outside set boundaries once in a while,
there are limitations with Li-ion. Safety concerns dictate that Li-ion remains within
specified limits because of possible thermal runaway if stressed. A fully charged Li-ion is
more sensitive to a thermal runaway than an empty one; the thermal runaway temperature
moves lower with higher charge. In spite of this, specialty Li-ion batteries serve in
applications that go to momentary high temperatures, and surgical tools that undergo
steam sterilization at 137°C (280°F) are such an example. Other uses that reach similar
temperatures are batteries in drilling bits for mining.

Summary Table on Charging

Batteries have unique needs and Table 4-13 explains how to satisfy these desires with
correct handling. Because of similarities within the battery family, we only list lead, nickel
and lithium systems. Although each chemistry has its own requirements, there are
common denominators that affect the life of all batteries. These are:

Keep a moderate temperature. As food stays fresher when refrigerated, so also

does cool temperature retard battery corrosion, a life-robbing adversary of any
battery.

Control discharge. Each cycle wears the battery down by a small amount. A partial
discharge before charge is better than a full discharge. Apply a deliberate full
discharge only to calibrate a smart battery and to prevent “memory” on a nickel-
based pack.

Avoid abuse. Like a machine that is exposed to strenuous work, a battery wears
down more quickly if discharged harshly and if force-charged with high currents.
Strenuous demands cannot always be prevented, but the user has the choice of
selecting the right battery size, keeping the temperature moderate and following life-
extending service guidelines.

Batteries for the electric powertrain have changed the philosophy of battery
manufacturers from designing packs for maximum specific energy, as demanded by the
consumer market, to focusing on optimal safety and longevity. Batteries on the road are
exposed to extreme environmental hazards; they must perform at maximum duty under
severe heat, cold, shock and vibration. Storing energy of several kilowatts, batteries for the
electric powertrain can be dangerous if stressed beyond normal conditions. Furthermore,
vehicular batteries are expensive and must last for the life of the car.

Pampering a battery to achieve an extended service life, as is sometimes possible with a
laptop or cell phone pack, is more difficult with a large battery in a vehicle that must
deliver high load currents on command and is exposed to freezing temperatures in the
winter and blistering summer conditions. The user has limited control as to the care and
attention of the battery. This task is passed over to an intelligent battery management
system (BMS), which takes over the command and does the supervising. The BMS
assumes the duty of a lead commander who must make sure that the troops in a large army
are well organized and that all soldiers are marching in the same direction.

While a battery in a portable device can have its own personality and occasionally slack
off, this liberty does not exist in a large battery system where all members must be of
equal strength. Managing fading and failing cells as the battery ages is a complex issue
that the BMS must address effectively. Monitoring and eventually replacing the cells or
battery groups is far more complex than getting a new pack for a portable device when the
old one becomes a nuisance. (You will learn more about battery testing and monitoring in
Chapter 9 on page 209; Chapter 12 on page 265 talks about batteries in a powertrain.)

Table 4-13: Best charging methods. Strenuous demands cannot always be prevented.









Batteries have become the

lifeline in our society. Any

incremental improvement

in performance doubles

freedom and mobility.



Chapter 5 | Discharge Methods

Basics About Discharging

The purpose of a battery is to store and release energy at the desired time and in a
controlled manner. This section examines discharges under different C-rates and evaluates
the depth to which a battery can safely be depleted. Chapter 5 also observes different
discharge signatures and explores how certain patterns can affect battery life. But first,
let’s look at charge and discharge rates, also known as C-rate.

What Is C-rate?
In the late 1700s, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb ruled that a battery that receives a charge
current of one ampere (1A) passes one coulomb (1C) of charge every second. In 10
seconds, 10 coulombs pass into the battery, and so on. On discharge, the process reverses.
Today, the battery industry uses C-rate to scale the charge and discharge current of a
battery.

Most portable batteries are rated at 1C, meaning that a 1,000mAh battery that is
discharged at 1C rate should under ideal conditions provide a current of 1,000mA for one
hour. The same battery discharging at 0.5C would provide 500mA for two hours, and at
2C, the 1,000mAh battery would deliver 2,000mA for 30 minutes. 1C is also known as a
one-hour discharge; a 0.5C is a two-hour, and a 2C is a half-hour discharge.

The battery capacity, or the amount of energy a battery can hold, can be measured with
a battery analyzer. The analyzer discharges the battery at a calibrated current while
measuring the time it takes to reach the end-of-discharge voltage. An instrument
displaying the results
in percentage of the nominal rating would show 100 percent if a 1,000mAh test battery
could provide 1,000mA for one hour. If the discharge lasts for 30 minutes before reaching
the end-of-discharge cut-off voltage, then the battery has a capacity of 50 percent. A new
battery is sometimes overrated and can produce more than 100 percent capacity; others are
underrated and never reach 100 percent even after priming.

When discharging a battery with a battery analyzer capable of applying different C-
rates, a higher C-rate will produce a lower capacity reading and vice versa. By discharging
the 1,000mAh battery at the faster 2C, or 2,000mA, the battery should ideally deliver the
full capacity in 30 minutes. The sum should be the same as with a slower discharge since
the identical amount of energy is being dispensed, only over a shorter time. In reality,
internal resistance turns some of the energy into heat and lowers the resulting capacity to
about
95 percent or less. Discharging the same battery at 0.5C, or 500mA over two hours, will
likely increase the capacity to above 100 percent.

To obtain a reasonably good capacity reading, manufacturers commonly rate lead acid
at 0.05C, or a 20-hour discharge. Even at this slow discharge rate, the battery seldom
attains a 100 percent capacity. Manufacturers provide capacity offsets to adjust for the
discrepancies
in capacity if discharged at a higher C-rate than specified. Figure 5-1 illustrates the
discharge times of a lead acid battery at various loads as expressed in C-rate.

Figure 5-1: Typical discharge curves of lead acid as a function of C-rate

Smaller batteries are rated at a 1C discharge rate. Due to sluggish behavior, lead acid is rated at 0.2C (5h) and 0.05C
(20h).

While lead- and nickel-based batteries can be discharged at a high rate, a safety circuit
prevents Li-ion with cobalt cathodes from discharging above 1C. Manganese and
phosphate can tolerate discharge rates of up to 10C and the current threshold is set higher
accordingly.

Depth of Discharge
The end-of-discharge voltage for lead acid is 1.75V/cell; nickel-based system is
1.00V/cell; and most Li-ion is 3.00V/cell. At this level, roughly 95 percent of the energy is
spent and the voltage would drop rapidly if the discharge were to continue. To protect the
battery from over-discharging, most devises prevent operation beyond the specified end-
of-discharge voltage.

When removing the load after discharge, the voltage of a healthy battery gradually
recovers and rises towards the nominal voltage. Differences in the metal concentration of
the electrodes enable this voltage potential when the battery is empty. An aging battery
with elevated self-discharge cannot recover the voltage because of the parasitic load.

A high load current lowers the battery voltage, and the end-of-discharge voltage
threshold should be set lower accordingly. Internal cell resistance, wiring, protection
circuits and contacts all add up to overall internal resistance. The cut-off voltage should
also be lowered when discharging at very cold temperatures; this compensates for the
higher-than-normal internal resistance. Table 5-2 shows typical end-of-discharge voltages
of various battery chemistries.

Table 5-2: Recommended end-of-discharge voltage under normal and heavy load
The lower end-of-discharge voltage on a high load compensates for the losses induced by the internal battery
resistance.

Some battery analyzers apply a secondary discharge (recondition) that drains the battery
voltage of a nickel-based battery to 0.5V/cell and lower, a cut-off point that is below what
manufacturers specify. These analyzers (Cadex) keep the discharge load low to stay within
an allowable current while in sub-discharge range. A cell breakdown with a weak cell is
possible and reconditioning would cause further deterioration in performance rather than
making the battery better. This phenomenon can be compared to the experience of a
patient to whom strenuous exercise is harmful.

What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?
Most understand a discharge/charge cycle as delivering all stored energy, but this is not
always the case. Rather than a 100 percent depth of discharge (DoD), manufacturers prefer
rating the batteries at 80 percent DoD, meaning that only 80 percent of the available
energy is being delivered and 20 percent remains in reserve. A less-than-full discharge
increases service life, and manufacturers argue that this is closer to a field representation
because batteries are seldom fully discharged before recharge.

There are no standard definitions of what constitutes a discharge cycle. A smart battery
that keeps track of cycle count may require a depth of discharge of 70 percent to define a
discharge cycle; anything less does not count as a cycle. There are many other applications
that discharge the battery less. Starting a car, for example, discharges the battery by less
than 5 percent, and the depth of discharge in satellites is 6 to 10 percent before the
onboard batteries are being recharged during the satellite day. Furthermore, a hybrid car
only uses a fraction of the capacity during acceleration before the battery is being
recharged.

Discharge Signature
A classic discharge is a battery that delivers a steady load at, say, 0.2C. A flashlight is such
an example. Many applications demand momentary loads at double and triple the battery’s
C-rating, and GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) of a cellular phone is
such an example (Figure 5-3). GSM loads the battery with up to 2A at a pulse rate of 577
micro-seconds (ms). This is a large demand for a small 1,000mAh battery; however, with
a high frequency the battery begins to behave like a capacitor and the characteristics
change.

Figure 5-3: GSM Pulse of a cellular phone

The 577 microsecond pulses adjust to field strength and can reach 2 amperes.

Courtesy of Cadex

In terms of cycle life, a moderate current at a constant discharge is better than a pulsed
or momentary high load. Figure 5-4 shows the decreasing capacity of a NiMH battery at
different load conditions and includes a gentle 0.2C DC discharge, an analog discharge
and a pulsed discharge. The cycle life of other battery chemistries is similar under such
load conditions.


Figure 5-4: Cycle life of NiMH under different operating conditions

NiMH performs best with DC and analog loads; digital loads lower the cycle life. Li-ion behaves similarly.

Source: Zhang (1998)

Figure 5-5 examines the number of full cycles a Li-ion battery with a cobalt cathode can
endure when discharged at different C-rates. At a 2C discharge, the battery exhibits higher
stress than at 1C, limiting the cycle count to about 450 before the capacity drops to half
level.

Figure 5-5: Cycle life of Li-ion with cobalt cathode at varying discharge levels

The wear-and-tear of a battery increases with higher loads.

Source: Choi et al (2002)

 For a long time, Li-ion had been considered fragile and unsuitable for high loads. This
has changed, and today many lithium-based systems are more robust than the older nickel
and lead chemistries. Manganese and phosphate-type Li-ion permit a continuous discharge
of 30C. This means that a cell rated at 1,500mAh can provide a steady load of 45A, and
this is being achieved primarily by lowering the internal resistance through optimizing the
surface area between the active cell materials. Low resistance keeps the temperature
down, and running at the maximum permissible discharge current, the cells heat up to
about 50ºC (122ºF); the maximum temperature is limited to 60°C (140°F).

One of the unique qualities of Li-ion is the ability to deliver continuous high power.
This is possible with an electrochemical recovery rate that is far superior to lead acid. The
slow electrochemical reaction of lead acid can be compared to a drying felt pen than
works for short marking but needs rest to replenish the ink.

Calculating Battery Runtime (Peukert Law)
If the battery were a perfect power source and behaved linearly, the discharge time could
be calculated according to the in-and-out current. “What has been put in can be taken out
in the same form over time” is the argument, and in our example a one-hour charge at 5A
should enable a one-hour discharge at 5A, or a 5-hour discharge at 1A. However, intrinsic
losses impede the ideal working of a battery, and the relative discharge time becomes
shorter when increasing the load. High discharge currents make the battery less efficient.

The efficiency factor of a discharging battery is expressed in the Peukert Law. W.
Peukert, a German scientist (1897), was aware of this loss and devised a formula that
expresses the loss at a given discharge rate in numbers. Because of sluggish behavior of
lead acid, the Peukert numbers apply mostly to this battery chemistry and help in
calculating the capacity when loaded at various discharge rates.

The Peukert Law takes into account the internal resistance and recovery rate of a
battery. A value close to one (1) indicates a well-performing battery with good efficiency
and minimal loss; a higher number reflects a less efficient battery. The Peukert Law of a
battery is exponential and the readings for lead acid are between 1.3 and 1.4. Nickel-based
batteries have low numbers and lithium-ion is even better. Figure 5-6 illustrates the
available capacity as a function of ampere drawn with different Peukert ratings.


Figure 5-6: Available capacity of a lead acid battery at Peukert numbers of 1.08–1.50

A value close to 1 has the smallest losses; higher numbers deliver lower capacities.

Source: von Wentzel (2008)

The lead acid battery prefers intermittent loads to a continuous heavy discharge. The
rest periods allow the battery to recompose the chemical reaction and prevent exhaustion.
This is why lead acid performs well in a starter application with brief 300A cranking loads
and plenty of time to recharge in between. All batteries require recovery, and with nickel-
and lithium-based system, the electrochemical reaction is much faster than with lead acid.

Discharging at High and Low Temperatures
Like humans, batteries function best at room temperature, and any deviation towards hot
or cold changes the performance and/or longevity. Operating a battery at elevated
temperatures momentarily improves performance by lowering the internal resistance and
speeding up the chemical metabolism, but such a condition shortens service life if allowed
to continue for a
long period of time. Some manufacturers of lead acid batteries make use of the improved
performance at warmer temperatures and specify the batteries at a toasty 27°C (80°F).

Cold temperature increases the internal resistance and diminishes the capacity. Batteries
that would provide 100 percent capacity at 27°C (80°F) will typically deliver only 50
percent at –18°C (0°F). The capacity decrease is linear with temperature.

Li-ion also performs better at high temperatures than at low ones. Heat lowers the
internal resistance but this stresses the battery. Warming a dying flashlight or cellular
phone battery in your jean pocket might provide additional runtime in the winter. As all
drivers in cold countries know, a warm battery cranks the car engine easier than a cold
one.

The dry solid polymer battery uses heat to promote ion flow in what is called a “true
plastic battery.” The battery requires a core temperature of 60 to 100°C (140 to 212°F) to
become conductive. The dry solid polymer has found a niche market for stationary power
applications in warm climates where heat serves as a catalyst rather than a disadvantage.
Built-in heating elements keep the battery operational at all times. High battery cost and
safety concerns have limited the application of this technology. The more common Li-
polymer uses moist electrolyte to enhance conductivity, as discussed earlier. (See Chapter
2, “Lithium-polymer,” on page 60.)

Batteries achieve optimum service life if used at 20°C (68°F) or slightly below, and
nickel-based chemistries degrade rapidly when cycled at high ambient temperatures. If, for
example, a battery operates at 30°C (86°F) instead of a more moderate room temperature,
the cycle life is reduced by 20 percent. At 40°C (104°F), the loss jumps to a whopping 40
percent, and if charged and discharged at 45°C (113°F), the cycle life is only half of what
can be expected if used at 20°C (68°F).

The performance of all battery chemistries drops drastically at low temperatures. At –
20°C (–4°F) most nickel-, lead- and lithium-based batteries stop functioning. Although
NiCd can go down to –40°C (-40°F), the permissible discharge is only 0.2C (5-hour rate).
Specially built Li- ion brings the operating temperature down to –40°C, but only on
discharge and at a reduced discharge. With lead acid we have the danger of the electrolyte
freezing, which can crack the enclosure. Lead acid freezes more easily with a low charge
when the specific gravity of the electrolyte is more like water.

Cell matching by using cells of similar capacity plays an important role when
discharging at low temperature under heavy load. Since the cells in a battery pack can
never be perfectly matched, a negative voltage potential can occur across a weaker cell on
a multi-cell pack if the discharge is allowed to continue beyond a safe cut-off point.
Known as cell reversal, the weak cell suffers damage to the point of developing a
permanent electrical short. The larger the cell-count, the greater the likelihood that a cell
might reverse under load. Over-discharge at a heavy load and low temperature is a large
contributor to battery failure of cordless power tools, especially nickel-based packs; Li-ion
packs come with protection circuits and the failure rate is lower. (For more information
see Chapter 8, “Cell Mismatch, Balancing,” on page 179.)

Users of electric vehicles need to understand that the driving distance specified per
charge is given under normal temperature; frigid cold temperatures will sharply reduce the
available mileage. Using electricity for cabin heating is not the only cause for the shorter
driving distance between charging; the battery performance is reduced when cold.

Simple Guidelines for Discharging Batteries

The battery performance decreases with cold temperature and increases with heat.

Heat increases battery performance but shortens life by a factor of two for every
10°C increase above 25–30°C (18°F above 77–86°F).

Although better performing when warm, batteries live longer when kept cool.

Operating a battery at cold temperatures does not automatically permit charging
under these conditions. Only charge at moderate temperatures.

Some batteries accept charge below freezing but at a much-reduced charge current.
Check the manufacturer’s specifications.

Use heating blankets if batteries need rapid charging at cold temperatures.

Prevent over-discharging. Cell reversal can cause an electrical short.

Deploy a larger battery if repetitive deep discharge cycles cause stress.

A moderate DC discharge is better for a battery than pulse and aggregated loads.

A battery exhibits capacitor-like characteristics when discharging at high frequency.
This allows higher peak currents than is possible with a DC load.

Lead acid is sluggish and requires a few seconds of recovery between heavy loads.



Chapter 6 | Smart Battery

Inner Workings

A speaker at a battery conference said, “The battery is a wild animal and artificial
intelligence domesticates it.” Domesticating requires knowing the temperament of a
battery, because an ordinary or “dumb” battery has an uncommunicative manner. Weight,
color and size do not reveal its state-of-charge (SoC) and state-of-health (SoH). The user
is at the mercy of the battery, and simply charging a battery does not guarantee the
expected runtime.

Most batteries for laptops and similar devices are “smart,” meaning that some
communication occurs between the battery, the equipment and the user. The definition of
“smart” varies among manufacturers and regulatory authorities. Some call their batteries
smart by simply adding a chip that sets the charger to the correct charge algorithm. The
Smart Battery System (SBS) forum states that a smart battery must provide state-of-charge
(SoC) indications.

An increasing number of rechargeable batteries are made smart. Smart means that the
battery pack includes some level of intelligence. Equipped with a microchip, these
batteries talk to the charger and inform the user of its status, such as indicating state-of-
charge. Most smart batteries work on the principle of coulomb counting, a theory that goes
back 250 years when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb first established the “Coulomb Rule.”
(See Chapter 9, “Coulomb Counting,” on page 217.) Figure 6-1 illustrates a fuel gauge
that measures the in-and-out flowing energies; the stored energy represents state-of-
charge.


Figure 6-1: Principle of a fuel gauge based on coulomb counting

A circuit measures the in-and-out flowing energy; the stored energy represents state-of-charge.

Courtesy of Cadex

There are several types of smart batteries, each offering different complexities and cost
variants. The most basic smart battery may contain nothing more than a chip that sets the
charger to the correct charge algorithm. In the eyes of the Smart Battery System (SBS)
forum, these batteries cannot be called smart. What then makes a battery intelligent?

Definitions vary among organizations and manufacturers. The SBS forum states that a
smart battery must provide SoC indications, and in 1990, Benchmarq was the first
company to offer fuel-gauge technology. Today, several manufacturers offer integrated
circuit (IC) chips in single-wire and two-wire systems, also known as System
Management Bus (SMBus).

Single-wire Bus

The single-wire system delivers communications through one wire. A closer look reveals,
however, that the battery still uses three wires. They consist of the data line that also
provides the clock information, and the positive and negative battery terminals. For safety
reasons, most battery manufacturers also run a separate wire for temperature sensing.
Figure 6-2 shows the layout of a single-wire system.


Figure 6-2: Single-wire system of a “smart” battery

A single wire provides data communication. For safety reasons, most batteries also feature a separate wire for
temperature sensing.

Courtesy of Cadex

The single-wire system stores the battery code and tracks battery readings that typically
include voltage, current, temperature and state-of-charge information. Because of the
relatively low hardware cost, the single-wire system is used for less complex and more
price-sensitive products such as two-way radios, cameras and portable computing devices.

Most single-wire systems do not use a common form factor and this makes standardized
state-of-health measurements impossible. Deviating from a set standard poses a further
problem with attempting to charge diverse batteries with a universal charger. The
Benchmarq single-wire solution, for example, cannot measure the current directly; this
information must be extracted from a change in capacity over time. In addition, the single-
wire bus only allows battery SoH measurement when “marrying” the host to a designated
battery pack, and this requires a designated battery. Any deviation from the original
battery will make the system unreliable or incompatible.

System Management Bus

The System Management Bus (SMBus) represents a concerted effort from the electronics
industry to standardize on one communications protocol and one set of data. The
Duracell/Intel smart battery system in use today was standardized in 1993 and consists of
two separate lines for data and clock. Figure 6-3 shows the layout of the two-wire SMBus
system.


Figure 6-3: Two-wire SMBus system

The SMBus works on a two-wire system using a standardized communications protocol. This system lends itself to
standardized state-of-charge and state-of-health measurements.

Courtesy of Cadex

An SMBus battery contains permanent and temporary data. The manufacturer programs
the permanent data into the battery, which includes battery ID, battery type,
manufacturer’s name, serial number and date of manufacture. The temporary data is being
added during use and consists of cycle count, user pattern and maintenance requirements.
Some of the information is kept for record, while other data is being renewed throughout
the life of the battery.

The SMBus is divided into Level 1, 2 and 3. Level 1 has been discontinued because it
does not provide chemistry-independent charging. It supported only one chemistry. Level
2 works with in-circuit charging, and a laptop servicing the battery is a typical example.
Another application is a battery containing the charging circuit within the pack. Battery
and support circuit in Level 2 are married to each other. Level 3 supports external SMBus
chargers.

Most external SMBus chargers are Level 3 and are expensive to manufacture. Some
lower-cost chargers have emerged that accommodate SMBus batteries, but they may not
be fully SBS compliant. Manufacturers of SMBus batteries do not completely endorse this
shortcut because of safety concerns, but pricing dictates the purchase decisions.
Applications such as biomedical instruments, data collection devices and survey
equipment lean towards Level 3 chargers with full-fledged charge protocols.

 The original design philosophy behind the SMBus battery was to remove the charge
control from the charger and assign it to the battery. With a true SMBus system, the
battery becomes the master and the charger serves as slave that follows the dictates of the
battery. This is done out of concerns over charger quality and compatibility with new
battery chemistries in applying the correct charge and managing full-charge detection.
Such a system makes charging fully transparent to the user, regardless of what chemistry
is used.

Offering a charger in which the command is embedded in the battery makes sense
because the universal charger can charge all compatible batteries. Algorithms of future
battery chemistries convert the charger to the correct settings and the charger will never be
obsolete. During the 1990s, several SMBus battery packs emerged, including the 35 and
202 (Figure 6-4). Manufactured by Sony, Hitachi, GP Batteries and others, these batteries
work (or should work) in all portable equipment designed for this system.

Figure 6-4: 35 and 202 series batteries featuring SMBus

Available in nickel- and lithium-based chemistries, these batteries power laptops, biomedical instruments and survey
equipment. Non-SMBus (dumb) versions with the same footprint are also available.

Courtesy of Cadex

The idea was good but the desired standardization did not take hold and most
manufacturers went their own way by offering proprietary packs. The reasons are to
optimize the form factor and to ensure performance and safety, which can only be
guaranteed with the manufacturers’ own battery brands. This makes good sense, but the
leading motive behind this may be pricing policies. In the absence of competition, the
batteries can be sold at a premium price. To assure sole ownership, many manufacturers
protect the battery with a code that is difficult to break.

Fuel Gauge
One of the main tasks of the smart battery is to establish communication between the
battery and user. A fuel gauge that indicates state-of-charge is part of this effort. When
pressing the TEST button on a fully charged SMBus battery, all signal lights illuminate.
On a partially discharged battery, half the lights illuminate, and on an empty battery all
lights remain dark or a red light appears. Figure 6-5 shows a fuel gauge of a battery that is
75 percent charged, with three lights glowing.

Figure 6-5: State-of-charge readout of a “smart” battery

Signal lights indicate the battery SoC when pressing the TEST button.

Courtesy of Cadex

While the SoC information displayed on a battery or computer screen is helpful to the
user, it does not assure sufficient runtime, because the fuel gauge resets to 100 percent on
a full recharge regardless of how much capacity the battery can store. A serious miscount
occurs if an aged battery shows 100 percent SoC while the battery’s ability to hold charge
has dropped to 50 percent or less. We ask, “100 percent of what?” If, for example, 100
percent of a good battery results in a four-hour runtime, the same indication with a battery
holding half the capacity would run for only two hours. The user should know that the fuel
gauge only shows SoC and capacity is missing.

Other than using coulomb counting and measuring internal resistance, there is no
reliable method to calculate the state-of-health (SoH) of a battery; current technologies
provide only rough estimations. However, there is a way to display the capacity of a smart
battery digitally.

At time of manufacture, the SMBus battery is programmed with a specified capacity,
which is 100 percent by default, and the battery keeps this information as permanent data.
With each full charge, the battery resets to the charge flag; and during discharge the
coulomb counter measures the consumed energy. A perfect battery would deliver 100
percent on a calibrated fuel gauge. As the battery ages and the capacity drops, the
delivered energy between charges decreases. The discrepancy between the factory-set
100 percent and the delivered coulombs after a full charge can thus determine the battery
capacity.

The SoC and capacity information can be shown on a linear display using colored
LEDs. The green lights indicate the usable capacity; the empty part of the battery is
marked with dark LEDs; and the unusable part is shown with red LEDs. Figure 6-6
illustrates a tri-state fuel gauge. Alternatively, the results can be a shown on a digital
display.

Figure 6-6: Tri-state fuel gauge. The tri-state fuel gauge reads the “learned” battery information on the SMBus and
displays it on a multi colored LED bar. The illustration shows a partially discharged battery of 50% SoC with 20%
empty and 30% unusable.

Courtesy of Cadex

Installed in an SMBus charger, the tri-state fuel gauge indicates the usable capacity of
SMBus compatible batteries and gives the user a clear indication of when to retire a pack.
The pass/fail level is user-selectable — at, say, 60, 70 or 80 percent — depending on the
minimum required performance level. A failed battery prompts the user to first calibrate
the battery. If the charge/discharge/charge cycle did not raise the capacity to the set target
level, a red light on the charger indicates a fail. A lit green ready light always assures that
the battery has been successfully charged and meets the capacity requirements. (Cadex
offered such a charger but the buyers did not appreciate the benefit.)

Cars with electric propulsion systems use similar fuel-gauge technologies to determine
the state-of-charge and state-of-function of the battery. The challenge is in knowing how
far a vehicle can travel with a fully charged battery in various ambient conditions. A
tailwind on a sunny day is more forgiving than a headwind with snow. The aging of a
battery adds to the challenge and the fuel gauge will lose accuracy over time. Showing 30
minutes of remaining runtime and then shutting down, as is common with laptops, will not
be easily forgiven with the electric vehicle.

Calibration
The fuel gauge has the inherent drawback that it needs periodic calibration, also known as
capacity re-learning. This is unfortunate, but is required to correct the tracking error that
develops between the chemical and digital battery over many charge and discharge cycles.

 Calibration could be omitted if the battery received a full charge followed by a full
discharge at a constant current. This way, the battery would reset with each full cycle and
the tracking error would be kept at less than one percent per cycle. In real life, however, a
battery may be discharged for a few minutes with a load signature that is difficult to
capture, then is partially recharged and stored with varying levels of self-discharge
depending on temperature. These anomalies contribute to an unavoidable error. The true
capacity of the battery begins to deviate from the fuel gauge readout and the battery needs
to re-learn. Battery engineers say jokingly that “Li-ion got rid of memory and SMBus adds
digital memory.”

Calibration occurs naturally by occasionally running the equipment down until the
battery is fully depleted and “Low Battery” appears. The full discharge sets the discharge
flag, and the subsequent recharge sets the charge flag. By establishing these two markers,
the battery can calculate the state-of-charge by knowing the distance between the flags.
Figure 6-7 illustrates the full-discharge and full-charge flags.

Figure 6-7: Full-discharge and full-charge flags

Calibration occurs by applying a full charge, discharge and charge. This is done in the equipment or with a battery
analyzer as part of battery maintenance.

Courtesy Cadex

How often does a battery need calibrating? The answer depends on the application. For
practical purposes, a calibration should be done once every three months or after 40 partial
cycles. If the portable device applies a periodic deep discharge on its own, no additional
calibration will be needed. However, if the equipment had been in constant battery power
with no full-discharge interval for a period of a few months, then a deliberate discharge is
recommended. This can be done in the equipment, with a charger featuring a discharge
function or a battery analyzer. Avoid doing too many deep discharges for the sake of
calibration because this would wear the battery down.

What happens if the battery is not calibrated regularly? Can such a battery be used with
confidence? Most smart battery chargers obey the dictates of the chemical battery rather
than the electronic circuit, and there are no safety issues. In spite of being out of
calibration, the battery charges fully and functions normally; however, the digital readout
may become increasingly more inaccurate and will eventually become a nuisance.

Limitations

Twenty years after introducing the smart battery, the battery industry has still not solved
key battery problems and these issues continue to haunt battery users. I asked a hospital
technician in the USA about the use of smart batteries and he provided me with his frank
opinion. Let’s examine why the smart battery does not fulfill all the promises made in the
1990s.

There is a notion that a battery indicating 100 percent SoC is good. This is not always
the case because the user has no knowledge of the capacity level. The readout can be
deceiving because the actual runtime is a product of capacity and SoC. Technicians also
fret over the lack of standardization between manufactures, and there is little compatibility
among packs. Other issues with SMBus batteries are logic problems, memory errors and
glitches on low-voltage recovery. Custom-designed systems are said to be the most
reliable.

Compliance among SMBus batteries and chargers is not improving. Unlike other tightly
regulated standard formats, such as the long-play record introduced in the late 1950s, the
audiocassette of the 1960s, the VCR of the 1970s, ISDN and GSM of the 1980s, or USB
and MP3 in the 1990s, the SMBus protocol permits variations that include adding check
bids to halt service if the circuit crashes, counting the number of discharges to advise on
calibration and disallowing a charge if a certain fault condition occurs. While these
additions are good by themselves, they cause compatibility problems with some chargers.

Ironically, the more features that are added to the SMBus battery and charger, the higher
the likelihood of incompatibilities. Before implementing a system, SMBus batteries and
chargers should be checked for proper function. The need to approve the marriage
between battery and charger is unfortunate, given the assurance that SMBus technology
would simplify life and not make it more complex.

Can this be the reason why the smart battery has not received the acceptance battery
manufacturers had hoped for? When the SMBus battery was conceived in the early 1990s,
cost was not as critical as it is now. Today, customers want products that are economically
priced. Adding high-level intelligence to the battery may simply be too expensive for the
purpose it serves. Some engineers go so far as to say that the SMBus battery is a
“misguided principle.”

An SMBus battery costs about 25 percent more than the “dumb” equivalent, and this is
also reflected in the charger. Instead of simplification, a full-fledged Level 3 charger must
work as a hybrid by providing full charging function when charging “dumb” batteries and
becoming a slave to obey the dictates of the battery on an SMBus-controlled charge. A
large part of the cost is making the two systems compatible.

Besides electrical compliance, battery shape also varies and nowhere is this diversity
more visible than with laptop packs. The efforts made in the 1990s to standardize on
battery size did not materialize as expected and today each device comes with its own
unique pack. Large-scale batteries for the electric powertrains also have their own
batteries. This may one day change by making batteries with a common form factor
available.

Table 6-8: Advantages and limitations of the smart battery. The smart battery has not enjoyed the same success as
with other standards, and this may have to do with lack of enforced standards.

Simple Guidelines for Using Smart Batteries

Calibrate a smart battery by applying a full discharge and charge every three months
or after every 40 partial cycles.

A 100 percent fuel gauge does not assure a good battery, nor does an inaccurate fuel
gauge tell for certain that the battery is bad.

Not all chargers are compatible with a smart battery, nor can all batteries be serviced
on a given charger. Replace the battery with the same brand, or use an equivalent that
 is fully compatible. Always test the battery and the charger before use.

Exercise caution when using a smart battery that does not indicate state-of-charge
correctly. This battery may be faulty or not fully compatible with the equipment.






Product designers base

the runtime of a device

on a perfect battery, a

condition that only exists

for a limited time.





Part Two

You and the Battery








Batteries are like us — they

deliver on the good care given.







Chapter 7 | From Birth to Retirement

Caring for the Battery

In many ways, a battery behaves like a human being; it senses the kindness offered and
delivers on the care and attention given. Looking after the battery well will return the
benevolence bestowed and deliver good performance over a long life. There are
exceptions, however, as any parent raising a large family will know, and the generosity
given may not always deliver the anticipated returns.

To become a good custodian, we must understand the basic needs of a battery, a subject
that is not taught in school. This chapter teaches what to do when the battery is new, how
to feed it the right “food” and what to do when putting the pack aside for a while. Chapter
7 also looks into restrictions when traveling with batteries by air and how to dispose of
them when their useful life has passed.

Just as we cannot predict a person’s life expectancy at birth, we cannot date-stamp a
battery. Some packs live to a great old age while others die young. Incorrect charging,
harsh discharge loads and exposure to heat are the battery’s worst enemies. Although we
have ways to protect a battery, the ideal situation is not always attainable, and as battery
custodians we try to do our best. This chapter discusses how we can get the most from our
batteries.

How to Prime Batteries
Rechargeable batteries may not deliver their full rated capacity when new and will require
formatting. While this applies to most battery systems, manufacturers of lithium-ion
batteries disagree. They say that Li-ion is ready at birth and does not need priming.
Although this may be true, users have reported some capacity gains by cycling these
batteries after long storage.

What’s the difference between formatting and priming? Both address capacities that are
not optimized and can be corrected with cycling. Formatting completes the manufacturing
process and occurs naturally during early usage when the battery is being cycled. Priming,
on the other hand, is a conditioning cycle that is applied as a service tool to improve
battery performance during usage or after prolonged storage. Priming relates mainly to
nickel-based batteries.

Formatting of lead acid batteries occurs by applying a charge, followed by a discharge
and recharge as part of regular use. Do not strain a new battery by giving it extra-heavy
duty right away. Gradually work it in with moderate discharges like an athlete trains for
weight lifting or long-distance running. Lead acid typically reaches the full capacity
potential after 50 to 100 cycles. Do not over-cycle on purpose; this would wear the battery
down too quickly.

Manufacturers advise to trickle charge a nickel-based battery for 16 to 24 hours when
new
and after a long storage. This allows the cells to adjust to each other and bring them to an
equal charge level. A slow charge also helps to redistribute the electrolyte to eliminate dry
spots on the separator that might have developed by gravitation.

Nickel-based batteries are not always fully formatted when they leave the factory.
Applying several charge/discharge cycles through normal use or with a battery analyzer
completes the formatting process. The number of cycles required to attain full capacity
differs between cell manufacturers. Quality cells perform to specification after 5 to 7
cycles, while others may
need 50 or more cycles to reach acceptable capacity levels. Lack of formatting might
cause a problem when the industrial user expects a new battery to work to specification
right out of the box. Organizations using batteries for critical applications often verify
performance through a discharge/charge cycle as part of quality control. Automated
analyzers (Cadex) apply as many cycles as needed to achieve full capacity.

Cycling also restores lost capacity when a nickel-based battery has been stored for six
months or longer. Storage time, state-of-charge and the temperature under which the
battery was stored govern the recovery. The longer the storage and warmer the
temperature, the more cycles will be required to regain full capacity. Battery analyzers
help in the priming functions.

Some scientists believe that with use and storage, a passivation layer builds up on the
cathode of a lithium-ion cell. Also known as interfacial protective film (IPF), this layer
restricts ion flow and increases the internal resistance. In the worst cases, the phenomenon
can lead to lithium plating. Charging, and more effectively cycling, is known to dissolve
the layer. Scientists do not fully understand the nature of this layer, and the few published
resources on this subject only speculate that performance restoration with cycling is
connected to the removal of the passivation layer. Some scientists deny outright the
existence of the IPF, saying that the idea is highly speculative and inconsistent with
existing studies. Another layer is the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), which is said to
form at the anode on the initial charge. SEI is an electric insulation yet provides sufficient
ionic conductivity for proper function.

Whatever the truth may be, there is no parallel to “memory” of NiCd batteries, which
require periodic cycling. The symptoms may appear similar but the mechanics are
different. Nor can the effect be compared to sulfation of lead acid batteries.

Lithium-ion is a very clean system and does not need formatting when new, nor does it
require the level of maintenance that nickel-based batteries do. The first charge is no
different than the fifth or the 50th. Formatting makes little difference because the
maximum capacity is available right from the beginning. Nor does a full discharge
improve the capacity once faded. In most cases, a low capacity signals the end of life. A
discharge/charge may be beneficial for calibrating a “smart” battery, but this service only
addresses the digital part of the pack and does nothing to improve the electrochemical
battery. Instructions to charge a new battery for eight hours are seen as “old school” from
the nickel battery days.

How to Store Batteries
The recommended storage temperature for most batteries is 15°C (59°F); the extreme
allowable temperature is –40°C to 50°C (–40°C to 122°F) for most chemistries. While
lead acid must always be kept at full charge during storage, nickel- and lithium-based
chemistries should be stored at around a 40 percent state-of-charge (SoC). This level
minimizes age-related capacity loss while keeping the battery in operating condition and
allowing self-discharge.

Finding the 40 percent SoC level is difficult because the open circuit voltage (OCV) of
batteries does not lend itself well to state-of-charge estimations. For lack of better
methods, voltage is nevertheless used as a rough fuel gauge indicator. The SoC of Li-ion is
roughly 50 percent at 3.80V/cell and 40 percent at 3.75V/cell. Allow Li-ion to rest 90
minutes after charge or discharge before taking the voltage reading to get equilibrium.

SoC on nickel-based batteries is especially difficult to measure. A flat discharge curve,
agitation after charge and discharge, and voltage change on temperature contribute to the
fluctuations. Since no other estimation tool exists that is practical, and the charge level for
storage is not all too critical for this chemistry, simply apply some charge if the battery is
empty, and then make sure that the battery is kept in a cool and dry storage.

Storage will always cause batteries to age. Low temperature and partial SoC only slow
the effect. Table 7-1 illustrates the recoverable capacity of lithium- and nickel-based
batteries at various temperatures and charge levels over one year. The recovered capacity
is defined as the available battery capacity after storage with a full charge.


Table 7-1: Estimated recoverable capacity when storing a battery for one year
Elevated temperature hastens permanent capacity loss. Depending on battery type, lithium-ion is also sensitive to charge
levels.

Lithium-ion batteries are often exposed to unfavorable temperatures, and these include
leaving a cell phone in the hot sun or operating a laptop on the power grid. Elevated
temperature and allowing the battery to sit at the maximum charge voltage for expended
periods of time explains the shorter than expected battery life. Elevated temperature and
excessive overcharge also stresses lead and nickel-based batteries. All batteries must have
the ability to relax after charged, even when kept on float or maintenance charge.

Nickel-metal-hydride can be stored for about three years. The capacity drop that occurs
during storage can partially be reversed with priming. Nickel-cadmium stores well, even if
the terminal voltage falls to zero volts. Field tests done by the US Air Force revealed that
NiCd stored for five years still performed well after priming cycles. It is believed that
priming becomes necessary if the voltage drops below 1V/cell. Primary alkaline and
lithium batteries can be stored for up to 10 years with minimal capacity loss.

You can store a sealed lead acid battery for up to two years. Since all batteries gradually
self-discharge over time, it is important to check the voltage and/or specific gravity, and
then apply a charge when the battery falls to 70 percent state-of-charge. This is typically
the case at 2.07V/cell or 12.42V for a 12V pack. (The specific gravity at 70 percent charge
is roughly 1.218.) Some lead acid batteries may have different readings and it is best to
check the manufacturer’s instruction manual. Low charge induces sulfation, an oxidation
layer on the negative plate that inhibits current flow. Topping charge and/or cycling may
restore some of the capacity losses in the early stages of sulfation (see Chapter 8, “How to
Prolong Lead Acid Batteries,” on page 182).

Sulfation may prevent charging small sealed lead acid cells, such as the Cyclone by
Hawker, after prolonged storage. If seemingly inactive, these batteries can often be
reactivated by applying a higher than normal voltage. At first, the cell voltage under
charge may go up to 5V and absorb only a small amount of current. Within two hours or
so, the charging current converts the large sulfate crystals into active material, the cell
resistance drops and the charge voltage gradually normalizes, and at a voltage of 2.10–
2.40V the cell is able to accept a normal charge. To prevent damage, set the current limit
to a very low level. Do not attempt to perform this service if the power supply does not
allow setting current limiting. (See Chapter 4, “How to Charge with a Power Supply,” on
page 114.)

Simple Guidelines for Storing Batteries

Primary batteries store well. Alkaline and primary lithium batteries can be stored for
10 years with moderate loss capacity.

Remove battery from the equipment and store in a dry and cool place.

Avoid freezing. Batteries freeze more easily if in discharged state.

Charge lead acid before storing and monitor the voltage or specific gravity
frequently; apply a boost if below 2.10V/cell or an SG below 1.225.

Nickel-based batteries can be stored for five years and longer, prime before use.

Lithium-ion must be stored in a charged state, ideally 40 percent. This assures that
the battery will not drop below 2.50V/cell with self-discharge and fall asleep.

Discard Li-ion if the voltage has stayed below 2.00/V/cell for more than a week.

Health Concerns
Batteries are safe, but precaution applies when touching damaged cells and when handling
lead acid systems that have access to lead and sulfuric acid. Several countries label lead
acid as hazardous material, and rightly so. Let’s look at the hazards if not properly
handled.

Lead is a toxic metal that can enter the body by inhalation of lead dust or ingestion
when touching the mouth with lead-contaminated hands. If leaked onto the ground, the
acid and lead particulates contaminate the soil and become airborne when dry. Children
and fetuses of pregnant women are most vulnerable to lead exposure because their bodies
are developing. Excessive levels of lead can affect a child’s growth, cause brain damage,
harm kidneys, impair hearing and induce behavioral problems. In adults, lead can cause
memory loss and lower the ability to concentrate, as well as harm the reproductive system.
Lead is also known to cause high blood pressure, nerve disorders, and muscle and joint
pain. Researchers believe that Ludwig van Beethoven became ill and died from lead
poisoning.

Cadmium, which is used in nickel-cadmium batteries, is considered more harmful than
lead if ingested. Workers at NiCd manufacturing plants in Japan have been experiencing
heath problems from prolonged exposure to the metal, and governments have banned the
disposal of nickel-cadmium batteries in landfills. The soft, whitish metal that occurs
naturally in the soil can damage kidneys. Cadmium can be absorbed through the skin by
touching a spilled battery. Since most NiCd batteries are sealed, there are no health risks in
handling them. The caution applies when working with an open battery.

Nickel-metal-hydride is considered non-toxic and the only concern is the electrolyte.
Although toxic to plants, nickel is not harmful to humans. Lithium-ion is similarly benign
— the battery contains little toxic material. Nevertheless, caution is required when
working with a damaged battery. When handling a spilled battery, do not touch your
mouth, nose and eyes, and wash your hands thoroughly.

Keep small batteries out of children’s reach. Children younger than four are most likely
to swallow batteries, and the most common types are button cells. The battery often gets
stuck in the esophagus (the tube that passes food) and the electrical current burns the
surrounding tissue. Doctors often misdiagnose the symptoms, which can show as fever,
vomiting, poor appetite and weariness. Batteries that make it through the esophagus often
move through the digestive tract with little or no lasting damage. The concern of a parent
is not only to choose safe toys, but also to keep small batteries away from young children.

How to Transport Batteries
Many battery types fall under strict transportation regulation. This is done for the safety of
those handling them and the passengers traveling on a common carrier. Here are the rules
in short.

Lead Acid

Most countries set strict rules for transporting lead acid batteries. Failure to comply with
the regulations is a civil or criminal offense that can bring a stiff penalty on the carrier
and/or shipper. The transport regulations require the following precautions.

The vehicle transporting batteries can carry only one type of hazardous material.
Brace the batteries securely to prevent damage and short circuits in transit. Non-
hazardous goods on the same vehicle must be secured to prevent damaging the
batteries.

Batteries must be stacked upright, pole side outwards and placed on a wooden pallet.
Place honeycomb cardboard between the layers and limit the stack to three layers on
a single pallet. Wrap the package several times with shrink-wrap.

Identify hazardous material with labels marked “Corrosive” using the appropriate
symbols and colors. Stickers must conform to regulatory specifications.

Mark all packages, i.e., batteries, wet, filled with acid, identification number (UN
2794).

Provide a bill of lading document that includes the name of the company and shipper,
contents of package, description of hazardous material and shipper’s certification.

When shipping by air, restrict the weight per package to 25kg gross (55lb) on
passenger air carriers. There is no limit on the number of packages per flight.

Different rules apply when shipping damaged batteries. A lead acid battery is
considered damaged if there is a possibility of leakage due to a crack, or if one or more
caps are missing. Transportation companies and air carriers may require that the batteries
be drained of all acid prior to transport. Place damaged batteries in an acid-resistant
container and add soda ash to neutralize any acid that might spill. Separate damaged and
intact batteries.

Nickel-based Batteries

Nickel-based batteries have no transport limitations, however, some of the same
precautions apply as for lead acid in terms of packaging to prevent electrical shorts and
safeguard against fire. Regulations prohibit storing and transporting smaller battery packs
in a metal box. If there is a danger of an electrical short, wrap each battery individually in
a plastic bag. When carrying small batteries in your pocket, do not mix them with coins
and house keys.

Lithium-based Batteries

In 2009, 3.3 billion Li-ion batteries were transported by air. Such a volume of air
shipments is an ongoing concern, and an airline-pilot union has asked the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) to ban them on passenger aircraft. From March 1991 to August
2010, batteries and battery-powered devices caused 113 recorded incidents with smoke,
fire, extreme heat or explosion on passenger and cargo planes. The Portable Rechargeable
Battery Association (PRBA) is aware of possible hazards and opposes any revisions in
transportation rules, arguing that the restrictions would cost shippers and manufacturers
billions of dollars.

PRBA is made up of major battery manufacturers, including Energizer, Panasonic,
SAFT America, Sanyo and Varta Batteries. These manufacturers do not want to disrupt air
shipments, especially batteries for critical medical and military missions. They argue that
the batteries causing problems do not meet US hazardous material handling regulations
and ask the FAA to enforce stricter manufacturing rules. The manufacturers tell the
aviation industry further that, as a result of the well-publicized 2006 recall, a safer
generation of Li-ion batteries has emerged. According to U.S. Census Bureau (2010),
airfreight transports roughly 364 million cell phones, 142 million cameras and 47 million
laptops as part of just-in-time delivery to stores. No deaths and only 26 injuries are
attributed to shipping billions of lithium batteries every year.

The estimated failure rate of Li-ion is one per 10 million. Examining the 113 recorded
incidents of transporting batteries by air in 19 years reveals that most failures occurred due
to inappropriate packaging or handling, which caused damage or electrical short. Most
incidents happened at airports or in cargo hubs. Problem batteries include primary lithium
(lithium-metal), lead, nickel and alkaline systems, and not just lithium-ion, as is perceived.
Newer consumer products have very few surprise failures caused by Li-ion batteries.

There are, however, restrictions with lithium-ion batteries on airplanes and travelers are
reminded how many batteries can be carried on board in portable devices and as spare
packs. Since January 2008, people can no longer pack spare lithium batteries in checked
baggage, but airlines allow them as carry-on. The passenger compartment enables better
safety monitoring with access to fire extinguishers. In one incident, a coffee pot served as
extinguishing device for a flaming laptop battery on board of a plane. This would be
impossible in the cargo bay below.

In terms of transportation, lithium-based batteries are divided into non-rechargeable
lithium-metal batteries typically used in film cameras, and the rechargeable lithium-ion
battery found in cell phones and laptops. Airlines allow both types as carry-on either
installed or carried as spare packs as long as they don’t exceed the following limitation of
lithium or equivalent of:

2 grams for primary lithium batteries

8 grams for a secondary lithium-ion. This amounts to a 100Wh battery.

25 grams for all Li-ion combined. This amounts to 300Wh worth of Li-ion batteries.

The lithium content of the primary lithium batteries is often printed on the label. Li-ion,
on the other hand, has no metallic lithium and uses the equivalent lithium content (ELC)
instead. To calculate the ELC, multiply the rated capacity (Ah) times 0.3. As an example,
a 1Ah cell has 0.3 grams of lithium. The 8-gram ELC limitation allows a 100Wh battery.

A laptop battery commonly uses 2Ah cells containing 0.6 grams of ELC each. The
battery pack may have eight cells (4 in series; 2 in parallel), which brings the ELC to 4.8
grams, well below the 8-gram limit allowed by a single pack. To derive the watt-hour,
multiply the battery voltage by the ampere-hours (Ah). The battery in question has a
voltage of 14.40V (4 x 3.6V) and a rating of 4Ah (2 x 2A). In summary, 14.4 x 4 =
57.6Ah, or roughly 60Wh.

While regulations limit the Li-ion battery to no larger than 100Wh, each passenger and
travel companion is allowed to carry spare packs of up to 25 grams of ELC, or 300Wh.
The airlines recommend placing each battery in a clear plastic bag or covering the contacts
with a tape to prevent an electric short. Although current rules forbid passengers from
carrying lithium-ion batteries in checked luggage, devices with non-removable batteries,
such as the iPhone, iPad and certain brand of laptops, are exempt from the rules.

Anyone shipping lithium-ion batteries in bulk must meet transportation regulations and
this applies to domestic and international shipments by land, sea and air. Lithium-ion cells
whose equivalent lithium content exceeds 1.5 grams or 8 grams per battery pack (100Wh)
must be shipped as “Class 9 miscellaneous hazardous material.” Film crew often carry
larger batteries for professional video cameras, and these are handled as hazardous
material. If a shipment ion the US contains more than 24 lithium cells or 12 lithium-ion
packs, special markings and appropriate shipping documents are required. Each package
must be clearly marked to inform the airline that lithium batteries are involved. Open cells
and packs must be separated to prevent electrical short. The packages must be strong to
allow stacking.

 To assure lithium-based batteries are designed and packaged to withstand transportation
conditions, the US Department of Transportation (DOT) has proposed new regulations.
While the Airline Pilots Association supports tighter restrictions and has called for lithium
batteries to be “fully regulated dangerous goods” as airline cargo, PRBA recommends
dropping the proposed rules in favor of the International Civil Aviation Organization
requirement (ICAO), which has been in effect since 2009 but was never applied in the US.
Industry lobbyists say that the government has enough rules to ensure safe battery
shipments and have expressed the concern that some shippers do not follow packaging
requirements. They have recommend stronger enforcements regarding these rules.

Frequently Asked Questions about Transporting Lithium Ion Batteries by Air

Must consumer-type lithium ion batteries always be shipped as Class 9 dangerous

goods?
No. Almost all small Li-ion (less than 100Wh) in consumer products are exempt
from dangerous goods regulations and do not require Class 9 labeling, marking or
packaging.

In what quantities can lithium ion batteries be shipped?
Lithium ion batteries can be shipped in small and large quantities. A single package
may contain as few as five batteries, while a pallet may contain more than 1,000
packs.

Why do some packages of Li-ion batteries contain a “Caution” marking and include
shipping papers when most consumer lithium ion batteries are exempt from
regulation?
In the US, the marking is mandatory for packages of more than 24 Li-ion cells or 12
Li-ion packs. The documents identify the goods and instruct what to do if the
package is damaged.

Must lithium ion batteries be tested according to the UN Manual of Tests and
Criteria?
Yes, all Li-ion cells and packs shipped internationally must be tested. In the US, UN
testing also includes small, consumer-size lithium ion cells and packs (also see page
99).

How to Recycle Batteries

Lead acid led to the success of early recycling and today more than 97 percent of these
batteries are recycled in the USA. The automotive industry should be given credit for
having organized recycling early on. As a result, over 50 percent of the lead supply comes
from recycled batteries. Other battery types are not being returned as readily as lead acid,
and several organizations are working on programs to make collection of spent batteries
more convenient. Only 20 to 40 percent of cellular phone and consumer batteries are
currently recycled.

The main objective for recycling batteries is to prevent hazardous materials from
entering landfills. Lead acid and nickel-cadmium batteries are of special concern, and
although Li-ion is less harmful, the aim is to include all batteries in the recycling
programs.

Even though they are environmentally unfriendly, lead acid batteries continue to hold a
strong market niche. Wheeled mobility and UPS systems could not run as economically if
it were not for this reliable battery. NiCd also continues to hold a critical position among
rechargeable batteries. Large flooded NiCds start the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) of
commercial airplanes and power sightseeing boats in rivers of larger cities, pollution-free.

Toxic batteries will continue to be with us for a while longer because we have no
practical alternatives. There is nothing wrong in using these batteries as long as we
properly dispose of them. Europe banned NiCds in consumer products because there is a
suitable replacement, the NiMH battery. Controlling the disposal of NiCds from consumer
products is difficult because many users do not know that the retiring equipment contains
this battery. The long-term environmental damage if the world’s NiCds were improperly
disposed of could be devastating.

Let’s look at what happens when NiCds are carelessly disposed of in landfills. The
metallic cylinder of the cell eventually begins to corrode and the cadmium gradually
dissolves, seeping into the water supply. Once such contamination begins, the authorities
have few options to stop the carnage. Our oceans already show traces of cadmium (along
with aspirin, penicillin and antidepressants) but scientists are not certain of their origin.
Regulatory discipline will lead to
a cleaner environment for the next generations.

Nickel-metal-hydride batteries contain nickel and electrolyte, which are considered
semi-toxic. If no disposal service is available in an area, individual NiMH batteries can be
discarded with other household waste. When accumulating 10 or more batteries, the user
should consider disposing of the packs in a secure waste landfill. The better alternative is
bringing the spent batteries to a neighborhood drop-off bin for recycling.

Primary lithium batteries contain metallic lithium that reacts violently when in contact
with moisture and the batteries must be disposed of appropriately. If thrown in the landfill
in a charged state, heavy equipment operating on top could crush the cases and the
exposed lithium would cause a fire. Landfill fires are difficult to extinguish and can burn
for years underground. Before recycling, apply a full discharge to consume the lithium
content. Non-rechargeable lithium batteries are used in military combat, as well as
watches, hearing aids and memory backup. Li-ion for cell phones and laptops do not
contain metallic lithium.

In North America, Toxco and Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC)
collect spent batteries and recycle them. While Toxco has its own recycling facilities,
RBRC is in charge of collecting batteries and sending them to recycling organizations.
Toxco in Trail, British Columbia, claims to be the only company in the world that recycles
large lithium batteries. They receive spent batteries from oil drilling in Nigeria, Indonesia
and other places. Toxco also recycles retired lithium batteries from the Minuteman missile
silos and tons of Li-ion from the war in Iraq. Other divisions at Toxco recycle nickel-
cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride, lead, mercury, alkaline and more.

Europe and Asia are also active in recycling spent batteries. Sony and Sumitomo Metal
in Japan, among other recycling companies, have developed technology to retrieve cobalt
and other precious metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. Lithium can be re-used
repeatedly, reducing the concern of potential shortages in the future.

Recycling Process

Recycling begins by sorting the batteries into chemistries. Collection centers place lead
acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride and lithium-ion into designated drums, sacks
or boxes. Battery recyclers claim that if a steady stream of batteries, sorted by chemistry,
were available at no charge, recycling would be profitable.

The recycling process generally begins by removing the combustible material, such as
plastics and insulation, with a gas-fired thermal oxidizer. The plant’s scrubber eliminates
the polluting particles created by a burning process before releasing them into the
atmosphere. This leaves the clean and naked cells with their valuable metal content. The
cells are then chopped into small pieces and heated until the metal liquefies. Non-metallic
substances are burned off; leaving a black slag on top that a slag arm removes. The alloys
settle according to weight and are skimmed off like cream from raw milk while in liquid
form.

Cadmium is relatively light and vaporizes at high temperatures. In a process that
appears like a pan of water boiling over, a fan blows the cadmium vapor into a large tube
cooled with water mist, and the vapors condense to produce cadmium that is 99.95 percent
pure.

Some recyclers do not separate the metals on site but pour the liquid metals directly into
what the industry refers to as “pigs” (65 pounds, 24kg) or “hogs” (2,000 pounds, 746kg).
Other battery recyclers use the 7-pound nuggets (3.17kg). The pigs, hogs and nuggets are
then shipped to metal recovery plants where they are used to produce nickel, chromium
and iron for stainless steel and other high-end products.

Toxco uses liquid nitrogen to freeze lithium-based batteries before shredding, crushing
and removal of the lithium, as well as other battery components. The lithium is dissolved
in a solution to make the metal non-reactive and is sold for producing lubricating greases.
Similarly, the cobalt is separated, collected and sold.

Battery recycling is energy-intensive, and it takes 6 to 10 times more energy to reclaim
metals from recycled batteries as it does to produce the materials through other means,
including mining. Let’s explore who pays for the recycling of batteries.

Each country imposes their own rules and fees to make recycling feasible. In North
America, some recycling plants invoice on weight, and the rates vary according to
chemistry. Nickel-metal-hydride yields the best return, as recycling produces enough
nickel to pay for the process. The highest recycling fees apply to nickel-cadmium and
lithium-ion, because the demand for cadmium is low and lithium-ion contains little in
retrievable metal.

Rather than calculate the cost according to battery chemistry, some countries deal in
tonnage. The flat cost to recycle a ton of batteries is $1,000 to $2,000, and Europe hopes
to achieve a cost per ton of $300. Ideally, this would include transportation, but moving
and handling the goods is expected to double the overall cost. To simplify transportation,
Europe is setting up several smaller processing plants in strategic geographic locations.

Manufacturers, agencies and governments still must provide subsidies to support the
battery recycling programs. This is underwritten by a tax added to each manufactured cell.
RBRC receives funding from such a program.

Summary Table of Battery Dos and Don’ts

Table 7-2 provides suggestions on how to extend battery life by following simple
guidelines. Because of similarities within systems, the chemistries are limited to lead,
nickel and lithium.


Table 7-2: Dos and don’ts summary how to use, maintain and dispose of batteries.

Chapter 8 | How to Extend Battery Life

A battery is a corrosive device that begins to fade the moment it comes off the assembly
line. The stubborn behavior of batteries has left many users in awkward situations. The
British Army could have lost the Falklands War in 1982 on account of uncooperative
batteries. The officers assumed that a battery would always follow the rigid dictate of the
military. Not so. When a key order was given to launch the British missiles, nothing
happened. No missiles flew that day. Such battery-induced letdowns are common; some
are simply a nuisance and others have serious consequences.

Setting Performance Standards

Even with the best of care, a battery only lives for a defined number of years. There is no
distinct life span, and the health of a battery rests on its genetic makeup, environmental
conditions and user patterns.

Lead acid reaches the end of life when the active material has been consumed on the
positive grids; nickel-based batteries lose performance as a result of corrosion; and
lithium-ion fades when the transfer of ions slows down for degenerative reasons. Only the
supercapacitor achieves a virtually unlimited number of cycles, if this device can be called
a battery, but it also has a defined life span.

Battery manufacturers are aware of performance loss over time, but there is a
disconnect when educating buyers about the fading effect. Runtimes are always estimated
with a perfect battery delivering 100 percent capacity, a condition that only applies when
the battery is new. While a dropped phone call on a consumer product because of a weak
battery may only inconvenience the cellular user, an unexpected power loss on a medical,
military or emergency device can be more devastating.

Consumers have learned to take the advertised battery runtimes in stride. The
information means little and there is no enforcement. Perhaps no other specification is as
loosely given as that of battery performance. The manufacturers know this and get away
with minimal accountability. Very seldom does a user challenge the battery manufacturer
for failing to deliver the specified battery performance, even when human lives are at
stake. Less critical failures have been debated in court and punished in a harsh way.

The battery is an elusive scapegoat; it’s as if it holds special immunity. Should the
battery quit during a critical mission, then this is a situation that was beyond control and
could not be prevented. It was an act of God and the fingers point in other directions to
assign the blame. Even auditors of quality-control systems shy away from the battery and
consider only the physical appearance; state-of-function appears less important to them.

How to Rate Battery Runtime
In the past, the battery industry got away with soft standards specifying battery runtimes.
Each manufacturer developed their own method, using the lightest load patterns possible
to achieve good figures. This resulted in specifications that bore little resemblance to
reality. Under pressure from consumer associations, manufacturers finally agreed to
standardized testing procedures.

The Camera and Imaging Products Association (CIPA) succeeded in developing a
standardized battery-life test for digital cameras. Under the test scheme, the camera takes a
photo every 30 seconds, half with flash and the other without. The test zooms the lens in
and out all the way before every shot and leaves the screen on. After every 10 shots, the
camera is turned off for a while and the cycle is repeated. CIPA ratings replicate a realistic
way a consumer would use a camera. Most new cameras adapt the CIPA protocol to rate
the runtime.

The runtime on laptops is more complex to estimate than a digital camera as programs,
type of activity, wireless features and screen brightness affect the load. To take these
conditions into account, the computer industry developed a standard called MobileMark
2007. Not everyone agrees with this norm, and opponents say that the convention trims
the applications down and ignores real-world habits. The setting of brightness is one
example. The monitor is one of the most power-hungry components of a modern laptop
and at full brightness the screen delivers 250 to 300 nits. MobileMark uses a setting that is
less than half of this. Nor does MobileMark include Wi-Fi and Bluetooth; it leaves these
peripherals up to the manufacturers to investigate. BAPCO (Business Applications
Performance Corporation), the inventor of MobileMark 2007, is led by Intel and includes
laptop and chip manufacturers, such as Advanced Micro Devices.

Cell phone manufacturers face similar challenges when estimating runtimes. Standby
and talk time are field-strength dependent and the closer you are to a repeater tower, the
lower the transmit power will get and the longer the battery will last. CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) takes slightly more power than GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications); however, the more critical power guzzlers are large color
displays, touch screens, video, web surfing, GPS, camera, voice dialing and Bluetooth.
These peripherals drastically shorten the advertised runtime specifications if used
frequently.

The insatiable appetite for information and entertainment on the go is devouring the
excess energy enjoyed during the past 10 years when we used our cell phones for voice
only. Although modern handsets draw considerably less power than older models and the
battery capacity has doubled in 12 years, these improvements do not compensate for the
modern peripherals, and a new energy crisis is in the making. Figure 8-1 illustrates battery
improvements against the lack of energy with analog cell phones during the 1990s, the
sudden excess with the digital phones, and the looming energy shortage when making full
use of modern features.

Figure 8-1: Power needs of the past, present and future

The capacity of Li-ion has doubled in 12 years and the circuits draw less power; however, these improvements do not
compensate for the power demand of the new features, and a new energy crisis is in the making.

Courtesy of Cadex

Manufacturers of analog two-way radios test the runtime with a scheme called 5-5-90
and 10-10-80. The first number represents the transmit time at high current; the second
denotes the receiving mode at a more moderate current; and the third refers to the long
standby times between calls at low current. While 5-5-90 simulates the equivalent of a 5-
second talk, 5-second receive and 90-seconds standby, the 10-10-80 schedule puts the
intervals at a 10-second talk, 10-second receive and 80-second standby. The runtimes of
digital two-way radios are measured in a similar way, with the added complexity of tower
distance and digital loading requirements that are reminiscent of a cellular phone.

How to Define Battery Life
Most new batteries go through a formatting process during which the capacity gradually
increases and reaches optimal performance at 100–200 cycles. After this mid-life point,
the capacity gradually begins decreasing and the depth of discharge, operating
temperatures and charging method govern the speed of capacity loss. The deeper the
batteries are discharged and the warmer the ambient temperature is, the shorter the service
life. The effect of temperature on the battery can be compared with a jug of milk, which
stays fresh longer when refrigerated.

Most portable batteries deliver between 300 and 500 full discharge/charge cycles. Fleet
batteries in portable devices normally work well during the first year; however, the
confidence in the portable equipment begins to fade after the second and third year, when
some batteries begin to lose capacity. New packs are added and in time the battery fleet
becomes a jumble
of good and failing batteries. That’s when the headaches begin. Unless date stamps or
other quality controls are in place, the user has no way of knowing the history of the
battery, much less the performance.

The green light on the charger does not reveal the performance of a battery. The charger
simply fills the available space to store energy, and “ready” indicates that the battery is
full. With age, the available space gradually decreases and the charge time becomes
shorter. This can be compared to filling a jug with water. An empty jug takes longer
because it can accept more water than one with rocks. Figure 8-2 shows the “ready” light
that often lies.

Figure 8-2: The “ready” light lies

The “ready” light on a charger only reveals that the battery is fully charged; there is no relationship to performance. A
faded battery charges faster than a good one. Bad batteries gravitate to the top.

Courtesy of Cadex

Many battery users are unaware that weak batteries charge faster than good ones. Low
performers gravitate to the top and become available by going to “ready” first. They form
a disguised trap when unsuspecting users require a fully charged battery in a hurry. This
plays havoc in emergency situations when freshly charged batteries are needed. The
operators naturally grab batteries that show ready, presuming they carry the full capacity.
Poor battery management is the common cause of system failure, especially during
emergencies.

Failures are not foreign in our lives and to reduce breakdowns, regulatory authorities
have introduced strict maintenance and calibration guidelines for important machinery and
instruments. Although the battery can be an integral part of such equipment, it often
escapes scrutiny. The battery as power source is seen as a black box, and for some
inspectors correct size, weight and color satisfies the requirements. For the users, however,
state-of-function stands above regulatory discipline and arguments arise over what’s more
important, performance or satisfying a dogmatic mandate.

Ignoring the performance criteria of a battery nullifies the very reason why quality
control
is put in place. In defense of the quality auditor, batteries are difficult to check, and to this
day there are only a few reliable devices that can check batteries with certainty. (More on
this in Chapter 9, “Testing and Monitoring,” on page 209.)

Battery Failure, Real or Perceived
Battery manufactures use capacity to specify battery performance, and a new battery
should have 100 percent. This means that a 2Ah battery should deliver two amperes for
one hour. If the battery quits after 30 minutes, then the capacity is only 50 percent.
Manufacturers use capacity to specify warranty obligations. Depending on chemistry and
application, the warranty threshold is set between 70 and 80 percent of the specified full
capacity.

How does the user know when to claim warranty failure on a battery, or when to replace
a pack that no longer performs as expected? Battery replacement has been an ongoing
problem and the lack of easy-to-use testing procedures is in part to blame. On one hand,
an aging battery may be kept too long until it begins affecting operation, while on the
other hand perfectly good batteries are being replaced because of equipment problems or
operator misapprehension. This commonly occurs with consumer products under
warranty, especially cell phones. If the charge on a cell phone does not hold, the user
naturally blames the battery when in many cases the fault lies in the device.

Cell phone manufacturers say that 90 percent of batteries returned under warranty have
no problem, and tests conducted in the Cadex laboratories confirm this finding. Many
storefronts replace the batteries on the faintest complaint, and this frivolous battery return
policy costs the manufacturers millions of dollars per year. Unrealistic expectations,
perceived performance loss and lack of practical testing equipment contribute to this
wasteful battery exchange behavior.

 Generous battery replacement policies are not limited to portable equipment alone: one
German manufacturer of luxury cars points out that out of 400 starter batteries returned
under warranty, 200 are working well and have no problem. Low charge and acid
stratification are the most common causes of the apparent failure. This problem is more
frequent with large luxury cars featuring power-hungry accessories than with the more
basic models. A genuine factory defect is seldom the cause, and a leading European
manufacturer of starter batteries says that factory defects cause less than seven percent of
the returned warranty batteries. Similar to the cell phone industry, the manufacturer of the
starter battery must take responsibility for a problem that may be customer-induced.

Battery failure in Japan is the largest complaint among new owners. Motorists drive an
average 13km (8 miles) per day in congested cities. With the stop-and-go pattern, the
battery has little chance to get fully charged and sulfation occurs. North America may be
shielded from such battery problems in part because of the long-distance driving. For
more information on sulfation, see Chapter 8, “Sulfation,” on page 185.

Let us examine the four renegades that interfere with battery performance. They are
declining capacity, rising internal resistance, elevated self-discharge and premature
voltage cut-off on discharge. These performance robbers apply to all batteries, including
the fuel cell.

Four Renegades of Battery Failure

Declining Capacity
Energy storage in a battery can conceptually be divided into three imaginary segments of
the available energy, the empty zone that can be refilled, and the unusable part (rock
content). Figure 8-3 illustrates these three sections.

Figure 8-3: Aging battery

Batteries begin fading from the day they are manufactured. A new battery should deliver 100 percent capacity; most
packs in use operate at less.

Courtesy of Cadex

Although the manufacturer specifies the runtime of portable equipment based on a
battery performing at 100 percent, most packs in the field operate at less capacity. As time
goes on, the performance declines further and the battery gets smaller in terms of holding
capacity. A pack should be replaced when the capacity drops to 80 percent. This is only 20
percent down from 100 percent, and the end-of-life threshold may vary according to
application and company policy.

Besides age-related losses, sulfation and grid corrosion are the main killers of lead acid
batteries. Sulfation is a thin layer that forms on the negative cell plate if the battery is
allowed to dwell in a low state-of-charge. If sulfation is caught in time, an equalizing
charge can reverse the condition. (More on sulfation is in this chapter under “Sulfation,”
on page 185.) With nickel-based batteries, the so-called rock content is often the result of
crystalline formation, also known as “memory,” and a full discharge can sometimes
restore the battery. The aging process of lithium-ion is cell oxidation, a process that occurs
naturally as part of usage and aging and cannot be reversed.

Rising Internal Resistance
High capacity has limited use if the battery is unable to deliver the stored energy
effectively. To bring the power out, the battery needs low internal resistance. Measured in
milliohms (mW), resistance is the gatekeeper of the battery; the lower the value, the less
restriction the pack encounters. This is especially important with heavy loads and high
current pulses, as elevated resistance causes the voltage to collapse and trigger an early
shutdown. The device turns off and valuable energy is left behind. Figure 8-4 illustrates
batteries with low and high internal resistance as free-flowing and restricted taps.

Low resistance High resistance

Figure 8-4: Effects of internal battery resistance

A battery with low internal resistance delivers high current on demand. High resistance causes the battery voltage to
collapse. The equipment cuts off, leaving energy behind.

Courtesy of Cadex

Lead acid has a very low internal resistance, and the battery responds well to high
current bursts lasting for only a few seconds. Due to inherent sluggishness, however, lead
acid does not perform well with a sustained discharge at high current and the battery needs
rest to recover. Sulfation and grid corrosion are the main causes of increased internal
resistance. Temperature also affects the resistance; heat lowers it and cold raises it.

Alkaline, carbon-zinc and other primary batteries have relatively high internal
resistance, and this relegates their use to low-current applications such as flashlights,
remote controls, portable entertainment devices and kitchen clocks. As the batteries
discharge, the resistance increases further. This explains why regular alkaline cells have a
relatively short runtime in digital cameras. The high internal resistance limits most
primary batteries to “soft” applications, and using them to drive power tools that draw
high amperage is unthinkable.

Figures 8-5, 8-6 and 8-7 reflect the talk-time of cellular phones with pulsed discharge
loads of 1C, 2C and 3C, which GSM and CDMA demand. All batteries tested are similar
in size and have capacities of 113%, 94% and 107% respectively, when checked with a
battery analyzer on a DC discharge. The three graphs clearly demonstrate the importance
of low internal resistance, which varies from a low 155mΩ to a moderate 320mΩ, to a
high 778mΩ respectively.

Figure 8-5: GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time
The capacity of the NiCd battery is 113%; the internal resistance is 155mΩ.


Figure 8-6: GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time
The capacity of the NiMH battery is 94%, the internal resistance is 320mΩ.

Figure 8-7: GSM discharge pulses at 1, 2, and 3C with resulting talk-time
The capacity of the Li-ion battery is 107%; the internal resistance is 778mΩ.

All three figures courtesy of Cadex

Notes: The above tests were done on cellular phone batteries before lithium-ion took over
as the leading battery type for this application. The internal resistance of a modern cellular
battery is between 150 and 350mΩ.

The maximum discharge pulse current of GSM is 2.5 amperes. When drawn from
an 800mAh pack, this represents a 3C discharge, or three times the rated current.

Elevated Self-discharge
All batteries are affected by self-discharge. Self-discharge is not a manufacturing defect
per se, although poor manufacturing practices and improper handling can promote the
problem. The amount of electrical leakage varies with chemistry, and primary cells, such
as lithium and alkaline, are among the best in retaining the energy. Nickel-based
rechargeable systems, in comparison, leak the most and need recharging if the battery has
not been used for a few days. High-performance nickel-based batteries are subject to
higher self-discharge than the standard versions with lower energy densities. Figure 8-8
illustrates in the form of leaking fluids the self-discharge of a battery.

Figure 8-8: Effects of high self-discharge

Self-discharge increases with age, cycling and elevated temperature. Discard a battery if the self-discharge reaches 30
percent in 24 hours.

Courtesy of Cadex

The energy loss is asymptotical, meaning that the self-discharge is highest right after
charge and then tapers off. Nickel-based batteries lose 10 to 15 percent of their capacity in
the first 24 hours after charge, then 10 to 15 percent per month. Figure 8-9 shows the
typical loss of a nickel-based battery while in storage.


Figure 8-9: Self-discharge as a function of time

The discharge is highest right after charge and tapers off. The graph shows self-discharge of a nickel-based battery.
Lead- and lithium-based system have a lower self-discharge.

Courtesy of Cadex

One of the best batteries in terms of self-discharge is lead acid; it loses only five percent
per month. This chemistry also has the lowest specific energy and is ill suited for portable
use. Lithium-ion self-discharges about five percent in the first 24 hours and 1 to 2 percent
thereafter. The need for the protection circuit increases the discharge by another three
percent per month.

The self-discharge on all battery chemistries increases at higher temperatures and the
rate typically doubles with every 10°C (18°F). A noticeable energy loss occurs if a battery
is left in a hot vehicle. Cycling and aging also increase self-discharge. Nickel-metal-
hydride is good for 300-400 cycles, whereas the standard nickel-cadmium lasts over 1,000
cycles before elevated self-discharge starts interfering with performance. The self-
discharge on an older nickel-based battery can get so bad that the pack loses its energy
mainly through leakage rather than normal use during the day. Discard a battery if the self-
discharge reaches 30 percent in 24 hours.

The self-discharge of Li-ion is reasonably steady throughout the service life and does
not increase noticeably with age, unless there is a cell anomaly caused by separator
damage when microscopic metal particles group together. Improved manufacturing
methods have minimized this problem on newer batteries. Table 8-10 reveals the self-
discharge rate per month at various temperatures and state-of-charge conditions.


Table 8-10: Self-discharge of Li-ion at various temperatures and state-of-charge
Self-discharge increases with rising temperature and higher SoC.

Once present, the high self-discharge of a flooded lead acid battery cannot be reversed.
Factors leading to this failure are sludge buildup in the sediment trap on the bottom of the
container. The sludge is semi-conductive, and when substance reaches to the plates a soft
short occurs. On nickel-based batteries, a weakened or damaged separator is the cause of
high self-discharge. Contributing factors are crystalline formation (memory), permitting
the battery to “cook” in the charger or exposing it to repeated deep discharge cycles. A
faulty separator also increases the self-discharge in lithium-ion batteries. In extreme cases,
heat generated by the electrical leak further weakens the damaged separator. This can lead
to a thermal breakdown.

Premature Voltage Cut-off
Not all stored battery energy can or should be used on discharge, and some reserve is
almost always left behind when the equipment cuts off. There are several reasons for this.

Most cell phones, laptops and other portable devices turn off when the lithium-ion
battery reaches 3V/cell on discharge. The manufacturers choose this relatively high
voltage threshold to allow for some self-discharge while in storage, giving a grace period
before the protection circuit opens at about 2.5V/cell.

A hybrid battery on a car never fully discharges and operates on a state-of-charge of 20
to
80 percent. This is the most effective working bandwidth of the battery, and staying within
this range delivers the longest service life. A deep discharge with a full recharge causes
undue stress to any battery, including Li-ion. Nickel-based batteries are similar, and
because of reduced charge acceptance and heat buildup above the 80 percent SoC, the
batteries are seldom fully charged. The emphasis on an electric powertrain is on
maximizing service life rather than optimizing runtime (as is the case with consumer
products).

Power tools and medical devices that draw high currents push the battery voltage to an
early cut-off. This is especially true if one of the cells has a high internal resistance, or
when the battery is operating at cold temperatures. These batteries may still have ample
capacity left after the “cut-off” and when discharging at moderate load, a battery analyzer
may read
a residual capacity of 30 percent. Figure 8-11 illustrates the cut-off voltage graphically.

Figure 8-11: Illustration of equipment with high cut-off voltage

Portable devices do not utilize all available battery power and leave some energy behind.

Courtesy of Cadex

Can Batteries Be Restored?

Battery users and entrepreneurs often ask, “Can batteries be restored?” The answer is, “It
depends.” Most battery failures are permanent and cannot be repaired, but there are
exceptions. Sulfation on lead acid batteries can be removed if caught in time (see
“Sulfation,” on page 185); crystalline formation, also known as “memory,” on nickel-
cadmium can be dissolved through deep-cycling (see “Memory: Myth or Fact?” on page
193); and “sleeping” lithium-ion packs can be boosted if they have been over-discharged
(see “All About Chargers,” on page 101 and “What Causes Lithium-ion to Age?” on page
202).

Permanent battery defects include high internal resistance, elevated self-discharge,
electrical short and capacity fade. Poorly designed chargers, exposure to excess heat, harsh
charge and discharge cycles, and inappropriate storage contribute to early aging. Let’s
examine the cause of these non-correctable battery problems and explore what we can do
to minimize them.

Low-capacity Cells
A manufacturer cannot predict the exact capacity when a battery comes off the production
line, and this is especially true with lead acid batteries that involve manual assembly. Fully
automated cell production in “clean rooms” also causes performance differences, and as
part of quality control, each cell is measured and segregated into categories according to
their inherent capacity levels. The high-capacity A-cells are reserved for special
applications and sold at premium prices; the large mid-range B-group goes to commercial
and industrial markets; and the low-grade C-cells may end up as consumer products in
department stores. Cycling will not significantly improve the capacity of the low-end cell,
and even though the cell may look good, the buyer must be aware of differences in
capacity and quality, which often translate into life expectancy.

Cell Mismatch, Balancing
Matching of cells according to capacity is important, especially for industrial batteries. No
perfect match is possible, and if slightly off, nickel-based cells adapt to each other after a
few charge/discharge cycles similar to the players on a winning sports team. High-quality
cells continue to perform longer than the lower-quality counterpart, and the cells degrade
at a more even and controlled rate. Lower-grade cells, on the other hand, diverge more
quickly with use and time, and failures due to cell mismatch are more widespread. Cell
mismatch is a common cause of failure in industrial batteries. Manufacturers of
professional power tools and medical equipment are careful in the choice of cells to attain
good battery reliability and long life.

Let’s look at what a weak cell does in a pack that is strung together with strong ones.
The weak cell holds less capacity and is discharged more quickly than the strong brothers.
Going empty first, the strong brothers overrun this feeble sibling and the resulting current
on a continued discharge pushes the weak cell into reverse polarity. Nickel-cadmium can
tolerate a reverse voltage of minus 0.2V and a reverse current of a few milliamps, but
exceeding this level will cause a permanent electrical short. On charge, the weak cell
reaches full charge first and it goes into heat-generating over-charge while the strong
brothers still accept charge and stay cool. The low cell experiences a disadvantage on both
charge and discharge. It continues to weaken until finally giving up the struggle.

The capacity tolerance between cells in an industrial battery should be +/– 2.5 percent.
High-voltage packs designed for heavy loads and wide adverse temperature ranges should
have lower tolerances. There is a strong correlation between cell balance and longevity.

Li-ion cells share similar deficiencies with nickel-based systems and need management.
The mandatory protection circuit supervises the serially connected cells by clamping the
voltage when exceeding 4.25 and 4.35V on charge, and disconnecting the pack from
discharge when the weakest cell drops to between 2.50 and 2.80V/cell. This prevents the
stronger cells from pushing the depleted cell into reverse polarization. The protection
circuit acts like a guardian angel that shields the weaker siblings from being bullied by the
stronger brothers. This may be help to explain why Li-ion packs for power tools last
longer than nickel-based batteries, which normally do not have a protection circuit.

 The capacity of quality Li-ion cells is consistent and the self-discharge is low. A
problem arises when the cells exhibit a discrepancy in self-discharge. This can be
attributed to lower-quality cells or high-temperature spots in a large automotive battery,
which hastens aging. Balancing is required and there are two methods: Passive balancing
bleeds the high-voltage cells; active balancing shuttles the extra charge from higher-
voltage cells to the lower-voltage cells without burning the energy. Active balancing is the
preferred method on EVs.

With use and time all batteries become mismatched, and this also applies to lead acid.
Shorted cells and those having high self-discharge are a common cause of cell imbalance
and lead to subsequent failure. Manufacturers of golf cars, aerial work platforms, floor
scrubbers and other battery-powered vehicles recommend an equalizing charge of 3–4
hours if the voltage difference between the cells is greater than +/– 0.10V, or if the specific
gravity varies more than 10 points (0.010 on the SG scale). An equalizing charge is a
charge on top of a charge that brings all cells to full-charge saturation. This service must
be administered with care because excessive charging can harm the battery. (See also
Chapter 4, “Equalizing Charge,” on page 114.) A difference in specific gravity of 40
points poses a performance problem and the cell is considered defective. A 40-point
difference is one cell having an SG of 1.200 and another 1.240. A charge may temporarily
cover the deficiency, but the flaw will resurface after a few hours of rest due to high self-
discharge.

Shorted Cells
Manufacturers are at a loss to explain why some cells develop high electrical leakage or a
short while still new. The culprit might be foreign particles that contaminate the cells
during manufacture, or rough spots on the plates that damage the delicate separator. Clean
rooms, improved quality control at the raw material level, and minimal human handling
during the manufacturing process have reduced the “infant mortality rate.”

Applying momentary high-current bursts to repair a shorted NiCd or NiMH cell has
been tried but offers limited success. The short may temporarily evaporate but the damage
in the separator remains. After service, the repaired cell may charge normally and reach
correct voltages; however, high self-discharge will likely drain the battery and the short
will return.

It is not advised to replace a shorted cell in an aging pack because of cell matching. The
new cell will always be stronger than the others. Consider the biblical verses: “No one
sews a patch of unshrunk cloth on an old garment. If he does, the new piece will pull away
from the old, making the tear worse. And no one pours new wine into old wineskins. If he
does, the wine will burst the skins, and both the wine and the wineskins will be ruined”
(Mark 2:21, 22 NIV). Replacing faulty cells often leads to battery failures within six
months. It’s best not to disturb the cells. Instead, allow them to age naturally as an intact
family.

Shorts or high leakage in a Li-ion cell are uncommon. If this occurs, the cell becomes
unstable and a massive amount of power can dissipate, leading to a possible venting
thermal breakdown. Such a leak can be compared to drilling a small pinhole into a high-
pressure gas pipeline and holding a match to it. The resulting explosion could rupture the
pipe. Similarly, the rushing current in the cell heats up the tiny malfunction, causes a
major leak and releases all energy within seconds (see also Chapter 3, “Protection
Circuits,” on page 96).

Cell disintegration caused by internal disturbances lies outside the safeguarding ability
of the protection circuit. Most cell failures occur when the battery has been damaged by
shock and vibration, has been overcharged or has been overheated. Li-ion cells for electric
powertrains and demanding industrial applications use a heavy-duty separator to reduce
the risk of an electrical short. These batteries are larger than consumer-type packs. Saying
that Li-ion has twice the specific energy of NiCd can be a misnomer; some long-lasting
Li-ion cells have a capacity as low as 60Wh/kg, the same as NiCd.

Loss of Electrolyte
The loss of electrolyte in a flooded lead acid battery occurs through gassing, as hydrogen
escapes during charging and discharging. Venting causes the electrolyte to become more
concentrated and the balance must be restored by adding clean water. Do not add
electrolyte, as this would upset the specific gravity and shorten battery life through
excessive corrosion.

Permeation, or loss of electrolyte in sealed lead acid batteries, is a recurring problem
that is often caused by overcharging. Careful adjustment of charging and float voltages, as
well as operating at moderate temperatures, reduces this failure. Replenishing lost liquid
in VRLA batteries by adding water has limited success. Although the lost capacity can
often be regained with a catalyst, tampering with the cells turns the stack into a high-
maintenance project that needs constant supervision.

Nickel-based batteries can lose electrolyte through venting due to excessive pressure
during extreme charge or discharge. After repeated venting, the spring-loaded seal of the
cells may not seal properly again, and the deposit of white powder around the seal opening
is evidence of this. Losses of electrolyte may also occur as part of faulty manufacturing.
Dry-up conditions result in a “soft” cell, a defect that cannot be corrected. On charge, the
voltage of a “dry” cell goes high because the battery has no clamping action and does not
draw current.

A properly designed and correctly charged lithium-ion cell should not generate gases,
nor should it lose electrolyte through venting. In spite of what advocates have said,
lithium-based cells can build up an internal pressure under certain conditions, and a
bloated pouch cell is proof of this (see Figure 3-7: Swelling pouch cell on page 91). Some
cells include an electrical switch that opens if the cell pressure reaches a critical level.
Others feature a membrane that releases gases. Many of these safety features are one-way
only, meaning that once activated, the cell becomes inoperable. This is done for safety
reasons.

How to Prolong Lead Acid Batteries

A lead acid battery goes through three life phases, called formatting, peak and decline
(Figure 8-12). In the formatting phase try to imagine sponge-like lead plates that are being
exposed to a liquid. Exercising the plates allows absorbing more liquid, much like
squeezing and releasing a sponge. This enables the electrolyte to better fill the usable
areas, which increases the capacity. Formatting is most important for deep-cycle batteries
and requires 20 to 50 full cycles to reach peak capacity. Field usage does this and there is
no need to apply added cycles for the sake of priming, however, manufacturers say to go
easy on the battery until broken in. Starter batteries are less critical and do not need
priming; the full cranking power is present right from the beginning.

Figure 8-12: Cycle life of a battery

The three phases of a battery are formatting, peak and decline.

Courtesy of Cadex

A deep-cycle battery delivers 100–200 cycles before it starts the gradual decline.
Replacement should occur when the capacity drops to 70 or 80 percent. Applying a fully
saturated 14- to 16-hour charge and operating at moderate temperatures assure the longest
service times. If at all possible, avoid deep discharges and charge more often.

The primary reason for the relatively short cycle life of a lead acid battery is depletion
of active material. According to the 2010 BCI Failure Modes Study,1 plate/grid-related
break-down has increased from 30 percent five years ago to 39 percent today. The report
does not give reasons for the increased wear-and-tear, other than to assume that higher
demands of starter batteries in modern cars induce added stress. While the depletion of the
active material is well understood and can be calculated, a lead acid battery suffers from
other infirmities long before plate- and grid-deterioration sound the death knell. Let’s look
at the most common problems that develop with use and time — from internal to external
— and what battery users can do to minimize the effect.

Corrosion / Shedding
Corrosion occurs primarily on the grid and is known as a softening and shedding of lead
off the plates, a reaction that cannot be avoided because the electrodes in a lead acid
environment are always reactive. Lead shedding is a natural phenomenon that can only be
slowed down and not eliminated. A battery that reaches the end of life through this failure
mode has met or exceeded the anticipated life span. Limiting the depth of discharge,
reducing the cycle count, operating at a moderate temperature and controlling overcharge
are key in keeping corrosion in check. To reduce corrosion on long-life batteries,
manufacturers keep specific gravity at a moderate 1.200 when fully charged. This,
however, reduces the capacity the battery can hold.

Applying prolonged overcharge is another contributor to grid corrosion. This is
especially damaging to sealed lead acid systems. While the flooded lead acid has some
resiliency to overcharge, sealed units must operate at a correct float charge. Chargers with
variable float voltages that adjust to the prevailing temperature help to keep grid corrosion
in check. Such chargers are in common use for stationary batteries.

To attain maximum surface area, the lead on a starter battery is applied in a sponge-like
form. With time and use, chunks of lead fall off and reduce the performance. The thicker
plates prevent this from happening on deep-cycle batteries. Figure 8-13 illustrates the
innards of a corroded lead acid battery.

The terminals of a battery can also corrode, and this is often visible in the form of white
powder. The phenomenon is a result of oxidation between two different metals connecting
the poles. Terminal corrosion can eventually lead to an open electrical connection.
Changing the connecting terminals to lead, the same material as the battery pole of a
starter battery, will solve most corrosion problems.


Figure 8-13: Innards of a corroded lead acid battery

Grid corrosion is unavoidable because the electrodes in a lead acid environment are always reactive. Lead shedding is a
natural phenomenon that can only be slowed and not eliminated.

Courtesy of Journal of Power Sources (2009)

Short
The term “short” is commonly used to describe a general battery fault when no other
definition is available. As the colloquial term “memory” was the cause of all battery ills in
the NiCd days, so do we today describe non-functioning lead acid batteries simply as
being “shorted.” Let’s take a closer look and see what a shorted lead acid battery truly is.

The lead within a battery, especially in deep-cycle units, is mechanically active and
when a battery discharges, the lead sulfate causes the plates to expand. This movement
reverses during charge and the plates contract. The cells allow for some expansion but
over time the growth of large sulfite crystals can result in a soft short that increases self-
discharge. This mechanical action also causes shedding of the lead material. On a starter
battery, the shedding is manageable because the lead plates are thin and the battery does
not go through a deep discharge. On a deep-cycle battery, on the other hand, shedding is a
major concern.

As the battery sheds its lead to the bottom of the container, a conductive layer forms,
and once the contaminated material fills the allotted space in the sediment trap, the now
conductive liquid reaches the plates and creates a shorting effect. The term “short” is a
misnomer and elevated self-discharge would be a better term to describe the condition.

“Soft shorts” are difficult to detect because the battery appears normal immediately
after a charge and everything seems to function as it should. In essence, the charge has
wiped out all evidence of a soft short, except perhaps an elevated temperature on the
housing. Once rested for 6–12 hours, the battery begins to show anomalies such as a lower
open-circuit voltage and reduced specific gravity. The measured capacity will also be low
because self-discharge has consumed some of the stored energy. According to the 2010
BCI Failure Modes Study, shorted batteries accounted for 18 percent of battery failures, a
drop from 31 percent five years earlier. Improved manufacturing methods may account for
this reduction.

Another form of “soft” short is mossing. This occurs when the separators and plates are
slightly misaligned as a result of poor manufacturing. This causes parts of the plates to
become naked. The exposure promotes the formation of conductive crystal moss around
the edges, which leads to elevated self-discharge.

Lead drop is another cause of short, in which large chunks of lead break loose from the
welded bars connecting the plates. Unlike a “soft” short that develops with wear-and-tear,
a lead drop often occurs early in battery life and causes a more serious short that is
associated with a permanent voltage drop. The shorted cell has no charge and the specific
gravity of the electrolyte is close to 1.00. This is mostly a manufacturing defect and cannot
be repaired.

The most radical and serious form of short is a mechanical failure in which the
suspended plates become loose and touch each other. This results in a sudden high
discharge current that can lead to excessive heat buildup and thermal runaway. Sloppy
manufacturing as well as excessive shock and vibration are the most common contributors
to this failure.

Sulfation
Sulfation occurs when a lead acid battery is deprived of a full charge. This is common
with starter batteries in cars that are driven in the city with load-hungry accessories
engaged. A motor in idle or at low speed cannot charge the battery sufficiently.

Electric wheelchairs have a similar problem in that the users might not charge the
battery long enough. An eight-hour charge during the night when the chair is free is not
enough. Lead acid must periodically be charged 14–16 hours to attain full saturation. This
may be the reason why wheelchair batteries last only two years, whereas golf car batteries
deliver twice the service life. Longer leisure time allows golf car batteries to get a fully
saturated charge.

Solar cells and wind turbines do not always provide sufficient charge, and lead acid
banks succumb to sulfation. This happens in remote parts of the world where villagers
draw generous amounts of electricity with insufficient renewable resources to charge the
batteries. The result is a short battery life. Only a periodic fully saturated charge could
solve the problem, but without an electrical grid at their disposal, this is almost
impossible. An alternative is using lithium-ion, a battery that is forgiving to a partial
charge, but this would cost much more than lead acid.

What is sulfation? During use, small sulfate crystals form, but these are normal and are
not harmful. During prolonged charge deprivation, however, the amorphous lead sulfate
converts to a stable crystalline that deposits on the negative plates. This leads to the
development of large crystals, which reduce the battery’s active material that is
responsible for high capacity and low resistance. Sulfation also lowers charge acceptance;
with sulfation charging will take longer.

There are two types of sulfation: reversible or soft sulfation, and permanent or hard
sulfation. If a battery is serviced early, reversible sulfation can often be corrected by
applying an over-charge to a fully charged battery in the form of a regulated current of
about 200mA. The battery terminal voltage is allowed to rise to between 2.50 and
2.66V/cell (15 and 16V on a 12V mono block) for about 24 hours. Increasing the battery
temperature to 50–60°C (122–140°F) further helps in dissolving the crystals. Permanent
sulfation sets in when the battery has been in a low state-of-charge for weeks or months,
and at this stage no form of restoration is possible.

There is a fine line between reversible and non-reversible sulfation, and most batteries
have a little bit of both. Good results are achievable if the sulfation is only a few weeks
old; restoration becomes more difficult the longer the battery is allowed to stay in a low
SoC. A battery may improve marginally when applying a de-sulfation service but it may
not reach a satisfactory performance level. A subtle indication of whether a lead acid can
be recovered is visible on the voltage discharge curve. If a fully charged battery retains a
stable voltage profile on discharge, chances of reactivation are better than if the voltage
drops rapidly with load.

Several companies offer anti-sulfation devices that apply pulses to the battery terminals
to prevent and reverse sulfation. Such technologies tend to lower sulfation on a healthy
battery but they cannot effectively reverse the condition once present. Manufacturers
offering these devices take the “one size fits all” approach and the method is unscientific.
A random service of pulsing or overcharging can harm the battery in promoting grid
corrosion. Technologies are being developed that measure the level of sulfation and apply
a calculated overcharge to dissolve the crystals. Chargers featuring this technique only
apply de-sulfation if sulfation is present and for only a short duration as needed

Water Loss / Dry-out
During use, and especially on overcharge, the water in the electrolyte splits into hydrogen
and oxygen. The battery begins to gas, which results in water loss. In flooded batteries,
water can be added but in sealed batteries water loss leads to an eventual dry-out and
decline in capacity. Water loss from a sealed unit can eventually cause disintegration of
the separator. The initial stages of dry-out can go undetected and the drop in capacity may
not immediately be evident. Early detection of this failure is important. (See also Chapter
4, “Watering,” on page 113.)

On overcharge, a battery converts to a water-splitting device that turns water into
oxygen and hydrogen. The fuel cell does the opposite; it turns oxygen and hydrogen back
to electricity and produces water. Turing water to hydrogen needs energy; converting
hydrogen and oxygen to water generates energy. (See Chapter 2, “Fuel Cell,” on page 70.)

Acid Stratification
The electrolyte of a stratified battery concentrates on the bottom, starving the upper half of
the cell. Acid stratification occurs if the battery dwells at low charge (below 80 percent),
never receives a full charge and has shallow discharges. Driving a car for short distances
with power-robbing accessories contributes to acid stratification because the alternator
cannot always apply a saturated charge under such conditions. Large luxury cars are
especially prone to this. Acid stratification is not a battery defect per se but the result of a
particular usage. Figure 8-14 illustrates a normal battery in which the acid is equally
distributed from top to bottom.

Figure 8-14: Normal battery

The acid is equally distributed from the top to the bottom of the battery, providing good overall performance.

Courtesy of Cadex

Figure 8-15 shows a stratified battery in which the acid concentration is light on top and
heavy on the bottom. The light acid on top limits plate activation, promotes corrosion and
reduces the performance, while the high acid concentration on the bottom makes the
battery appear more charged than it is and artificially raises the open-circuit voltage.
Because of unequal charge across the plates, the CCA performance is also affected.


Figure 8-15: Stratified battery

The acid concentration is light on top and heavy on the bottom. This raises the open circuit voltage and the battery
appears fully charged. Excessive acid concentration induces sulfation on the lower half of the plates.

Courtesy of Cadex

Allowing the battery to rest for a few days, doing a shaking motion or tipping the
battery on its side helps correct the problem. Applying an equalizing charge by raising the
voltage of a 12-volt battery to 16 volts for one to two hours also helps by mixing the
electrolyte through electrolysis. Avoid extending the topping charge beyond its
recommended time.

Acid stratifications cannot always be avoided. During cold winter months, starter
batteries of passenger cars dwell at a 75 percent charge level. Knowing that motor idling
and driving in gridlocked traffic does not sufficiently charge the battery, a charge with an
external charger may be needed from time to time. If this is not practical, a switch to an
AGM battery will help. AGM does not suffer from acid stratification and is less subject to
sulfation if undercharged than the flooded version. AGM is a little more expensive than
the flooded starter battery.

Surface Charge
Lead acid batteries are sluggish and cannot convert lead sulfate to lead and lead dioxide
quickly enough during charge. As a result, most of the charge activities occur on the plate
surfaces. This induces a higher state-of-charge on the outside than in the inner plate. A
battery with surface charge has a slightly elevated voltage. To normalize the condition,
switch on electrical loads to remove about one percent of the battery’s capacity, or allow
the battery to rest for a few hours. Surface charge is not a battery defect but a reversible
condition resulting from charging.

Additives
Adding chemicals to the electrolyte of flooded lead acid batteries can reduce the buildup
of lead sulfate on the plates and improve the overall battery performance. This treatment
has been in use since the 1950s (and perhaps longer) and provides a temporary
performance boost for aging batteries. It’s a stopgap measure because in most cases the
plates have already been worn out through shedding. Chemical additives cannot replace
the active material, nor can cracked plates, corroded connectors or damaged separators be
restored with an outside remedy.

Extending the service life of an aging battery is a noble desire. The additives are cheap,
readily available and worth the experiment of a handyman. Suitable additives are
magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), caustic soda and EDTA. (EDTA is a crystalline acid used
in industry.) These salts may reduce the internal resistance of a sulfated battery to give it a
few months of extra life. Using Epsom salt, follow these easy steps:

Heat up the water to about 66°C (150°F), mix 10 heaping tablespoons of Epsom salt
into the water and stir until dissolved. The consistency of the brew should vary according
to the extent of the sulfation. Avoid using too much salt because a heavy concentration
will increase corrosion of the lead plates and internal connectors. Pour the warm solution
into the battery.

Be careful not to overfill. Do not place un-dissolved Epsom salt directly into the battery
because the substance does not dissolve well. In place of Epsom salt, try adding a pinch of
caustic soda. Charge or equalize the battery after service. The results are not instantaneous
and it may take a month for the treatment to work. The outcome is not guaranteed.

How Age Affects Capacity and Resistance
Let’s examine the aging mechanism of batteries in terms of fading capacity and increasing
internal resistance. Figure 8-16 shows a battery with high capacity and another that has
aged. The capacity loss is illustrated with growing “rock content;” the rocks mark the
unusable part of the battery. Figure 8-17 looks at resistance and illustrates a good battery
with a free-flowing tap and a high-resistance one with restricted flow.

New battery has high capacity

 Aged battery has low capacity

Figure 8-16: Battery capacity illustrated as liquid content. Both batteries are fully charged, but the “rock-content”
limits the amount of energy being stored.

Battery with high CCA

Battery with low CCA

Figure 8-17: Free-flowing and restricted taps representing CCA performance.
The cranking current is about 300A. (A golf cart typically draws 56A.)

Most rechargeable batteries maintain low internal resistance during their service life,
and this is reflected in a high CCA (cold cranking amps) on starter batteries. Capacity, on
the other hand, begins to drop gradually as the battery ages. To study these changes,
Cadex measured the capacity and CCA of 20 aging starter batteries. The results are laid
out in Figure 8-18 and sorted according to capacity levels in percentage.

Batteries 1 to 9 perform well on capacity and CCA, but batteries 10 to 20 show notable
capacity loss while the CCA remains strong. The motorist is unaware of the fading
capacity until the car won’t start one morning. This is especially critical during a cold
spell, which
further reduces the capacity. (More on CCA and capacity is in Figure 9-16 on page 223.)

Capacity is the leading health indicator of a battery, and car manufacturers often use 65
percent as the pass/fail threshold for warranty replacement. This magic level forms a
natural bend, a cliff between a high performing battery and one that is beginning to age.
Service garages usually take 40 percent as an end-of-life indication. (See Chapter 9, “How
to Measure Capacity,” on page 220.) Even though a starter battery with 40 percent
capacity may still crank well and have 6 to 12 months of service left before it will finally
quit, the battery should be replaced. Thrifty drivers, (including the author) prefer to wait,
but invariably get caught with a dead battery at the worst possible moment.

Figure 8-18: Capacity and CCA readings of 20 aging batteries. Batteries 1 to 9 have good CCA and high capacity;
the CCA of batteries 10 to 20 remains reasonably strong but suffers from capacity loss. CCA tends to remain high while
the capacity drops steadily as part of aging.

Test method: CCA was estimated with the Spectro CA-12 and the capacity was measured with an Agilent load bank by
applying full discharges according to BCI standards.

Courtesy of Cadex

Environment
Heat is a killer of all batteries and high temperatures cannot always be avoided. This is the
case with a battery inside a laptop, a starter battery under the hood of a car and stationary
batteries in a tin shelter under the hot sun. As a guideline, each 8°C (15°F) rise in
temperature cuts the life of a sealed lead acid battery in half. A VRLA battery for
stationary applications that would last 10 years at 25°C (77°F) would only live for five
years if operated at 33°C (95°F). Once the battery is damaged by heat, the capacity cannot
be restored. The life of a battery also depends on the activity and is shortened if the battery
is stressed with frequent discharge.

According to the 2010 BCI Failure Mode Study, starter batteries have become more
heat-resistant over the past 10 years. In the 2000 study, a change of 7°C (12°F) affected
battery life by roughly one year; in 2010 the heat tolerance has widened to 12°C (22°F). In
1962, a starter battery lasted 34 months, and in 2000 the life expectancy had increased to
41 months. In 2010, BCI reports an average age of 55 months of use. The cooler North
attains 59 months and the warmer South 47 months.

Cranking the engine poses minimal stress on a starter battery. This changes in a start-
stop function of a micro hybrid. The micro hybrid turns the IC engine off at a red traffic
light and restarts it when the traffic flows. This results in about 2,000 micro cycles per
year. Data obtained from car manufacturers show a capacity drop to about 60 percent after
two years of use in this configuration. To solve the problem, automakers are using
specialty AGM and other variations that are more robust than the regular lead acid. (See
Chapter 2, “New Lead Acid Systems,” on page 43.) Figure 8-19 shows the drop in
capacity after 700 micro cycles. The simulated start-stop test was performed in Cadex
laboratories. CCA remains high.

Figure 8-19: Capacity drop of a flooded starter battery when micro cycling

Start-stop function on a micro hybrid stresses the battery; the capacity drops to about 50 percent after two years of use.
AGM is more robust for this application.

Courtesy of Cadex, 2010

Test method: The test battery was fully charged and then discharged to 70 percent to resemble the SoC of a micro hybrid
in real life. The battery was then discharged at 25A for 40 seconds to simulate engine off condition at stoplight with the
headlight on, before cranking the engine at 400A and recharging. The CCA readings were taken with the Spectro CA-12.

The cell voltages on a battery string must be similar, and this is especially important for
higher-voltage VRLA batteries. With time, individual cells fall out of line, and applying an
equalizing charge every six months or so should theoretically bring the cells back to
similar voltage levels. While equalizing will boost the needy cells, the healthy cell gets
stressed if the equalizing charge is applied carelessly. What makes this service so difficult
is the inability to accurately measure the condition of each cell and provide the right dose
of remedy. Gel and AGM batteries have lower overcharge acceptance than the flooded
version and different equalizing conditions apply. Always refer to the manufacturer’s
specifications.

Water permeation, or loss of electrolyte, is a concern with sealed lead acid batteries, and
overcharging contributes to this condition. While flooded systems accept water, a fill-up is
not possible with VRLA. Adding water has been tried, but this does not offer a reliable
fix. Experimenting with watering turns the VRLA into unreliable battery that needs high
maintenance.

Flooded lead acid batteries are one of the most reliable systems. With good maintenance
these batteries last up to 20 years. The disadvantages are the need for watering and
providing good ventilation. When VRLA was introduced in the 1980s, manufacturers
claimed similar life expectancy to flooded systems, and the telecom industry switched to
these maintenance-free batteries. By mid 1990 it became apparent that the life for VRLA
did not replicate that of a flooded type; the useful service life was limited to only 5–10
years. It was furthermore noticed that exposing the batteries to temperatures above 40°C
(104°F) could cause a thermal runaway condition due to dry-out.

A new lead acid battery should have an open circuit voltage of 2.125V/cell. At this
time,
the battery is fully charged. During buyer acceptance, the lead acid may drop to between
2.120V and 2.125V/cell. Shipping, dealer storage and installation will decrease the voltage
further but the battery should never go much below 2.10V/cell. This would cause
sulfation. Battery type, applying a charge or discharge within 24 hours before taking a
voltage measurement, as well as temperature will affect the voltage reading. A lower
temperature raises the OCV; warm ambient lowers it.

Simple Guidelines for Extending Battery Life

Charge in a well-ventilated area. Allow a fully saturated charge of 14 hours.

Always keep lead acid charged. Avoid storage below 2.10V/cell, or SG below 1.190.

Avoid deep discharges. The deeper the discharge, the shorter the battery life will be.
A brief charge on a 1- to 2-hour break during heavy use prolongs battery life.

Never allow the electrolyte to drop below the tops of the plates. Exposed plates
sulfate and become inactive. When low, add only enough water to cover the exposed
plates before charging; fill to the correct level after charge.

 Never add acid; use distilled or ionized water. Tap water may be usable in some
regions.

When new, a deep-cycle battery may only have about 75 percent capacity. Formatting
as part of field use will gradually increase performance. Apply a gentle load for the
first five cycles to allow a new battery to format.

How to Restore Nickel-Based Batteries

Memory: Myth or Fact?
During the nickel-cadmium years in the 1970s and 1980s, most battery ills were blamed
on “memory.” Memory is derived from “cyclic memory,” meaning that a nickel-cadmium
battery could remember how much energy was drawn on previous discharges and would
not deliver more than was demanded before. On a discharge beyond regular duty, the
voltage would abruptly drop as if to rebel against pending overtime. Improvements in
battery technology have virtually eliminated the phenomenon of cycling memory.

Figure 8-20 illustrates the stages of crystalline formation that occur on a nickel-
cadmium cell if overcharged and not maintained with periodic deep discharges. The first
enlargement shows the cadmium plate in a normal crystal structure; the middle image
demonstrates full-blown crystalline formation; and the third reveals some form of
restoration.

New nickel-cadmium cell. The anode (negative electrode) is in fresh condition. Hexagonal cadmium-hydroxide crystals
are about 1 micron in cross section, exposing large surface area to the electrolyte for maximum performance.

Cell with crystalline formation. Crystals have grown to 50 to 100 microns in cross section, concealing large portions of
the active material from the electrolyte. Jagged edges and sharp corners can pierce the separator, leading to increased
self-discharge or electrical short.


Restored cell. After a pulsed charge, the crystals are reduced to 3–5 microns, an almost 100% restoration. Exercise or
recondition is needed if the pulse charge alone is not effective.

Figure 8-20: Crystalline formation on nickel-cadmium cell. Crystalline formation occurs over a few months if battery
is overcharged and not maintained with periodic deep discharges.

Courtesy of the US Army Electronics Command in Fort Monmouth, NJ

The modern nickel-cadmium battery is no longer affected by cyclic memory but suffers
from crystalline formation. The active cadmium material is applied on the negative
electrode plate, and with incorrect use a crystalline formation occurs that reduces the
surface area of
the active material. This lowers battery performance. In advanced stages, the sharp edges
of the forming crystals can penetrate the separator, causing high self-discharge that can
lead to an electrical short. The term “memory” on the modern NiCd refers to crystalline
formation rather than the cycling memory of old.

When nickel-metal-hydride was introduced in the early 1990s, this chemistry was
promoted as being memory-free but this claim is only partially true. NiMH is also subject
to memory but to a lesser degree than NiCd. While NiMH has only the nickel plate to
worry about, NiCd also includes the memory-prone cadmium negative electrode. This is a
non-scientific explanation of why nickel-cadmium is more susceptible to memory than
nickel-metal-hydride.

Crystalline formation occurs if a nickel-based battery is left in the charger for days or
repeatedly recharged without a periodic full discharge. Since most applications fall into
this user pattern, NiCd requires a periodic discharge to one volt per cell to prolong service
life. A discharge/charge cycle as part of maintenance, known as exercise, should be done
every one to three months. Avoid over-exercising as this wears down the battery
unnecessarily.

If regular exercise is omitted for six months and longer, the crystals ingrain themselves
and a full restoration with a discharge to one volt per cell may no longer be sufficient.
However, a restoration is often still possible by applying a secondary discharge called
“recondition.” Recondition is a slow discharge that drains the battery to a voltage cut-off
point of about 0.4V/cell and lower. Tests done by the US Army indicate that a NiCd cell
needs to be discharged to at least 0.6V to effectively break up the more resistant
crystalline formations. During this corrective discharge, the current must be kept low to
minimize cell reversal and, as discussed earlier, NiCd can tolerate a small amount of cell
reversal. Figure 8-21 illustrates the battery voltage during a discharge to 1V/cell, followed
by the secondary discharge to 0.4V/cell.

Recondition is most effective with healthy batteries and the remedy is also known to
improve new packs. Similar to a medical treatment, however, the service should only be
applied when so needed because over-use will stress the battery. Automated battery
analyzers (Cadex) only apply the recondition cycle if the user-set target capacity cannot be
reached.

Recondition is only effective on working batteries. Best results in recovery are possible
when applying a full discharge every 1–3 months. If exercise has been withheld for 6–12
months, the capacity may not recover fully, and if it does the pack might suffer from high
self-discharge caused by a marred separator. Older batteries do not restore well and many
get worse with recondition. When this happens, the battery is a ripe candidate for
retirement.

Figure 8-21: Exercise and recondition features of a Cadex battery analyzer

Recondition restores NiCd batteries with hard-to-remove memory. Recondition is a slow, deep dis-charge to 0.4V/cell.

Courtesy of Cadex

Results of Battery Maintenance
After the Balkan War in the 1990s, the Dutch Army began servicing its arsenal of nickel-
cadmium batteries that had been used for the two-way radios. The technicians in charge
wanted to know the remaining capacity and how many batteries could be restored to full
service using battery analyzers (Cadex). The army knew that allowing the batteries to sit
in the chargers with only two to three hours of use per day during the war was not ideal,
and the tests showed that the capacity on some packs had dropped to a low 30 percent.
With the recondition function, however, nine out of 10 batteries could be restored to 80
percent and higher. The army uses 80 percent as a threshold for usability. At time of
service, the nickel-cadmium batteries were two to three years old.

To analyze the effectiveness of battery maintenance further, the US Navy carried out
a study to find out how user pattern affects the life of nickel-cadmium batteries. For this,
the research team responsible for the program established three battery groups. One group
received charge only (no maintenance); another was periodically exercised (discharge to
1V/cell); and a third group received recondition. The 2,600 batteries studied were used for
Motorola two-way radios deployed on three US aircraft carriers. Table 8-22 summarizes
the test results, including the cost factor.

Table 8-22: Replacement rates of nickel-cadmium batteries
Exercise and recondition prolong battery life by three- and ninefold respectively.

GTE Government Systems, the organization that conducted the test, learned that with
charge-and-use the annual percentage of battery failure was 45 percent; with exercise the
failure rate was reduced to 15 percent; and with recondition only 5 percent failed. The
GTE report concludes that a battery analyzer featuring exercise and recondition costing
US$2,500 would return the investment in less than one month on battery savings alone.

Effect of Zapping
Remote control (RC) enthusiasts are experimenting with all imaginable methods to
maximize battery performance. A racecar motor draws 30A for about four minutes
delivered by a 7.2V battery. This amounts to over 200W of power, a large amount from a
small battery. An experimental technique that seems to enhance power is zapping the cells
with a very high pulse current. This is said to increase the cell voltage slightly and
generate more power.

 According to experts, zapping works best with NiCd cells. NiMH cells have been tried
but do not produce consistent results. Companies specializing in zapping use a very high
quality NiCd cell from Japan, and the sub-C is the most popular size for this application.
The factory handpicks the cells and they come with a unique label in a fully discharged
state. When measuring a totally empty cell (no charge), the open circuit voltage should
read between 1.11 and 1.12V. If the voltage is lower than 1.06V, then the cell is considered
suspect and zapping does not enhance the performance as well as with the others.

To zap a NiCd battery, a 47,000mF capacitor is charged to 90V, after which the raw
power is discharged directly across a single NiCd cell of 1.2V. After the shock treatment,
the cell is cycled and then zapped once more. Experts say that once a cell is treated and
used in service, zapping will no longer improve performance, nor does it regenerate a
weak cell.

The voltage increase on a successfully zapped battery is between 20 and 40mV when
loaded with 30A. According to experts, the voltage gain is permanent, but there is a small
drop in the gained voltage with usage and time.

There are no apparent side effects from zapping, however, the battery manufacturers
remain silent about this treatment. No scientific explanations are available as to why
zapping improves battery performance other than the belief that it lowers the internal
resistance. There is little information available regarding the longevity of the cells after
the treatment. Zapping only seems to work with high-quality standard NiCd cells, and in
no way should this be used on lithium-based chemistries.

Another method to improve NiCd batteries is through a recondition program. Tests
performed at the Cadex laboratories reveal a permanent capacity gain of about seven
percent when servicing new NiCd with recondition, a program that lowers the battery
voltage to 0.4V/cell on a secondary discharge. This capacity gain is not fully understood,
other than to assume that the battery improved through additional formatting. Another
explanation is the presence of early memory. Since new batteries are stored with some
charge, the self-discharge that occurs during storage may contribute to the buildup of
crystalline formation, which recondition reverses. While NiCds once played a pivotal role
for RC enthusiasts, the interest is shifting towards high-performance Li-ion.

How to Prolong Lithium-Based Batteries

Battery research is focusing on lithium chemistries so much that one could think that the
battery future lies only in lithium. There are good reasons to be optimistic, for lithium-ion
is in many ways superior to other chemistries. The applications are steadily growing, and
this is apparent with the use of Li-ion in power tools, medical equipment, satellites and
electric powertrains.

Lithium-ion has not yet fully matured and the chemistry is still improving. New metals
for the electrodes, alternative electrolytes and innovative separators are being deployed to
increase the specific energy, prolong service life and enhance safety. With these
incremental improvements since Li-ion was introduced in the early 1990s, the capacity has
more than doubled, and depending on the system used, the specific power has multiplied
tenfold and more.

What Causes Lithium-ion to Age?
The lithium-ion battery works on ion movement between the positive and negative
electrodes. In theory, such a mechanism should work forever, but shelf life, cycling and
temperature affect the performance. Because batteries are used under many demanding
environmental conditions, manufacturers take a conservative approach and specify a
battery life between 300 and 500 discharge/charge cycles. Life cycle testing is easy to
measure and is well understood by the user. Some organizations also add a date stamp of
three to five years; however, this method is less reliable because it does not include the
type of use.

Figure 8-23 illustrates the capacity drop of 11 Li-polymer batteries that have been
cycled at a Cadex laboratory. The 1500mAh pouch cells were first charged to 4.20V/cell at
1C rate (1500mA) and allowed to saturate to 0.05C (75mA) as part of full charge
procedure. The batteries were then discharged at 1500mA to 3.0V/cell, and the cycle was
repeated.

Figure 8-23: Capacity drop as part of cycling

A pool of new 1500mA Li-ion batteries for smart phone is tested on a Cadex C7400 battery analyzer. All 11 pouch packs
show a starting capacity of 88–94 percent and decrease in capacity to 73–84 percent after 250 full discharge cycles
(2010).

Courtesy of Cadex

Designed for a smart phone, the packs were already a few months old at time of testing
and none of the batteries made it to 100 percent. It is common to see lower than specified
capacities and shelf life may have contributed to this. Manufacturers tend to overrate their
batteries; they know that very few customers would complain. In our test, the expected
capacity loss was uniform over the 250 cycles. All sample batteries performed as
expected.

Similar to a mechanical device that wears out faster with heavy use, so also does the
depth of discharge (DoD) determine the cycle count. The smaller the depth of discharge,
the longer the battery will last. If at all possible, avoid frequent full discharges and charge
more often between uses. If full discharges cannot be avoided, try utilizing a larger battery.
Partial discharge on Li-ion is fine; there is no memory and the battery does not need
periodic full discharge cycles other than to calibrate the fuel gauge on a smart battery.

Table 8-24 compares the number of discharge/charge cycles a battery can deliver at
various DoD levels before lithium-ion is worn out. We assume end of life when the battery
capacity drops to 70 percent. This is an arbitrary threshold that is application based.

Table 8-24: Cycle life and depth of discharge

A partial discharge reduces stress and prolongs battery life. Elevated temperature and high currents also affect cycle life.

Specifying battery life by the number of discharge cycles is not complete by itself;
equally if not more important are temperature conditions and charging voltages. Lithium-
ion suffers stress when exposed to heat and kept at a high charge voltage.

Elevated temperature is anything that dwells above 30°C (86°F), and a high voltage is
higher than 4.10V/cell. When estimating longevity, these conditions are difficult to assess
because the battery state is in constant flux, and so is the temperature in which it operates.
Exposing the battery to high temperature and being at full state-of-charge for an extended
time can be more damaging than cycling. Manufacturers do not like to talk about these
environmental conditions and release information only in confidence when so requested.

This book does not rely on the manufacturer’s specifications alone but also listen to the
comments of users. BatteryUniversity.com is an excellent sounding board to connect with
the public and learn about reality. This approach might be unscientific, but it is genuine.
When the critical mass speaks, the manufacturers listen. The voice of the multitude is in
some ways stronger than laboratory tests performed in sheltered environments.

Let’s look at real-life situations and examine what stress a lithium-ion battery
encounters. Most packs last three to five years, less if exposed to high heat and if kept at a
full charge. Table 8-25 illustrates capacity loss as a function of temperature and state-of-
charge. One can clearly see a performance drop of recoverable capacity caused by
environmental conditions and not cycling. The worst condition is keeping a fully charged
battery at elevated temperatures, which is the case when running a laptop on the power
grid. Under these circumstances the battery will typically last for about two years, whether
cycled or not. The pack does not die suddenly but will produce decreasing runtimes as part
of aging.

Batteries are also exposed to elevated temperature when charging with wireless
chargers. The energy transfer from a charging mat to the portable device is 70 to 80
percent and the remaining 20 to 30 percent is lost mostly in heat. Placing a cellular phone
on the heat generating charging mat stresses the battery more than if charged on a
designated charger. We keep in mind that the mat will cool down once the battery is fully
charged. (More on charging mats is on “Charging Without Wires,” page 106.)

Table 8-25: Permanent capacity loss of lithium-ion as a function of temperature and charge level. High charge
levels and elevated temperatures hasten permanent capacity loss. Newer designs may show improved results.

Equally stressful is leaving a battery in a hot car, especially if exposed to the sun. When
not in use, store the battery in a cool place. For long-term storage, manufacturers
recommend a 40 percent charge. This allows for some self-discharge while still retaining
sufficient charge to keep the protection circuit active. Finding the ideal state-of-charge is
not easy; this would require a discharge unit with an appropriate cut-off. Users should not
worry too much about the state-of-charge; a cool and dry place is more important.

The voltage level to which the cells are charged also plays a role in extending longevity.
For safety reasons, most lithium-ion cannot exceed 4.20V/cell. While a higher voltage
would boost capacity, over-voltage shortens service life. Figure 8-26 demonstrates the
increased capacity but shorter cycle life if Li-ion were allowed to exceed the 4.20V/cell
limit. At 4.35V, the capacity would increase by 10 to 15 percent, but the cycle count would
be cut in half. More critical than the extra capacity is reduced safety, which would be the
results of a higher charge voltage.

Chargers for cellular phones, laptops and digital cameras bring the Li-ion battery to
4.20V/cell. This allows maximum runtime, and the consumer wants nothing less than
optimal use of the battery capacity. The industry, on the other hand, is more concerned
with longevity and prefers lower voltage thresholds. Satellites and electric vehicles are
examples where longevity is important.

We have limited information by how much lower charge voltages prolong battery life;
this depends on many conditions, as we have learned. What we do know, however, is the
capacities. At a charge to 4.10V/cell, the battery holds a capacity that is about 10 percent
less than going all the way to 4.20V/cell. In terms of optimal longevity, a charge voltage
limit of 3.92V/cell works best but the capacity would be low. Besides selecting the best-
suited voltage thresholds, it is also important that the battery does not stay in the high-
voltage stage for a long time and is allowed to drop after full charge has been reached.

Figure 8-26: Effects on cycle life at elevated charge voltages

Higher charge voltages boost capacity but lower cycle life and compromise safety.

Source: Choi et al. (2002)

The voltage threshold of commercial chargers cannot be changed, and making it
adjustable would have advantages, especially for laptops as a means of prolonging battery
life. When running on extended AC mode, the user would select the “long life” mode and
the battery would charge to only, say, 4.05V/cell. This would get a capacity of about 80
percent. Before traveling the user would apply the “full charge mode” to bring the charge
to 4.20V/cell. This saturation charge would take about an hour and would fill the battery
to 100 percent capacity.

Realizing the stress on the battery, some laptop and cellular phone manufacturers
choose an end-of-charge voltage that is less than 4.20V/cell. A slightly larger pack
compensates for the reduced runtime. Another option to extend battery life is removing
the pack from the laptop when running on the power grid. The Consumer Product Safety
Commission advises the public to do this out of concern for overheating and causing a
fire. Removing the battery has the disadvantage of losing unsaved work on power failure.

Heat buildup is always a concern and running a laptop in bed or on a pillow may
contribute to this by restricting airflow. Not only will heat stress electronic components,
elevated temperature causes the electrodes in the battery to react with the electrolyte and
this will permanently lower the capacity. Placing a ruler or other object under the laptop to
increase floor clearance improves air circulation around the enclosure and keeps the unit
cooler.

The question is often asked: Should I disconnect my laptop from the power grid when
not in use? Under normal circumstances this should not be necessary because once the
lithium-ion battery is full, a correctly functioning charger will discontinue the charge and
will only engage when the battery voltage drops to a low level. Most users do not remove
the AC power, and I like to believe that this practice is safe.

Everyone wants to keep the battery as long as possible and use it in a way that is least
stressful. This is not always feasible. Sometimes we need to run the battery in
environments that are not conducive to optimal service life. As a doctor cannot predict
how long a person will live based on diet and activity alone, so also does the life of a
battery vary, and it can always be cut short by an unexpected failure. Batteries and humans
share the same volatility.

To get a better understanding of what causes irreversible capacity loss in Li-ion
batteries, several research laboratories2 are performing forensic tests. Scientist dissected
failed batteries to find suspected problem areas on the electrodes. Examining an unrolled
1.5-meter-long strip (5 feet) of metal tape coated with oxide reveals that the finely
structured nanomaterials have coarsened. Further studies revealed that the lithium ions
responsible to shuttle electric charge between the electrodes had diminished on the
cathode and had permanently settled on the anode. This results in the cathode having a
lower lithium concentration than a new example, a phenomenon that is irreversible.
Knowing the reason for such capacity loss might enable battery manufacturers to produce
future batteries with longer life spans.

Power loss through Protection Circuit

Besides common aging, a Li-ion battery can also fail because of undercharge. This occurs
if a Li-ion pack is stored in a discharged condition. Self-discharge gradually lowers the
voltage of the already discharged battery and the protection circuit cuts off between 2.20
and 2.90V/cell. Some chargers and battery analyzers (including those from Cadex)
provide a wake-up feature, or “boost,” to re-energize and recharge these seemingly dead
Li-ion batteries.

How to Maximize Runtime
As the author of BatteryUniversity.com, I get many interesting enquiries from battery
users. A man writes, “Hi, I am looking for an answer to a perplexing question. A co-
worker and I have identical cell phones from the same provider. Moving into a new house,
she complained of short battery runtime. I told her she was out of her mind, but then I
noticed my battery behaving differently when I travel. Is there some mysterious force
that’s draining the battery?”

Yes, there is a hidden force that drains the battery but it’s not mystical. When turned on,
a cell phone is in constant communication with the tower, transmitting small bursts of
power once every second or so to check for incoming calls. To save energy, the signal
strength adjusts the transmission power to only what is needed. If the cell phone is close to
a repeater tower, the energy required to communicate is very low. Move farther away or
enter an area with high electrical noise, such as a shopping mall, hospital or factory, and
the required energy increases. An analogy can be made to sitting in a restaurant. When the
surroundings are quiet, the voices can be kept low, but as the crowd grows everyone needs
to talk a bit louder.

Living in sight of a tower has advantages and your cellular battery will last longer
between charges. Where you park your cell phone in the house also affects runtime. A
manager of a large cellular provider in the UK said his son experienced shorter standby
times after moving from the upstairs bedroom to the basement. If possible, leave your cell
phone in an upstairs room facing a tower. When traveling by car, place it near a window
rather than on the floor but avoid direct exposure to the sun.

 Similar rules apply to TETRA and P25 radio systems, cordless telephones, Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth devices. A wireless headset that communicates with the cell phone from belt to
ear provides longer runtimes than when placing the handset on the dining-room table
while cooking in the kitchen. Although the quality of communication stays the same, the
Bluetooth headset needs to work harder when placed farther away from the user.

The energy savings only apply when the wireless device is in the “on” position. When
“off,” the load on the battery is very low and only provides power for housekeeping
functions such
as maintaining the clock and monitoring key commands. Housekeeping and self-discharge
consume 5 to 10 percent of the available battery energy per month.

During the last few years, standby and talk-times on cell phones have improved.
Besides increases in the specific energy of lithium-ion, improvements in receiver and
demodulator circuits have achieved notable energy savings. Figure 8-27 illustrates the
reduction of power consumption in these circuits since 2002. We must keep in mind that
the savings apply mainly to standby and receiving circuits. Transmitting still requires
about five times the power of the receiving and demodulation.

Figure 8-27: Reduction in power consumption

Cell phones have achieved notable power savings in the receiver and demodulator circuits. Transmitting needs the most
power.

Source: Sieber et al. (2004).

Laptop batteries fare badly in terms of life span. Laptops are demanding bosses that
request a steady stream of power under poor working conditions, toiling in an unbearable
heat of 40–45°C (104–113°F). In addition, the battery is exposed to a high voltage by
being kept at full charge. High heat and dwelling at full state-of-charge, not cycling, cause
short battery life in laptops.

Laptop batteries have further demands — they must be small and lightweight. The
laptop battery should be invisible to the user and deliver enough power to endure a five-
hour flight. In reality, the battery runs for only about 90 minutes. Batteries are getting
better; however, the request for higher performance counteracts the capacity gain,
resulting in roughly the same runtime with more powerful features.

Although users want longer runtimes, computer manufacturers are hesitant to add larger
batteries because of increased size, weight and cost. A survey indicates that given the
option of a larger size with added weight to gain longer runtimes, most users would settle
for what is offered today. For better or worse, we have learned to live with what we have.

Aftermarket Batteries
In the search for low-cost batteries, consumers may inadvertently purchase counterfeit
batteries that are unsafe. The label appears bona fide and the buyer cannot distinguish
between an original and a forged product. Cell phone manufacturers are concerned about
these products flooding the market and advise customers to use approved brands; defiance
could void the warranty. Manufacturers do not object to third-party suppliers as long as the
aftermarket batteries are well built, safe and approved by a safety agency.

Caution also applies to purchasing counterfeit chargers. Some unsafe aftermarket
chargers do not terminate the battery correctly and rely on the battery’s internal protection
circuit to cut off when full. The need for redundancy is important because a bona fide
battery could have a malfunctioning protection circuit that was damaged by a static
charge. If, for example, the maker of the counterfeit battery relies on the charger to
terminate the charge, and the charger builder has full confidence that the battery will turn
off when ready, the combination of these two products can have a lethal effect.

Some laptop manufacturers disallow aftermarket batteries by digitally locking the pack
with a tamperproof security code. This is done in part for safety reasons, because the
potential damage resulting from a faulty laptop battery is many times greater than that of a
cell phone.

Simple Guidelines to Prolong Lithium-ion Batteries

Do not discharge Li-ion too low; charge more often.

A random or partial charge is fine. Li-ion does not need a full charge.

 Limit the time the battery resides at 4.20/cell (full charge), especially if warm.

Moderate the charge current to between 0.5C and 0.8C for cobalt-based lithium-ion.
Avoid ultra-fast charging and discharging.

If the charger allows, lower the charge voltage limit to prolong battery life.

Keep the battery cool. Move it away from heat-generating environments.

High heat and full state-of-charge, not cycling, cause short battery life in laptops.

Remove battery from laptop when used on the power grid.

It is not necessary to unplug the laptop from the power grid when not in use.

When the SoC fuel gauge becomes inaccurate, calibrate smart batteries by applying a
deliberate full discharge and charge.

Do not stockpile batteries for later use, as they will age. Observe manufacturing
dates.

Add some charge before a long storage. The charge level is not as critical as cool
storage.

How to Repair Batteries

Many batteries for power tools and other industrial devices can be repaired. Getting a
nickel-based cell for a replacement is relatively easy, finding the correct Li-ion cell is
more difficult. Cell matching is important (see Chapter 8, “Cell Matching, Balancing,” on
page 179), and when repairing a Li-ion pack make certain that each cell is properly
connected to a protection circuit.

Terminal Connection of a Laptop Battery
The typical SMBus battery has five or more battery connections consisting of positive and
negative battery terminals, thermistor, clock and data. The connections are often
unmarked; however, the positive and negative are commonly located at the outer edges of
the connector and the inner contacts accommodate the clock and data. (The one-wire
system combines clock and data.) For safety reasons, a separate thermistor wire is brought
to the outside. Figure 8-28 illustrates a battery with six connections.

Some batteries are equipped with a solid-state switch that is normally in the “off”
position and no voltage is present on the battery terminals; connecting the switch terminal
to ground often turns the battery on. If this does not work, the pack may need a proprietary
code for activation, and battery manufacturers keep these codes a well-guarded secret.

How can you find the correct terminals? Use a voltmeter to locate the positive and
negative battery terminals and establish the polarity. If no voltage is available, a solid-state
switch in the “off” position may need activating. Connecting the voltmeter to the outer
terminals, take a 100-Ohm resistor (other values may also work), tie one end to ground,
and with the other end touch each terminal while observing the voltmeter. If no voltage
appears, the battery may be dead or the pack will require a security code. The 100-Ohm
resistor is low enough to engage a digital circuit and high enough to protect the battery
against a possible electrical short.

Figure 8-28: Terminal connection of a typical laptop battery

The positive and negative terminals are usually placed on the outside; no norm exists on the arrangement of the other
contacts.

Courtesy of Cadex

Establishing the connection to the battery terminals should now enable charging. If the
charge current stops after 30 seconds, an activation code may be required, and this is often
difficult if not impossible to obtain.

Some battery manufacturers add an end-of-battery-life switch that turns the battery off
when reaching a certain age or cycle count. Manufacturers argue that customer satisfaction
and safety can only be guaranteed by regularly replacing the battery. Such a policy tends
to satisfy the manufacturer more than the user, and newer batteries do not include this
feature.

If at all possible, connect the thermistor during charging and discharging to protect the
battery against possible overheating. Use an ohmmeter to locate the internal thermistor.
The most common thermistors are 10 Kilo Ohm NTC, which reads 10kΩ at 20°C (68°F).
NTC stands for negative temperature coefficient, meaning that the resistance decreases
with rising temperature. In comparison, a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) causes
the resistance to increase. Warming the battery with your hand may be sufficient to detect
a small change in resistor value when looking for the correct terminal on the battery.

Repairing a Smart Battery
The smart battery consists of two parts, the chemical cells and the digital circuit. If the
cells are weak, cell replacement makes economic sense. While nickel-based cells are
readily available, lithium-ion cells are commonly not sold over the counter, and most
manufacturers only offer them to authorized pack assemblers. This precaution is
understandable given liability issues. Always use the same chemistry; the mAh rating may
vary.

A laptop battery may have only one weak cell, and the success rate of replacing that cell
depends on the ability to match it with the others. As previously discussed, all cells in a
pack must have a similar capacity because an imbalance shortens the life of the pack.
Furthermore, the state-of-charge of all cells being charged for the first time should have a
similar charge level, and the open-circuit voltages should be within 10 percent of each
other. Welding the cells is the only reliable way to get dependable connection. Limit the
heat transfer to the cells during welding to prevent excess heat buildup.

In some cases the chemical battery can be restored, but the fuel gauge might not work,
is inaccurate, or will provide wrong information. After repackaging, the battery may need
some sort of initialization/calibration process. Simply charging and discharging the pack
to reset the flags might do the trick. A term “flag” is a measuring point to mark and record
an event.

The circuits of some smart batteries must be kept alive during cell replacement.
Disconnecting the voltage for only a fraction of a second can erase vital data in the
memory. The lost data could contain the resistor value of the digitized shunt that is
responsible for the coulomb counter. Some integrated circuits (IC) responsible for fuel
gauge function have wires going to each cell, and the sequence of assembly must to be
done in the correct order.

 To assure continued operation when changing the cells, supply a secondary voltage
through a 100-Ohm resistor to the circuit before disconnection and remove the supply only
after the circuit receives voltage again from the new cells. Cell replacement of a smart
battery has a parallel with open-heart surgery, where doctors must keep all organs of the
patient alive.

Anyone repairing an SMBus battery needs to be aware of compliance issues. Unlike
other tightly regulated standards, the SMBus allows some variations, and this can cause
problems when matching battery packs with existing chargers. The repaired SMBus
battery should be checked for compatibility before use. More information on SMBus is
available on
www.sbs-forum.org and www.acpi.info.

Simple Guidelines when Repairing Battery Packs

Only connect cells that are matched and have the identical state-of-charge. Do not
connect cells of different chemistry, age or capacity.

Never charge or discharge Li-ion batteries without a working protection circuit
unattended. Each cell must be monitored individually.

Include a temperature sensor that disrupts the current on high heat.

Pay special attention when using an unknown brand of cells. Some may not contain a
high level of intrinsic safety features.

Li-ion is sensitive to reverse polarization. Observe correct polarity.

Do not charge a Li-ion battery that exhibits physical damage or has dwelled at a
voltage of less than 1.5V/cell.

When repairing Li-ion, assure that each cell is connected to a protection circuit.

1 Every five years, the Battery Council International Technical Subcommittee conducts a study to determine the failure
modes of batteries that have been removed from service.
2 Research is performed by the Center for Automotive Research at the Ohio State University in collaboration with Oak
Ridge National Laboratory and the National Institute of Standards Technology.







Some batteries live to a ripe

old age, others die early, and

scientists don’t know why.





Chapter 9 | Testing and Monitoring

Difficulties with Battery Testing

A German manufacturer of luxury cars points out that one out of two starter batteries
returned under warranty is working and has no problem. It is possible that battery testers
used in service garages did not detect the batteries correctly before they were returned
under warranty. ADAC1 reported in 2008 that 40 percent of all roadside automotive
failures are battery-related. In Japan, battery failure is the largest single complaint among
new car owners. The average car is driven 13km (8 miles) per day and mostly in
congested cities. The most common reason for battery failure is undercharge. Battery
performance is important; problems during the warranty period tarnish customer
satisfaction.

Battery malfunction during the warranty period is seldom a factory defect; driving
habits are the culprits. A manufacturer of German-made starter batteries stated that factory
defects account for only 5 to 7 percent of warranty claims. The battery remains a weak
link, and is evident when reviewing the ADAC 2008 report for the year 2007. The study
examines the breakdowns of 1.95 million vehicles six years old or less, and Table 9-1
provides the reasons.

Table 9-1: Most common car failures

Batteries cause the most common failures requiring road assistance.

Source: ADAC 2008

The cellular phone industry experiences an even more astonishing battery return
pattern. Nine out of 10 batteries returned under warranty have no problem or can easily be
serviced. This is no fault of the manufacturers but they pay a price that is ultimately
charged to the user.

Part of the problem lies in the difficulty of testing batteries at the consumer level, and
this applies to storefronts and service garages alike. Battery rapid-test methods seem to
dwell in medieval times, and this is especially evident when comparing advancements
made on other fronts. We don’t even have a reliable method to estimate state-of-charge —
most of such measurements using voltage and coulomb counting are guesswork.
Assessing capacity, the most reliable health indicator of a battery, dwells far behind.

The battery user may ask why the industry is lagging so far behind. The answer is
simple: battery testing and monitoring is far more complex than outsiders perceive it. As
there is no single diagnostic device that can assess the health of a person, so are there no
instruments that can quickly check the state-of-health of a battery. Like the human body,
batteries can have many hidden deficiencies that no single tester is able to identify with
certainly. Yes, we can apply a discharge, but this takes the battery out of service and
induces stress, especially on large systems. In some cases, even a discharge does not
provide conclusive results either, as we will learn later (see “Discharge Methods” on page
221).

As doctors will examine a patient with different devices, so also does a battery need
several approaches to find anomalies. A dead battery is easy to measure and all testers can
do this. The challenge comes in evaluating a battery in the 80 to 100 percent performance
range. This chapter examines current and futuristic methods and how they stand up. One
thing to remember is this: batteries cannot be measured; the appropriate instruments can
only make predictions or estimations. This is synonymous with a doctor examining a
patient, or the weatherman predicting the weather. All findings are estimations with
various degrees of accuracies.

How to Measure Internal Resistance

The resistance of a battery provides useful information about its performance and detects
hidden trouble spots. High resistance values are often the triggering point to replace an
aging battery, and determining resistance is especially useful in checking stationary
batteries. However, resistance comparison alone is not effective, because the value
between batches of lead acid batteries can vary by eight percent. Because of this relatively
wide tolerance, the resistance method only works effectively when comparing the values
for a given battery from birth to retirement. Service crews are asked to take a snapshot of
each cell at time of installation and then measure the subtle changes as the cells age. A 25
percent increase in resistance over the original reading hints to an overall performance
drop of 20 percent.

Manufacturers of stationary batteries typically honor the warranty if the internal
resistance increases by 50 percent. Their preference is to get true capacity readings by
applying a full discharge. It is their belief that only a discharge can provide reliable
readings and they ask users to perform the service once a year. While this advice has
merit, a full discharge requires a temporary disconnection of the battery from the system,
and on a large battery such a test takes an entire day to complete. In the real world, very
few battery installations receive this type of service and most measurements are based on
battery resistance readings.

Measuring the internal resistance is done by reading the voltage drop on a load current
or by AC impedance. The results are in ohmic values. There is a notion that internal
resistance is related to capacity, and this is false; the resistance of many batteries stays flat
through most of the service life. Figure 9-2 shows the capacity fade and internal resistance
of lithium-ion cells.

Figure 9-2: Relationship between capacity and resistance as part of cycling

Resistance does not reveal the state-of-health of a battery. The internal resistance often stays flat with use and aging.

Cycle test on Li-ion batteries at 1C:
Charge: 1,500mA to 4.2V, 25°C
Discharge: 1,500 to 2.75V, 25°C

Courtesy of Cadex

What Is Impedance?
Before exploring the different methods of measuring the internal resistance of a battery,
let’s examine what electrical resistance means, and let’s differentiate between a pure
resistance (R) and impedance (Z) that includes reactive elements such as coils and
capacitors. Both values are given in Ohms (W), a measure formulated by the German
physicist Georg Simon Ohm, who lived from 1798 to 1854. (One Ohm produces a voltage
drop of 1V with a current flow of 1A.) The difference between resistance and impedance
lies in the reactance. Let me explain.

The electrical resistance of a pure load, such as a heating element, has no reactance.
Voltage and current flow in unison and there is no advancing or trailing phase shift that
would occur with a reactive load, such as an electric motor or a florescent light fixture.
The ohmic resistance on a pure resistive load is the same with direct current (DC) as is
with alternating current (AC). The Power Factor (pf) is 1, which provides the most
accurate metering of the power consumed.

Most electrical loads, as well as a battery as power source, have reactance. They consist
of capacitive reactance (capacitor) and inductive reactance (coil). The resistor of a
reactance varies with the frequency of the electrical power. The capacitive resistance
decreases with higher frequency while the inductive resistance increases. (To explain
resistance change with frequency, we compare an oil damper that has a stiffer resistance
when moved fast. See also Chapter 1, “Watts and Volt-amps (VA),” on page 32.) A battery
has resistive, capacitive and inductive resistance, and the term impedance includes all
three in one.

Impedance can best be illustrated with the Randles model. Figure 9-3 illustrates the
basic model of a lead acid battery, which reflects resistors and a capacitor (R1, R2 and C).
The inductive reactance is commonly omitted because it plays a negligible role in a
battery, especially at a low frequency.

Figure 9-3: Randles model of a lead acid battery

The overall battery resistance consists of ohmic resistance, as well as inductive and capacitive reactance. The schematic
and electrical values differ for every battery.

Now that we have learned the basics of internal battery resistance and how they can be
applied to rapid-test batteries at different frequencies, this section examines current and
future battery test methods. It also discusses advantages and shortfalls.

DC Load Method
Ohmic measurement is one of the oldest and most reliable test methods. The battery
receives a brief discharge lasting a few seconds. A small pack gets an ampere or less and a
starter battery is loaded with 50A and more. A voltmeter measures the voltage drop and
Ohm’s law calculates the resistance value (voltage divided by current equals resistance).

DC load measurements work well to check large stationary batteries, and the ohmic
readings are very accurate and repeatable. Manufacturers of test instruments claim
resistance readings in the 10 micro-ohm range. Many garages use the carbon pile to
measure starter batteries, and with experience mechanics familiar with this loading device
get a reasonably good assessment of the battery. The invasive test is in many ways more
reliable than non-invasive methods.

The DC load method has a limitation in that it blends R1 and R2 of the Randles model
into one combined resistor and ignores the capacitor (see Figure 9-4). “C” is an important
component of a battery that represents 1.5 farads per 100Ah capacity. In essence, the DC
method sees the battery as a resistor and can only provide ohmic references.

Figure 9-4: DC load method

The true integrity of the Randles model cannot be seen. R1 and R2 appear as one ohmic value.

Courtesy of Cadex

The two-tier DC load method offers an alternative method by applying two sequential
discharge loads of different currents and time durations. The battery first discharges at a
low current for 10 seconds, followed by a higher current for three seconds (see Figure 9-
5), and Ohm’s law calculates the resistance values. Evaluating the voltage signature under
the two load conditions offers additional information about the battery, but the values are
strictly resistive and do not reveal SoC and capacity estimations.

Figure 9-5: Two-tier DC load

The two-tier DC load follows the IEC 60285 and IEC 61436 standards and provides lifelike test conditions for many
battery applications. The load test is the preferred method for batteries powering DC loads.

Courtesy of Cadex

AC Conductance
The AC conductance method replaces the DC load and injects an alternating current into
the battery. At a set frequency of between 80 and 90 hertz, the capacitive and inductive
reactance converge, resulting in a negligible voltage lag that minimizes the reactance.
Manufacturers of AC conductance equipment claim battery resistance readings in the 50
micro-ohm range, and these instruments are commonly used in North American car
garages. The single-frequency technology as illustrated in Figure 9-6 sees the components
of the Randles model as one complex impedance called the modulus of Z.

Figure 9-6: AC conductance method

The individual components of the Randles model are molten together and cannot be distinguished.

Courtesy of Cadex

 Smaller batteries often use the popular 1000-hertz (Hz) ohm test method. A 1000Hz
signal excites the battery, and the Ohm’s law calculates the resistance. It is important to
note that the AC method shows different values to the DC load, and both are correct. For
example, Li-ion in an 18650 cell produces about 36mOhm with a 1000Hz AC signal and
roughly 110mOhm with a DC load. Since both readings are correct, and yet are so far
apart, the user needs to consider the application. The pulse DC load method provides the
best indication for a DC application such as driving a motor or powering a light, while the
1000Hz method better reflects the performance of a digital load, such as a cellular phone
that relies to a large extent on the capacitor characteristics of a battery. Figure 9-7
illustrates the 100Hz method.

Figure 9-7: 1000-hertz method

The IEC 1000-hertz is the preferred method to take impedance snapshots of batteries powering digital devices.

Courtesy of Cadex

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) enables more than resistance readings; it
can estimate state-of-charge and capacity. Research laboratories have been using EIS for
many years to evaluate battery characteristics, but high equipment cost, slow test times
and the need for trained professionals to decipher large volumes of data have limited this
technology to laboratory environments. EIS is able to read each component of the Randles
model individually; however, analyzing the value at different frequencies and correlating
the data is an enormous task. Fuzzy logic and advanced digital signal processor (DSP)
technology have simplified this task. Figure 9-8 illustrates the battery component, which
EIS technology is capable of reading.


Figure 9-8: Spectro™ method

R1, R2 and C are measured separately, which enables state-of-charge and capacity measurements.

Courtesy of Cadex

How to Measure State-of-charge

Voltage Method
Measuring state-of-charge by voltage is the simplest method, but it can be inaccurate. Cell
types have dissimilar chemical compositions that deliver varied voltage profiles.
Temperature also plays a role. Higher temperature lowers the open-circuit voltage, a lower
temperature raises it, and this phenomenon applies to all chemistries in varying degrees.

The most blatant error of voltage-based SoC occurs when disturbing the battery with a
charge or discharge. This agitation distorts the voltage and no longer represents the true
state-of-charge. To get accurate measurements, the battery needs to rest for at least four
hours to attain equilibrium; battery manufacturers recommend 24 hours. Adding the
element of time to neutralize voltage polarization does not sit well with batteries in active
duty. One can see that this method is ill suited for fuel gauging.

Each battery chemistry delivers a unique discharge signature that requires a tailored
model. While voltage-based SoC works reasonably well for a lead acid battery that has
rested, the flat discharge curve of nickel- and lithium-based batteries renders the voltage
method impracticable. And yet, voltage is commonly used on consumer products. A
“rested” Li-cobalt of 3.80V/cell in open circuit indicates a SoC of roughly 50 percent.

The discharge voltage curves of Li-manganese, Li-phosphate and NMC are very flat, as
80 percent of the charge is stored in a tight voltage window. This profile assists
applications requiring a steady voltage but presents a challenge for designers relying on
voltage to read SoC. The only practical use of the voltage method on these batteries is to
indicate “low charge.”

Lead acid has diverse plate compositions that must be considered when measuring SoC
by voltage. Calcium, an additive that makes the battery maintenance-free, raises the
voltage by 5–8 percent. Temperature also affects the open-circuit voltage; heat lowers it
while cold causes it to rise. Surface charge further fools SoC estimations by showing an
elevated voltage immediately after charge; a brief discharge before measurement
counteracts the error. Finally, AGM batteries produce a slightly higher voltage than the
flooded equivalent.

When measuring SoC by voltage, the battery voltage must be truly “floating,” with no
load attached. If the battery is installed in a car, any parasitic load can quickly falsify the
readings. In spite of the notorious inaccuracies, most SoC measurements rely on the open
circuit voltage (OCV) because it’s simple, whereas alternative methods are too expensive
and need calibration. Voltage-based state-of-charge is popular for wheelchairs, scooters
and golf cars.

Hydrometer
The hydrometer offers an alternative to measuring SoC, but this only applies to flooded
lead acid and flooded nickel-cadmium. Here is how it works: As the battery accepts
charge, the sulfuric acid gets heavier, causing the specific gravity (SG) to increase. As the
SoC decreases through discharge, the sulfuric acid removes itself from the electrolyte and
binds to the plate, forming lead sulfate. The density of the electrolyte becomes lighter and
more water-like, and the specific gravity gets lower. Table 9-9 provides the BCI readings
of starter batteries.

Table 9-9: BCI standard for SoC estimation of a maintenance-free starter battery with antimony. The readings are
taken at room temperature of 26°C (78°F); the battery had rested for 24 hours after charge or discharge.

While BCI specifies the specific gravity of a fully charged starter battery at 1.265,
battery manufacturers may go for 1.280 and higher. When increasing the specific gravity,
the SoC readings on the look-up table will adjust upwards accordingly. Besides charge
level and acid density, the SG can also vary due to low fluid levels, which raises the SG
reading because of
higher concentration. Alternatively, the battery can be overfilled, which lowers the
number. When adding water, allow time for mixing before taking the SG measurement.

The specific gravity also varies according to battery type. Deep-cycle batteries use a
dense electrolyte with an SG of up to 1.330 to get maximum runtime; aviation batteries
have a SG of 1.285; traction batteries for forklifts are at 1.280; starter batteries come in at
1.265 and stationary batteries are at a low 1.225. Low specific gravity reduces corrosion.
The resulting lower specific energy of stationary batteries is not as critical as longevity.

Nothing in the battery world is absolute. The specific gravity of fully charged deep-
cycle batteries of the same model can range from 1.270 to 1.305; fully discharged, these
batteries may vary between 1.097 and 1.201. Temperature is another variable that alters
the specific gravity reading. The colder the temperature is, the higher (more dense) the SG
value becomes. Table 9-10 illustrates the SG gravity of a deep-cycle battery at various
temperatures.

Table 9-10: Relation of specific gravity and temperature of deep-cycle battery

Colder temperatures provide higher specific gravity readings.

Errors can also occur if the acid has stratified, meaning the concentration is light on top
and heavy on the bottom (Figure 8-15 on page 187). High acid concentration artificially
raises the open circuit voltage, which can fool SoC estimations through false SG and
voltage indication. The electrolyte needs to stabilize after charge and discharge before
taking the SG reading.

Coulomb Counting
Laptops, medical equipment and other professional portable devices use coulomb counting
as a SoC indication. This method works on the principle of measuring the current that
flows in and out of the battery. If, for example, a battery was charged for one hour at one
ampere, the same energy should be available on discharge. This is not the case.
Inefficiencies in charge acceptance, especially towards the end of charge, as well as losses
during discharge and storage reduce the total energy delivered and skew the readings. The
available energy is always less than what had been fed to the battery, and compensation
corrects the shortage.

Disregarding these irregularities, coulomb counting works reasonably well, especially
for
Li-ion. However, the one percent accuracy some device manufacturers advertise is only
possible in an ideal world and with a new battery. Independent tests show errors of up to
10 percent when in typical use. Aging causes a gradual deviation from the working model
on which the coulomb counter is based. The result is a laptop promising 30 minutes of
remaining runtime and all of a sudden the screen goes dark. Periodic calibration by
applying a full discharge and charge to reset the flags reduces the error. (See Chapter 6,
“Calibration,” on page 148.)

There is a move towards electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (page 214), and even
magnetism (page 219) to measure state-of-charge. These new technologies get more
accurate estimation than with voltage and can be used when the battery is under load.
Furthermore, temperature, surface charge and acid stratification do not affect the readings
noticeably.

Impedance Spectroscopy
Impedance spectroscopy evaluates the battery on the impedance values of the Randles
model and works on flooded and sealed lead acid. The battery does not need to rest before
taking the reading and parasitic loads do not affect the outcome. Figure 9-11 illustrates an
incorrect SoC reading because of voltage drop when a load is applied; Figure 9-12 shows
the correct result under the same conditions with impedance spectroscopy.

Figure 9-11: BCI2-based SoC reading.
A parasitic load distorts voltage-based SoC readings. Voltage recovery takes 4–8 hours.


Figure 9-12: SoC based on impedance spectroscopy. A parasitic load does not affect the SoC reading.

Courtesy of Cadex

Quantum Magnetism
In pursuit of a better way to measure battery state-of-charge, researchers are exploring
radically new methods, one of which is quantum magnetism (Q-Mag™). Q-Mag by Cadex
reads magnetism through spin-dependent tunneling. Here is how it works.

When discharging a lead acid battery, the negative plate changes from lead to lead
sulfate, which has a different magnetic susceptibility to lead. Measuring the resulting
change of the magnetic field with a sensor responding to magnetism provides linear SoC
information. The magnetic change also works with lithium-ion, and the feedback is more
pronounced than with lead acid. Figure 9-13 shows the concept on a starter battery.

Figure 9-13: State-of-charge measurement by quantum magnetism

Lead fights the applied magnetism less than lead sulfite, allowing SoC measurement by magnetism. Li-ion also responds
well to magnetic SoC measurement.

Courtesy of Cadex

The sensor consists of two metal alloys separated by a thin insulator in the nanometer
range (thickness of few atoms). The electrons in a magnetic field tunnel through the
insulator more easily than in a neutral state, leading to a resistive change. Q-Magä
interprets state-of-charge using mathematical models. The error is +/–7 percent over the
entire SoC range, an accuracy that is unthinkable with voltage measurement, hydrometer
and coulomb counters.

All batteries behave in a similar way in that the composition of the electrodes changes,
which affects the magnetic characteristics. Q-Mag works on new as well as aged batteries
and the technology is immune to voltage distortion caused by loading, charging or surface
charge on lead acid. Figure 9-14 shows how magnetic measurements can track discharge/
charge activities of a lead acid battery independent of voltage. The circles represent the
voltage under charge and the triangles reveal the state-of-charge.

Measuring the intrinsic state of a battery rather than relying on voltage enables more
precise full-charge detection. This feature can be used to improve charge methods and
diagnose battery deficiencies, including predicting end-of-life by measuring battery
capacity. Q-Mag works also with lithium-ion in non-ferric enclosures. Many of these
technologies are proprietary and are in various experimental stages at Cadex.

Figure 9-14: Discharge/charge profile of a starter battery
Magnetism traces SoC from 0 to 100% against voltage.

Test method: The battery was first discharged at 20A, followed by a constant charge of 9A to 14.4V and subsequent float
charge. (October 2009)

Laboratories of Cadex

How to Measure Capacity

The traditional charge/discharge/charge cycle still offers a dependable way to measure
battery capacity. Alternate methods have been tried but none deliver reliable readings.
Inaccuracies have led users to adhere to the proven discharge methods even if the process
is time-consuming and removes the battery from service for the duration of the test.

While portable batteries can be discharged and recharged relatively quickly, a full
discharge and recharge on large lead acid batteries gets quite involved, and service
personnel continue to seek faster methods even if the readings are less accurate. This
section explains what’s available in new technologies, but first we look at the discharge
method more closely.

Discharge Method
One would assume that capacity measurement with discharge is accurate but this is not
always the case, especially with lead acid batteries. In fact, there are large variations
between identical tests, even when using highly accurate equipment and following
established charge and discharge standards, with temperature control and mandated rest
periods. This behavior is not fully understood except to consider that batteries exhibit
human-like qualities. Our IQ levels also vary depending on the time of day and other
conditions. Nickel- and lithium-based chemistries provide more consistent results than
lead acid on discharge/charge tests.

To verify the capacity on repeat tests, Cadex checked 91 starter batteries with diverse
performance levels and plotted the results in Figure 9-15. The horizontal x-axis shows the
batteries from weak to strong, and the vertical y-axis reflects capacity. The batteries were
prepared in the Cadex laboratories according to SAE J537 standards by giving them a full
charge and a 24-hour rest. The capacity was then measured by applying a regulated 25A
discharge to 10.50V (1.75V/cell) and the results plotted in diamonds (Test 1). The test was
repeated under identical conditions and the resulting capacities added in squares (Test 2).
The second reading exhibits differences in capacity of +/–15 percent across the battery
population. Other laboratories that test lead acid batteries experience similar
discrepancies.


Figure 9-15: Capacity fluctuations on two identical charge/discharge tests of 91 starter batteries. The capacities differ +/–
15% between Test 1 and Test 2.

Courtesy of Cadex (2005)

Capacity vs. CCA
Starter batteries have two distinct values, CCA and capacity. These two readings are close
to each other like lips and teeth, but the characteristics are uniquely different; one cannot
predict the other. (See Chapter 8, “How Age Affects Capacity and Resistance,” on page
188.)

Measuring the internal battery resistance, which relates to CCA on a starter battery, is
relatively simple but the reading provides only a snapshot of the battery at time of
measurement. Resistance alone cannot predict the end of life of a battery. For example, at
a CCA of 560A and a capacity of 25 percent, for example, a starter battery will still crank
well but it can surprise the motorist with a sudden failure of not turning the engine (as I
have experienced).

The leading health indicator of a battery is capacity, but this estimation is difficult to
read. A capacity test by discharge is not practical with starter batteries; this would cause
undue stress and take a day to complete. Most battery testers do not measure capacity but
look at the internal resistance, which is an approximation of CCA. The term
approximation is correct — laboratory tests at Cadex and at a German luxury car
manufacturer reveal that the readings are only about 70 percent accurate. A full CCA test
is seldom done; one battery can take a week to measure.

The SAE J537 CCA test by BCI mandates to cool a fully charged battery to -18°C (0°F)
for 24 hours, and while at subfreezing temperature apply a high-current discharge that
simulates the cranking of an engine. A 500 CCA battery would need to supply 500A for 30
seconds and stay above 7.2V (1.2V/cell) to pass. If it fails the test, the battery has a CCA
rating of less than 500A. To find the CCA rating, the test must be repeated several times
with different current settings to find the triggering point when the battery passes through
7.2V line. Between each test, the battery must be brought to ambient temperature for
recharging and cooled again for testing. (For CCA with DIN and IEC norms, refer to “Test
Method” on page 223)

To examine the relationship between CCA and capacity, Cadex measured CCA and
capacity of 175 starter batteries at various performance levels. Figure 9-16 shows the CCA
on the vertical y-axis and reserve capacity3 readings on the horizontal x-axis. The batteries
are arranged from low to high, and the values are given as a percentage of the original
ratings.

The table shows noticeable discrepancies between CCA and capacity, and there is little
correlation between these readings. Rather than converging along the diagonal reference
line, CCA and RC wander off in both directions and resemble the stars in a clear sky. A
closer look reveals that CCA gravitates above the reference line, leaving the lower right
vacant. High CCA with low capacity is common, however, low CCA with high capacity is
rare. In our table, one battery has 90 percent CCA and produces a low 38 percent capacity;
another delivers 71 percent CCA and delivers a whopping 112 percent capacity (these are
indicated by the dotted lines).

Figure 9-16: CCA and reserve capacity (RC) of 175 aging starter batteries

The CCA of aging starter batteries gravitates above the diagonal reference line. (Few batteries have low CCA and high
capacity.)

Courtesy of Cadex

Test method: The CCA and RC readings were obtained according to SAE J537 standards (BCI). CCA (BCI) loads a fully
charged battery at –18°C (0°F) for 30s at the CCA-rated current of the battery. The voltage must stay above 7.2V to pass.
CCA DIN and IEC norms are similar with these differences: DIN discharges for 30s to 9V, and 150s to 6V; IEC
discharges for 60s to 8.4V. RC applies a 25A discharge to 1.75V/cell and measures the elapsed time in minutes.

As discussed earlier, a battery check must include several test points. An analogy can be
made with a medical doctor who examines a patient with several instruments to find the
diagnosis. A serious illness could escape the doctor’s watchful eyes if only blood pressure
or temperature was taken. While medical staff are well trained to evaluate multiple data
points, most battery personnel do not have the knowledge to read a Nyquist plot and other
data on a battery scan. Nor are test devices available that give reliable diagnosis of all
battery ills.

Testing Lead Acid
Many manufacturers of battery testers claim to measure battery health on the fly. These
instruments work well in finding battery defects that involve voltage anomalies and
elevated internal resistance, but other performance criteria remain unknown. Stating that a
battery tester based on internal resistance can also measure capacity is misleading.
Advertising features that are outside the equipment’s capabilities confuses the industry
into believing that multifaceted results are attainable with basic methods. Manufacturers
of these instruments are aware of the complexity involved, but some like to add a flair of
mystery in their marketing scheme, similar to a maker of a shampoo product promising to
grow lush hair on a man’s bald head. Here is a brief history of battery testers for lead acid
and what they can do.

The carbon pile, introduced in the 1980s, applies a DC load of short duration to a starter
battery, simulating cranking. The voltage drop and recovery time provide a rough
indication of battery health. The test works reasonably well and offers evidence that power
is present.
A major advantage is the ability to detect batteries that have failed due to a shorted cell
(low specific gravity in one cell due to high self-discharge). Capacity estimation, however,
is not possible, and a battery that simply has a low state-of-charge appears as weak. In
addition, the tester must rely on voltage to estimate state-of-charge. A skilled mechanic
can, however, detect a faulty battery based on the voltage signature and loading behavior.

The AC conductance meters appeared in 1992 and were hailed as a breakthrough. The
non-invasive method injects an AC signal into the battery to measure the internal
resistance. Today, these testers are commonly used to check the CCA of starter batteries
and verify resistance change in stationary batteries. While small and easier to use, AC
conductance cannot read capacity, and the resistive value gives only an approximation of
the real CCA of a starter battery. A shorted cell could pass as good because in such a
battery the overall conductivity and terminal voltage are close to normal, even though the
battery cannot crank the motor. AC conductance testers are common in North America;
Europe prefers the DC load method.

Critical progress has been made towards electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
(EIS). Cadex took the EIS technology a step further and developed battery specific models
that are able to estimate the health of a lead acid battery. Multi-model electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy, or Spectroä for short, reads battery capacity, CCA and state-of-
charge in a single, non-invasive test. Figure 9-17 illustrates the Spectro CA-12 handheld
battery tester.

Figure 9-17: Spectro CA-12 battery tester

Compact battery rapid tester displays capacity, CCA and state-of-charge in 15 seconds.

Courtesy Cadex

The Spectro CA-12 handheld device, in which the Spectro™ technology is embedded,
excites the battery with signals from 20–2000Hz. A DSP deciphers the 40 million
transactions churned out during the 15-second test into readable results. To check a
battery, the user simply selects the battery voltage, Ah and designated matrix. Tests can be
done under a steady load of up to 30A and a partial charge, however, if the state-of-charge
is less than 40 percent, the instrument advises the user to charge and retest.

The Spectro method is a further development of EIS, a technology that had been around
for several decades. What’s new is the use of multi models and faster process times. Cost
and size have also shrunk. Earlier models cost tens of thousands of dollars and traveled on
wheels. The heart of Spectro is not so much the mechanics but the algorithm. No longer
do modern EIS devices accompany a team of scientist to decipher tons of data. Experts
predict that the battery industry is moving towards the multi-model EIS technology to
estimate batter performance

Nowhere is the ability to read capacity more meaningful than with deep-cycle batteries
in golf cars, aerial work platforms and wheelchairs, as well as military and naval carriers.
Getting a readout in seconds without putting the vehicles out of commission allows for a
quick performance check on a suspect battery before deployment in the field. Figures 9-
18, 9-19 and 9-20 show typical battery problems and how modern test technologies can
detect them.

Figure 9-18: Low charge

Drive is sluggish; Spectroä reads low SoC. Capacity estimation is correct in spite of low charge.

Figure 9-19: Low capacity

Battery has good drive but short runtimes. Spectroä reads good impedance but low capacity.

Figure 9-20: Faulty set

Spectroä finds low performing and shorted blocks in a string. Good batteries can be regrouped and reused.

All figures Courtesy of Cadex

Matrices

Measurement devices, such as the Spectro CA-12, are not universal instruments capable of
estimating the capacity of any battery that may come along; they require battery specific
matrices, also known as pattern recognition algorithm. A matrix is a multi dimensional
lookup table against which the measured readings are compared. Text recognition,
fingerprint identification and visual imaging operate on a similar principle in that a model
exists, with which to equate the derived readings.

This book identifies three commonly used measuring methods. The principle in all is to
take one or several sets of readings and compare them against known reference settings or
images to disclose the characteristics of a battery. The three methods are as follows.

Scalar: The single value scalar test takes a reading and compares the result with a
stored reference value. In battery testing this could be measuring a voltage, interrogating
the battery by applying discharge pulses or injecting a frequency and then comparing the
derived result against a single reference point. This is the simplest test, and most DC load
and single-frequency AC conductance testers use this method.

Vector: The vector method applies pulses of different currents, or excites the battery
with several frequencies, and evaluates the results against preset vector points to study the
battery under various stress conditions. Typical applications for this one-dimensional
scalar model are battery testers that apply multi-tier DC loads or inject several test
frequencies. Because of added complexity in evaluating the different data points and
limited benefits, the vector method is seldom used.

Matrix: The matrix method, which was introduced on page 224, scans a battery with a
frequency spectrum as if to capture the image of a landscape and compare the imprint with
a stored model of known characteristics. This multi-dimensional set of scalars, which form
the foundation of Spectroä, provides the most in-depth information but is complex in
terms of evaluating the data generated. With a proprietary algorithm, the Spectroä
technology is able to estimate battery capacity, CCA and SoC.

Matrices are primarily used to estimate battery capacity, however, CCA and state-of-
charge also require matrices. These are easier to assemble and serve a broad range of
starter batteries. While the Spectroä method offers an accuracy of 80 to 90 percent on
capacity, CCA is 95 percent exact. This compares to 60 to 70 percent with battery testers
using the scalar method. Service personnel are often unaware of the low accuracy;
verifications are seldom done, as this would involve several days of laboratory testing.

A further drawback of scalar battery testers is obtaining a reading that is neither
resistance nor CCA. While there are similarities between the two, no standard exists and
each instrument gives different values. In terms of assessing a dying battery, however, this
method is adequate as it reflects conductivity. The larger disadvantage is not being able to
read capacity. Table 9-21 illustrates test accuracies using scalar, vector and matrix
methods.

Table 9-21: Accuracy in battery readings with different measuring methods
Scalar and vector provide resistance with references to CCA on starter batteries. The matrix method is more accurate and
provides capacity estimations but needs reference matrices.

To generate a matrix, batteries with different state-of-health are scanned. The more
batteries of the same model but diverse capacity mix are included in the mix, the stronger
the matrix will become. If, for example, the matrix consists only of two batteries, one
showing a capacity of 60 percent and the other 100 percent, then the accuracy would be
low for the batteries in between. Adding a third battery with an 80 percent capacity will
solidify the matrix, similar to placing a pillar at the center of a bridge. To cover the full
spectrum, a well-developed matrix should include battery samples capturing capacities of
50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100 percent. Batteries much below 50 percent are less important
because they constitute a fail.

It is difficult to obtain aged batteries, especially with newer models. Forced aging by
cycling in an environmental chamber is of some help; however, age-related stresses from
the field are not represented accurately. It also helps to include batteries from different
regions to represent unique environmental user patterns. A starter battery in a Las Vegas
taxi has different strains than that of a car driven by a grandmother in northern Germany.

Different state-of-charge levels increase the complexity to estimate battery health. The
SoC on a new battery can be determined relatively easily with impedance spectroscopy,
however, the formula changes as the battery ages. A battery tester should therefore be
capable of examining new and old batteries with a charge level of 40 to 100 percent. With
ample data, this is possible because natural aging of a battery is predictable and the
scanned information can be massaged to calculate age. This is similar to face recognition
that correctly identifies a person even if he or she has developed a few wrinkles and has
grown gray hair.

Simplifications in matrix development are possible by grouping batteries that share the
same chemistry, voltage and a similar capacity range into a generic matrix. This simplifies
logistics; however, the readout is classified into categories rather than numbers. Figure 9-
22 illustrates the classification scheme of Good, Low and Poor. Good passes as a good
battery; Low is suspect and predicts the end of life; and Poor is a fail that mandates
replacement.

Figure 9-22: Classifying batteries into categories

The classification method provides an intelligent assessment of what constitutes a usable battery for a given application.
Some classifications have pass/fail; others provide GOOD, LOW and POOR.

Courtesy of Cadex

Service personnel appreciate the classification method because it gives them an
intelligent assessment of what constitutes a usable battery for a given application and
eliminates customer interference. If numeric capacity readings are mandatory for a given
battery type, a designated matrix can be developed and downloaded into the tester from
the Internet.

Testing Nickel-based Batteries

Nickel-based batteries have unique properties, and Cadex developed a rapid-test method
for these battery systems called QuickTestä. The process takes three minutes and uses an
inference algorithm. Figure 9-23 illustrates the general structure of the algorithm applied.

QuickTestä fuses data from six variables, which are capacity, internal resistance, self-
discharge, charge acceptance, discharge capabilities and mobility of electrolyte. A trend-
learning algorithm combines the data to provide a dependable state-of-health (SoH)
reading in percentage. The system uses battery-specific matrices stored in battery adapters
of a designated battery analyzer (Cadex). The user can create a matrix in the field by
scanning two or more batteries on the analyzer’s Learn program. The battery must be at
least 20 percent charged.

Among other parameters, QuickTestä relies on the internal resistance of a battery pack,
and the welding joints between the cells might cause a problem, especially on packs with
10 cells or more. Although seemingly insignificant in terms of added resistance,
mechanical linkages behave differently to a chemical cell and this causes an unwanted
error. The linkage error is not seen on a conventional discharge test or when doing a
resistance check but interferes with rapid-test methods on voltages above 20V. It is also
possible that each cell of a multi-cell pack behaves on its own when excited with a
common signal and the result gets muddled.

Figure 9-23: QuickTest™ structure

Multiple variables are fed to the micro controller, “‘fuzzified” and processed by parallel logic. The data is averaged and
weighted according to battery application.

Courtesy of Cadex

Testing Lithium-based Batteries
With the large number of lithium-ion batteries in use and the population growing rapidly,
developing an effective testing method has become an urgent task. QuickSortä (Cadex) is
a further development of QuickTestä using a generic matrix. The simplification was made
possible by limiting the battery population to single-cell Li-ion from 500 to 1,500mAh.
(Larger cells and higher voltages will need a different generic matrix.) Rather than
capacity readout in percentage, QuickSortä classifies the battery health as Good, Low or
Poor.

Electrochemical dynamic response, the method used for QuickSortä, measures the
mobility of ion flow between the electrodes on a digital load. The response can be
compared with a mechanical arm under load. A strong arm resembling a good battery
remains firm, and a weak arm synonymous to a faded battery bends and becomes sluggish
under load.

The test takes 30 seconds, is 90 percent accurate regardless of battery cathode material
and can be performed with a state-of-charge range of between 40 and 100 percent.
QuickSortä requires the correct mAh, and setting a wrong value does not shift the reading
on a linear scale from good to poor, as one would expect, but makes the sorting less
accurate. The system does not rely on internal resistance per se. This would produce
unreliable readings because modern lithium-ion maintains low resistance with use and
time (see Figure 9-2 on page 211). An overall resistance check is only done at the
conclusion of the test. Figure 9-24 shows the concept.

Figure 9-24: Electrochemical dynamic response

The electrochemical dynamic response measures the ion flow between the positive and negative plates. This process can
be compared to a mechanical arm under load.

Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium-ion batteries have different diffusion rates, and in terms of electrochemical
dynamic response, Li-ion polymer with gelled electrolyte appears to be faster than Li-ion
containing liquefied electrolyte. Li-polymer may need a different matrix to produce
accurate readings.

Scientists explore new ways to evaluate the health of a battery with scanning
frequencies ranging from several kilohertz to milihertz. High frequencies reveal the
resistive qualities of a battery, which presents a bird-eye’s view in landscape form. By
lowering the frequency, diffusion begins to provide insight into unique battery
characteristics that allow capacity estimation, sulfation detection and revealing of dry-out
condition.

Evaluating batteries at sub one-hertz frequency needs long test times. At one milihertz,
for example, a cycle takes 1,000 seconds and several data points are required to assess a
battery with certainty. Low-frequency tests can take several minutes for one measurement,
however, with clever software simulation, the duration can be shortened to just a few
seconds.

Research engineers at Cadex are working on a technique called Low Frequency Pulse
Train (LFPT), also known as diffusion technology. Diffusion works with most chemistries
and the information retrieved provides vital information relating to battery capacity and
underlying deficiencies. This knowledge enables the all-important state-of-life estimation,
the ultimate goal for advanced battery management systems (BMS).

There is a critical need for practical battery testers that can examine the state-of-health
of batteries in medical equipment, military instruments, computing devices, power tools
and UPS systems. There are currently no instruments that can reliably predict battery
state-of-life on the fly, although many device manufacturers may claim their instruments
will do so.

How to Monitor a Battery

One of the most urgent requirements for battery-powered devices is the development of a
reliable and economical way to monitor battery state-of-function (SoF). This is a
demanding task when considering that there is still no dependable method to read state-of-
charge, the most basic characteristic of a battery. Even if SoC were displayed accurately,
charge information alone has limited benefits without knowing the capacity. The objective
is to identify battery readiness, which describes what the battery can deliver at a given
moment. SoF includes capacity (the amount of energy the battery can hold), internal
resistance (the delivery of power), and state-of-charge (the amount of energy the battery
holds at that moment).

Stationary batteries were among the first to include monitoring systems, and the most
common form of supervision is voltage measurement of individual cells. Some systems
also include cell temperature and current measurement. Knowing the voltage drop of each
cell at a given load reveals cell resistance. Cell failure caused by rising resistance through
plate separation, corrosion and other malfunctions can thus be identified. Battery
monitoring also serves in medical, defense and communication devices, as well as
wheeled mobility and electric vehicle applications.

In many ways, present battery monitoring falls short of meeting the basic requirements.
Besides assuring readiness, battery monitoring should also keep track of aging and offer
end-of-life predictions so that the user knows when to replace a fading battery. This is
currently not being done in a satisfactory manner. Most monitoring systems are tailored
for new batteries and adjust poorly to aging ones. As a result, battery management systems
(BMS) tend to lose accuracy gradually until the information obtained gets so far off that it
becomes a nuisance. This is not an oversight by the manufacturers; engineers know about
this shortcoming. The problem lies in technology, or lack thereof.

Another limitation of current monitoring systems is the bandwidth in which battery
conditions can be read. Most systems only reveal anomalies once the battery performance
has dropped below 70 percent and the performance is being affected. Assessment in the
all-important 80–100 percent operating range is currently impossible, and systems give the
batteries a good bill of health. This complicates end-of-life predictions, and the user needs
to wait until the battery has sufficiently deteriorated to make an assessment. Measuring a
battery once the performance has dropped or the battery has died is ineffective, and this
complicates battery exchange systems proposed for the electric vehicle market. One maker
of a battery tester proudly states in a brochure that their instrument “Detects any faulty
battery.” So, eventually, does the user.

Some medical devices use date stamp or cycle count to determine the end of service life
of a battery. This does not work well either, because batteries that are used little are not
exposed to the same stresses as those in daily operation. To reduce the risk of failure,
authorities may mandate an earlier replacement of all batteries. This causes the
replacement of many packs that are still in good working condition. Old habits are hard to
break, and it is often easier to leave the procedure as written rather than to revolt. This
satisfies the battery vendor but increases operating costs and creates environmental
burdens.

Portable devices such as laptops use coulomb counting that keeps track of the in- and
out flowing currents. Such a monitoring device should be flawless, but as mentioned
earlier, the method is not ideal either. Internal losses and inaccuracies in capturing current
flow add to an unwanted error that must be corrected with periodic calibrations.

Over-expectation with monitoring methods is common, and the user is stunned when
suddenly stranded without battery power. Let’s look at how current systems work and
examine up-and-coming technologies that may change the way batteries are monitored.

Voltage-Current-Temperature Method
The Volkswagen Beetle in simpler days had minimal battery problems. The only
management system was ensuring that the battery was being charged while driving.
Onboard electronics for safety, convenience, comfort and pleasure have greatly added to
the demands on the battery in modern cars since then. For the accessories to function
reliably, the state-of-charge of the battery must be known at all times. This is especially
critical with start-stop technologies, a mandated requirement on new European cars to
improve fuel economy.

When the engine stops at a red light, the battery draws 25–50 amperes of current to feed
the lights, ventilators, windshield wipers and other accessories. When the light changes,
the battery must have enough charge to crank the engine, which requires an additional
350A. With the engine started again and accelerating to the posted speed limit, the battery
begins charging after a 10-second delay.

Realizing the importance of battery monitoring, car manufacturers have added battery
sensors that measure voltage, current and temperature. Packaged in a small housing that
forms part of the positive clamp, the electronic battery monitor (EBM) provides useful
information about the battery and provides an accuracy of about +/–15 percent when the
battery is new. As the battery ages, the EBM begins drifting and the accuracy drops to 20-
30 percent. The model used for monitoring the battery is simply not able to adjust. To
solve this problem, EBM would need to know the state-of-health of the battery, and that
includes the all-important capacity. No method exists today that is fully satisfactory, and
some mechanics disconnect the battery management system to stop the false warning
messages.

A typical start-stop vehicle goes through about 2,000 micro cycles per year. Test data
obtained from automakers and the Cadex laboratories indicate that with normal usage in a
start-stop configuration, the battery capacity drops to approximately 60 percent in two
years. (See Figure 8-19 on page 191.) Field use reveals that the standard flooded lead acid
lacks robustness, and carmakers are reverting to a modified version lead acid battery.

Automakers want to ensure that no driver gets stuck in traffic with a dead battery. To
conserve energy, modern cars automatically turn off unnecessary accessories when the
battery is low and the motor stays running at a stoplight. Even with this measure, state-of-
charge can remain low if commuting in gridlock conditions because motor idling does not
provide much charge to the battery, and with essential accessories like lights and
windshield wipers on, the net effect could be a small discharge.

Battery monitoring is also important on hybrid vehicles to optimize charge levels.
Intelligent charge management prevents stressful overcharge and avoids deep discharges.
When the charge level is low, the internal combustion (IC) engine engages earlier than
normal and is left running longer for additional charge. On a fully charged battery, the IC
engine turns off and the car moves on the electrical motor in slow traffic.

Improved battery management is of special interest to the manufacturers of the electric
vehicle. In terms of state-of-charge, a discerning driver expects similar accuracies in
energy reserve as are possible with a fuel-powered vehicle, and current technologies do
not yet allow this. Furthermore, the driver of an EV anticipates a fully charged battery will
power the vehicle for the same distance as the car ages. This is not the case and the
drivable distance will get shorter with each passing year. Distances will also be shorter
when driving in cold temperatures because of reduced battery performance.

Magnetic Method
Under “How to Measure State-of-charge” in this chapter on page 219 we explored an
improved way to measure state-of-charge by using magnetism. We now take this
technology further and apply it to battery monitoring. Figure 9-25 illustrates the
installation of the Q-Magä sensor on the side of a starter battery in close proximity to the
negative plate. The technology works for lead- and lithium-based batteries.

Figure 9-25: Q-Magä sensor installed on the side of a starter battery

The sensor measures the SoC of a battery by magnetism. When discharging a lead acid battery, the negative plate
changes from lead to lead sulfate. Lead sulfate has a different magnetic susceptibility to lead, which a magnetic sensor
can measure.

Courtesy of Cadex (2009)

The potential of the Q-Magä technology is multifold, and this book addresses only the
most basic functions. A key advantage is measuring SoC while the battery is being
charged or is under load. In a charger, this allows optimal service under all conditions,
including hot and cold temperature charging. Knowing the true SoC and tailoring the
charge to best charge acceptance is of special interest to automotive and uninterruptible
power supply (UPS) markets.

A Q-Mag-controlled charger can prolong the life of chronically undercharged lead acid
batteries by applying maximum current when the opportunity arises without causing
undue damage to the battery. Being relieved of voltage feedback, an intelligent charger
based on Q-Magä can balance the state-of-charge of a fully charged battery by only
replenishing the current that is lost through loading and self-discharge. Maintaining a
“neutral” charge state saves energy and prolongs battery life by eliminating sulfation or
overcharge.

As battery supervisor, Q-Magä can recognize sulfation and acid stratification on lead
acid batteries. Coupled with an intelligent charger, the system can apply a corrective
charge to fix the battery before the condition becomes irreversible. Furthermore, an
imbalance between the terminal voltage and the Q-Mag-estimated SoC points to a battery
with high self-discharge (partially shorted cell). Observing the SoC level during rest
periods allows the assessment of self-discharge and the estimation of battery end of life.

The ability to measure SoC while a battery is on charge or on a load enables the
estimation of battery capacity. Several proprietary techniques are possible, all of which
offer a critical improvement to present systems. The voltage and impedance methods used
today reveal only an anomaly when the battery is failing, and coulomb counters lose
accuracy as the battery ages. One of the most critical measuring requirements of a battery
test system is to know the usable capacity between 70 and 100 percent capacity.

Battery monitoring without touching the poles of the individual cells makes Q-Magä
attractive for stationary batteries. The installation involves placing the sensors between the
batteries and collecting SoC data, among other battery information, with the help of a
controller on low voltage. It is conceivable that battery manufacturers in the future will
include the sensors in the housing as part of production. Economical pricing at high
volume and small size could make this feasible.

Q-Magä works across several battery chemistries, and the magnetic measuring
technique may one day solve the critical need for improved battery monitoring in hybrid
and electric vehicles. Research engineers at Cadex will also examine nickel-based
batteries; however, the ferrous enclosure of the cylindrical cells may pose limitations. A
solid aluminum enclosure on Li-phosphate does not inhibit the magnetic measurement, as
the tests at Cadex are showing.

Q-Magä may one day also assist in the consumer market to test batteries by magnetism.
Placing the battery on a test mat, similar to charging a battery, may one day be possible.

Battery Test Equipment

Conventional battery test methods measure the stored energy through a full discharge.
This procedure is time-consuming and stresses the battery. There is a move towards
methods that take only seconds instead of hours; however, rapid testing provides only
estimated state-of-health values, and the accuracies vary according to the method used.
Public safety, medical and defense organizations still depend on tests involving periodic
full discharge/charge cycles.

Battery Analyzer
Battery analyzers became popular in the 1980s and 1990s to restore nickel-cadmium
batteries affected by “memory,” as well as to prolong battery life as part of maintenance.
The Cadex C7000 Series serves the industry well and set new standards for what a battery
analyzer could do. These workhorses accommodate lead-, nickel- and lithium-based
batteries, and operate stand-alone or with a PC. Figure 9-26 illustrates a C7400 battery
analyzer servicing a variety of batteries in configured adapters that set the analyzer to the
correct setting. Each of the four independent stations allows unique service programs.

Figure 9:26: Cadex C7400 battery analyzer

Two- and four-station analyzers service batteries from 1.2 to 15V, programmable up to 4A per station. The extended
version goes to 36V and 6A charge and discharge currents. The service programs include QuickSortä for rapid-test of Li-
ion batteries.

Courtesy of Cadex

Connecting various shapes and forms of batteries has always been a challenge, and
technicians have invented unique contraptions with springs and levers so complicated that
only the inventor dares to touch. There is no simple way to connect batteries, especially
when dealing with small packs that have tiny surface contacts.

Cadex solved the battery interface challenge with custom adapters for common batteries
and universal adapters for specialty packs. The custom adapters are easiest to use; they are
specially designed and the batteries go in only one way. The adapters are smart and are
able to hold configuration codes for up to 10 different battery types. This allows the
servicing of batteries with identical footprints but different electrical values. The user can
edit the parameters with the menu function on the analyzer or with the PC.

The universal adapters consist of user-programmable Smart Cables that accommodate
virtually any battery type. With the proliferation of cellular batteries and the need for a
quick and simple battery interchange, Cadex developed the RigidArmä (Figure 9-27). This
adapter features spring-loaded arms that meet the battery contacts from the top down and
apply correct pressure to the contacts. Lockable mechanisms allow quick and repetitive
testing of same-type batteries. The retractable floor holds the battery in a vertical position,
and magnetic guides keep the battery in place if laid horizontally. For added safety, a
temperature sensor monitors the battery during the test.

Figure 9-27: RigidArmä for cellular batteries

The universal adapter simplifies the interface with small batteries. The adapter holds 10 of the most commonly used
mAh ratings and is compatible with Cadex battery analyzers.

Courtesy of Cadex

Servicing Cellular Batteries
Advancements made in battery test equipment make it feasible to service the over four
billion cellular batteries in global use at storefronts while the customer waits. Hooking up
the battery still needs some skill, and once the contacts are established the service
technician may need to enter the capacity in mAh and other battery specifications.

Most cellular batteries have three or four contacts. The positive [+] terminal is normally
at the outer edge and the negative [–] one is positioned towards the inside. The third
contact is the thermistor measuring the battery temperature, and unless the battery adapter
is specially made for the battery type, the thermistor is normally not hooked up for the
test; a universal adapter often has its own temperature protection. The fourth contact, if
available, may offer code identification for configuration. Figure 9-28 illustrates a typical
contact positioning.

Figure 9-28: Typical contacts on a cellular battery

The positive [+] is normally at the outer right and the negative [–] is on the inside. Most batteries have a thermistor;
some also offer a code.

Returned batteries are either discarded or shipped to service centers where they are
tested and redistributed as Class B packs. Looking closer at the tonnage of these returned
batteries reveals that nine out of 10 packs have no problem and can be serviced. Seeing an
opportunity for business, large refurbishing centers have sprung up in the USA that test
400,000 batteries per month, with volumes anticipated to increase to one million per
month.

Storefront testing reduces waste, and the motto goes: “To the storefront and no further.”
Battery analyzers featuring rapid-test programs are offered that give a clear assessment of
a battery in a few seconds while the customer waits. Figure 9-29 illustrates a service
concept for storefront testing while the customer waits. If the battery needs charging or
has a genuine fault, an alternate pack is given from the pool of previously tested batteries.


Figure 9-29: Storefront service

Batteries are serviced while the customer waits. A faulty pack is replaced from the pool of previously serviced batteries.
Storefront testing reduces handling, lessens disposal and improves customer satisfaction.

Courtesy of Cadex

One of the difficulties of storefront testing has been the availability of suitable battery
diagnostic equipment. The older units lacked accuracy in rapid testing, and had a
predictive capacity that resembled a ticket in a Las Vegas lottery; many potential users
hesitated to buy such equipment. QuickSortä provides 90 percent accuracy across the
population of cellular batteries. (See “Testing Lithium-based Batteries,” on page 229.)
With a PC, some analyzers allow service reports to be printed, and the Internet enables a
central manager to monitor the activity of each store. Figure 9-30 illustrates a battery
analyzer designed for storefront use.

Figure 9-30: Cadex C5100 analyzer for lithium-ion batteries

This analyzer rapid tests, charges and cycles batteries. The RigidArmä adapter allows easy interface to cellular batteries;
also accepts preprogrammed adapters. QuickSortä tests batteries in 30 seconds.

Courtesy of Cadex

Maintaining Fleet Batteries
A battery analyzer assures that fleet batteries meet the minimum performance standards.
The device also helps to restore low performers, if such a service is possible with the
battery types in question. In addition, a battery analyzer supervises the all-important
function of a timely replacement at the end of a productive life. Manufacturers of portable
equipment support battery maintenance because well-performing batteries reflect
positively on the equipment, a win-win situation for both manufacturer and user.

Many battery analyzers come with PC application software. With BatteryShopä (by
Cadex), for example, the PC becomes the command center and all functions are processed
through the keyboard, as well as other input devices. Clicking the mouse on any of the
2,000 batteries listed in the database configures the analyzer to the correct setting,
eliminating the need for further programming. The user has the liberty to add, remove and
edit the batteries listed should the specification change.

Labeling each fleet battery with a permanent ID number simplifies logistics and
traceability. A printer connected to PC BatteryShopä generates these labels in bar code
format. The user simply scans the label, which in turn configures the analyzer and
retrieves the performance history for review. Besides capacity readings and service dates,
purchasing date, vendor information and pricing can also be entered. Figure 9-31
illustrates the battery scan, service and data examination.

Figure 9-31: Fleet battery management

Labeling each battery with a unique number simplifies battery service. Swiping the barcode label reveals the history of
the battery.

Courtesy of Cadex

Another tracking method for fleet batteries is attaching a removable label that shows the
battery information at a glance between services, as illustrated in Figure 9-32. The system
is self-governing in that all batteries must regularly be serviced as part of quality control.
This is made possible by providing a time period between the last service and the new date
due. With this information on hand, the prudent battery user only picks a battery that has
been serviced and meets this quality assurance (QA) test protocol. Setting up the
maintenance system is simple and managing it requires only about 30 minutes per day.

Figure 9-32: Sample of removable battery label

The label shows battery information at a glance and includes name of organization for traceability, capacity in percent,
as well as past and future service dates.

Setting up a battery maintenance system requires a battery analyzer that is capable of
printing battery stick-on labels. The analyzer should also offer a program that
automatically restores nickel-based batteries if the set capacity threshold cannot be met.
Cadex analyzers meet these requirements and go one step further by offering adjustable
capacity target settings to select the minimum performance criteria for the given operation.

Most fleet operations use 80 percent as their battery pass/fail criterion. Increasing the
threshold to 85 percent tightens the performance tolerance but passes fewer batteries;
lowering the settings extends service life but offers less stringent performance standards.
When choosing the setting, the organization must ensure that the lowest-level battery in
the fleet is able to fulfill its assigned duty. Figures 9-33, 9-34 and 9-35 illustrate the
battery label system.

Rechargeable batteries do not die suddenly but gradually get weaker with time. A
service every one to three months offers plenty of confidence that all batteries will meet
the minimum required capacity and last through the shift with some energy to spare.


Figure 9-33: Sorting batteries for servicing

When taking a battery from the charger, the user checks the service date, and if expired the battery is placed in the “To
be serviced” box.

Figure 9-34: Servicing expired batteries

The analyzers service the batteries and recondition them if low in capacity (only nickel-based batteries receive
recondition). Passing batteries are relabeled showing capacity and the next service date.

Figure 9-35: Reinstating batteries

The failed batteries are removed from service and replaced with new packs. The new and serviced batteries go back into
service by being charged.

All figures Courtesy of Cadex

Battery Test Systems
While battery analyzers are tools to service batteries; battery test systems provide multi-
purpose test functions for research laboratories. Typical applications are life cycle testing
and verifying cell balance in field imitation. Such tests can often be automated with a
custom program. Load capture allows storing load signatures for playback simulations.
Many battery test systems also control external load units and environmental chambers.
Other uses of such systems are quality inspections and verifying warranty claims. Figure
9-36 illustrates a typical battery test system.

Figure 9-36: Cadex C8000 Battery Test System

Four independent channels provide up to 10A each and 36V. Maximum charge power is 400W, discharge is 320W. The
discharge power can be enhanced with external load banks.

Courtesy of Cadex

The alternate to a battery test system is a programmable power supply controlled by a
computer. Such a platform offers flexibility but requires careful programming to prevent
stress to the battery and possible damage or fire if an anomaly were to occur. A battery test
system, such as the Cadex C8000, offers protected charge and discharge programs that
identify a faulty battery and terminate a service safely. The system can be overridden to do
destructive tests.

Simple Guidelines to Choosing a Battery Test System

Similar to a medical test or the weather forecast, battery testers provide only
estimations. No single instrument can do it all; several methods are needed to attain a
full assessment.

 Most batteries keep a low internal resistance while the capacity drops gradually with
age.

Battery resistance provides only a snapshot and cannot provide the end-of-life
prediction.

Capacity is the leading health indicator but this measurement is difficult to estimate.

A charge or discharge agitates the voltage and the battery needs several hours of
normalize.

Coulomb counting requires periodic calibration to keep accuracy.

Battery management prevents surprise failure and allows for a scheduled retirement.

Storefront battery testing provides on-site troubleshooting to verify performance.

1 The ADAC (Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club e.V.) originated in Germany in 1903 and is Europe’s largest
automobile club, with over 16 million members.
2 BCI (Battery Council International) measures state-of-charge by open circuit voltage. The voltage methods works well
if the battery has no load and has rested after charge or discharge.
3 North America marks the reserve capacity (RC) of starter batteries in minutes; RC applies a 25A discharge to
1.75V/cell and measures the elapsed time in minutes. Europe and other parts of the world use ampere-hours (Ah). The
RC-to-Ah conversion formula is as follows: RC divided by 2 plus 16.







The battery is a perishable

product that starts deteriorating

right from the time it

leaves the factory.







Part Three

Battery as Power Source








When performance counts, it doesn’t

matter if the ions move from positive

to negative or negative to positive.



Chapter 10 | Amazing Value of a Battery

Part Three puts the batteries to work in many wonderful places. Chapter 10 begins with
the all-important primary cell and then explores the use of secondary batteries in consumer
products, mobility, aviation, aerospace, standby power and grid storage. Chapter 11
compares the cost of battery energy against fossil fuel, and Chapter 12 evaluates the
battery in the electric drivetrain.

Wide-ranging Tasks

It seems as if batteries for consumer products are benefiting the most from technological
advancements, and that industrial batteries are being left behind. While this may appear so
on the outside, we must examine the constraints under which industrial batteries are
designed to operate. Consumer batteries are made for long runtimes, whereas the main
objective of industrial batteries is reliability, safety and long life.

Let’s look at the broad spectrum of available batteries, which stretches from small packs
delivering only microamperes in current to batteries delivering hundreds of amperes and
operating under demanding environmental conditions.

Primary Batteries
Long-life primary batteries do more than keeping the time on watches and energizing
electric keys; they play a critical role in medical equipment, such as pacemakers. The
implantable pacemaker battery, for example, has one of the highest energy densities. It
uses a primary lithium-metal battery that holds almost twice the capacity of a rechargeable
lithium-ion. An important attribute of this battery is low self-discharge. It loses only 10
percent of its energy in five years, a figure that is five times better than alkaline, and far
superior to any rechargeable battery. Pacemaker batteries draw 10–20 microamperes and
last 5–10 years.

Most hearing aid batteries are primary also. They have a capacity of 70–600mAh and
last for 5 to 14 days before needing replacement. The rechargeable version has less
capacity and lasts for about 20 hours between charges. The battery provides roughly 500
charge/discharge cycles before the fading capacity reduces the usable time to less than the
accustomed waking hours.

Other applications deploying primary batteries are ocean buoys for lighting and
mountaintop repeaters for communications. Small primary batteries energize tire pressure
gauges in cars and trucks. Furthermore, batteries activate miniature transmitters to track
birds in the air, animals in the wild and fish in the ocean. In the medical world, swallowing
a battery-powered pill with built-in camera allows viewing the digestive system of a
patient.

Consumer Batteries
Nowhere is the battery more visible than in personal communications and portable
computing. There are over four billion cellular phones in use globally, and computing
work is being made possible on the go. Made for optimum runtime and low price, batteries
for iPods, cellular phones, digital cameras and laptops lead in technological
advancements.

Some manufacturers offer devices featuring permanently embedded batteries. Making
the battery an intrinsic part of a device is good on one hand because a hidden power
source lessens concerns and the user can no longer blame the battery when a glitch occurs.
But the integrated approach raises new problems. Customers want the freedom to replace
a spent battery with a spare to get continuous service on a busy day. Devices that offer
different battery sizes serve the need for extended service especially well. Battery users
are also aware of capacity fade and want to be able to replace the pack when appropriate.
Manufacturers, on the other hand, argue that batteries have improved sufficiently and that
replacement won’t be necessary for the life of the device.

When first introduced, the non-replaceable battery for the Apple iPod caused uproar,
especially when consumers were instructed to send the unit to a service facility for a
simple battery replacement. This pandemonium has now abated and Apple makes laptops
with non-replaceable batteries. A sealed unit enables smaller and cheaper designs, a move
that makes sense if the battery matches the service life of the machine. Low-cost cordless
drills and electric toothbrushes are forerunners of appliances with non-replaceable
batteries.

To extend battery life on the go, independent manufacturers offered generic battery
packs that connect to the portable device through the appropriate DC connector, similar to
an AC adapter. This was a novel idea, but these packs never took off in a big way.

Batteries for Remote Control Hobbyist
Remote control (RC) hobbyists are a special breed of battery user who stretch tolerance to
the maximum without undue concern for battery stress and safety. After using top-end
brand nickel-cadmium, they now embrace high-current lithium-ion cells because of their
small size and low weight. A devoted RC fan sends me this email:

I’ve been using lithium-ion polymer batteries in my RC helicopters and they are
amazing. I currently have a 3S1P1 pack, 2,200mAh that can continuously supply 30C
without getting warmer than 50°C. I’ve put a data logger in the helicopter and tested
current draws of 35A average, and 80A peak at voltages above 10.5V.

The battery pack in the RC helicopter with three cells in series can indeed generate over
700 watts, almost one horsepower (one horsepower has 746 watts). As thrilling as an RC
helicopter, car or boat can be, the life of these packs will be short if cycled at 30C. RC
buffs are well aware of the compromise and are willing to pay the price, as well as take
some safety risks. Specialty batteries given to experts have fewer regulations than those
offered to the public at large, and with sufficient knowledge and common sense, such
relaxation for educated uses is justified.

RC fans are also flocking to Li-phosphate. They claim longer cycle life and better
thermal stability than Li-polymer, making them less likely to catch fire when over-
stressed. In addition, Li-phosphate runs 20°C (36°F) cooler than Li-polymer, but the lower
voltage of 3.3V/cell as opposed to 3.6V for Li-polymer results in a slight decrease of
performance.

Manufacturers recommend that RC batteries be charged with a cell balancer, a device
that goes in between the charger and the battery. The cell balancer brings two or three cells
in series to equal voltage while on charge. If a cell’s voltage is too high in a string, the cell
is gradually discharged with a shunt resistor to match the others. (See also Chapter 8,
“Cell Mismatch, Balancing,” on page 179.) Power tool and EV batteries have similar
requirements to ensure that all cells are matched for optimal longevity and performance.

Batteries for Portable Industry
A defibrillator draws 30 amperes to charge the large capacitors delivering the electric
shock to a patient with a cardiac arrest. Reserved for nickel-based batteries in the past,
these medical devices are increasingly moving towards lithium-based systems.
Defibrillators are first-aid tools that are increasingly being used in shopping malls, sports
arenas and aircraft.

Advanced defibrillators do more than give shock treatments. By adding a mechanical
movement, a defibrillator can provide CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) and become a
support pump to apply chest compression to a patient with cardiac arrest. The CPR
function begins by circulating the blood to the heart, brain and other organs, and then adds
electric shocks at strategic moments. Without automation, a medical team of doctors and
nurses would be needed to administer the procedure. Batteries for such life-support pumps
must deliver 30 amperes for an uninterrupted duration of 30 minutes.

An industrial power drill draws up to 50 amperes on full load, and cordless power tools
fall into the heavy-duty category in terms of batteries usage. Running at voltages of 12,
18, 24 and 36V, cell matching becomes critical, especially when the tools are used in cold
weather. Li-ion packs require protection circuits to prevent imbalance and protect against
abuse. This adds to the price. The advantage of the protection circuit is longer battery life
by safeguarding the pack against a common abuse, which is jamming. Jamming on an
unprotected pack can induce a high inrush current, which can lead to a voltage collapse,
cell reversal and electrical short. This is especially critical on low charge or at cold
temperatures when the battery is less robust.

Battery-powered Vehicles
Batteries for propulsion systems have been in use for over 100 years, and today electric
powertrains drive robots, bicycles, wheelchairs, golf cars, forklifts, EVs and underwater
vessels. This power source has one thing in common; it is pollution-free and can be used
indoors and underwater. For reasons of battery size, propulsion systems for heavy outdoor
equipment such as earthmoving machines, non-electrified trains, aircraft and large ships
must continue to rely on fossil fuel.

Most electric bicycles in developing countries run on lead acid batteries. While
inexpensive, lead acid for deep-cycle use is ill suited and the batteries last for only 9 to 12
months on a daily commute. Nickel- or lithium-based batteries with twice and three-times
the specific energy offer better cycle performance and shorter charge times but are
expensive. While lead acid comes in at less than $100 a pack, a nickel-based battery costs
$400–500, and a high-end Li-ion goes for $800–1,200. At a capacity of 280–480Wh, the
battery has a range of 20–40km. With flat terrain and good wind conditions, the battery
power with 70 percent pedal assist is only 1kW per kilometer (1.6kW per mile). Uphill
propulsion consumes up to 10Wh/km (16kW per mile).

The battery cost dictates the developing world to choose lead acid. If the commuter had
a bit more money he would likely buy a motorcycle. In the wealthy West, bicycle owners
use their bicycles more as a form of recreation than a necessity. They have the means to go
for a better battery, and advanced e-bikes with NiMH and Li-ion batteries sell for several
thousand dollars. Europe is leading in the up-scale electrical bicycle and the trend is
spreading.

Wheelchairs, scooters and golf cars use mostly lead acid batteries. Even though heavy,
lead acid works reasonably well and alternate chemistries would be too expensive. While
wheelchair batteries tend to have a short service life span of about two years, a similar
battery in a golf car can last for 4 to 5 years. This, I believe, is due to charging practices.
The lead acid battery needs a fully saturated charge of 14–16 hours to prevent sulfation,
and the time is not always available for the daily wheelchair user who may only charge the
battery for eight hours while asleep. Golf car batteries, on the other hand, typically receive
the needed 14–16 hours in a full overnight charge.

Ever since the starter motor was invented in 1912, lead acid batteries began cranking
engines and providing power for lighting and ignition. Low cost and high current loading
make lead acid an almost perfect candidate for starter applications. A typical starter
battery has about 720 watts, and one of its unique qualities is good cranking ability even
when the capacity fades to 25 percent or less.

Hybrids, plug-ins and electric vehicles use larger batteries, and Figure 10-1 compares
the battery sizes. While the hybrid can get by with a battery twice the size of a starter
battery, plug-in vehicles carry batteries in the 5–15kWh range, and the pure EV includes a
monster battery ranging from 20 to 50kWh. (More is in Chapter 12, “Electric Powertrain,”
on page 265.)

Figure 10-1: Typical battery wattages of vehicle batteries. While starter and hybrid batteries are tolerant to capacity
fade, a weak EV battery travels shorter distances.

Courtesy of Cadex

The automotive industry is very conservative, and the choice of battery for most
modern electric powertrains is lithium-ion with a nickel-manganese-cobalt mix (NMC).
These cells provide stable service for many years and have low self-discharge, even when
aging. NMC is also a desirable battery for power tools. Another strong candidate is Li-
phosphate, a battery that delivers the best cycle life and is safe but has higher self-
discharge than NMC. This complicates battery management, especially if the cells age
differently.

University students converting an old Volkswagen Beetle to an electric powertrain to
drive around the globe would shop for a lower-priced alternative and likely find a source
in China. China offers Li-ion mono-blocks in 40–800Ah sizes at attractive prices. These
batteries work well for less demanding applications and are great for experimental uses.
There is, however, concern about safety and reliability when placed into the hands of
common consumers.

The need of a battery management system becomes evident. It prevents any cell from
exceeding 4.25V/cell on charge and dropping below 3.00V on discharge. As the cells age,
cell capacities diverge and this affects charge and discharge times. On charge, a weak cell
reaches full charge first, and without limit the voltage would rise further. On discharge, the
weak cell discharges first and needs protection from voltage depletion. Weak cells are at a
disadvantage; they get stressed the most and lose capacity quicker than the strong cells in
a pack.

Forklifts use mostly lead acid batteries. Here, the weight is of little concern, however,
long charging times is a disadvantage for warehouses operating 24 hours a day. This limits
the fleet operation to only one shift. Fuel cell makers are gaining inroads by offering
charging while the vehicle is in use. The addition of a fuel cell serving as onboard charger
reduces battery size, but eliminating the battery entirely is not possible. The fuel cell has
poor response characteristics on power demand and lacks the needed power bandwidth;
the battery fills in for these shortcomings. (See Chapter 2, “Fuel Cell,” on page 70.)

The heavier the wheeled application, the more difficult it becomes to use batteries as the
main powertrain. This does not prevent engineers from looking into alternate power
sources to replace polluting diesel engines. One application under consideration is to use
batteries for the Automatic Guided Vehicle (AGV) systems at ship ports, but battery size
and charging times make this unfeasible. AGVs run 24 hours a day and the vehicles
cannot be removed for lengthy charging. An automated battery exchange is being
considered by removing the 10-ton, 300kWh lead acid battery from the vehicle and
putting it on charge. Cost and impracticality may limit such an approach.

A German firm looked at using lithium-ion batteries for AGVs to speed up charging and
reduce weight. While many smaller applications have switched to this new battery system,
Li-ion is not yet ready for very large applications; the cost is prohibitive and the safety of
such systems remains in issue.

On large-scale applications, batteries continue to have a hard time competing with fossil
fuel in terms of specific energy. While a modern Li-ion battery produces about 120Wh/kg
of energy, the net calorific value (NCV) of fossil fuel is 12,000Wh/kg, or one liter, an
energy that is one hundred times higher. Even at a low efficiency of 25 percent, which an
IC engine delivers, batteries don’t come close to this delivery of power.

Will Li-ion advance to take this spot? Perhaps not in our lifetime. Even if modern
technology enabled large energy storage devices, charging these mega-batteries in an hour
could dim a city. Replacing large diesel engines with batteries does not make commercial
sense for now, nor can the fuel cell fill the spot. We need to breathe diesel-polluted air a
little longer.

Batteries for Aviation
The duty of batteries on board aircraft is to run navigation and emergency systems when
the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) is off or if an emergency occurs. In the event of an
engine failure, the batteries must supply energy from 30 minutes to three hours. Each
aircraft must also have enough battery power to facilitate a safe landing.

Starting a large aircraft involves two stages. Most commercial jet aircraft use flooded
nickel-cadmium to first engage the APU located at the tail end of a plane. The APU takes
significantly longer to start and requires more energy than cranking the reciprocating
engine in a vehicle. The spooling speed of the APU must be sufficiently high to attain
compression for self-sustained ignition. This takes about 15 seconds and consumes 15kW
of energy. Once running, an air compressor or hydraulic pump jumpstarts the large jet
engines. On smaller aircraft, the battery must spool each engine for 25–40 seconds at high
current. This puts far more stress on a battery than starting a car, and the batteries must be
built accordingly.

Smaller aircraft may use a sealed lead-tin battery that is heavier than NiCd but has
lower maintenance. The 12 and 24V aviation batteries are rated in IPP and IPR rather than
CCA, as is common in the auto industry. Modern jet fighters spool the engines with
lithium-ion batteries.

Durability and good performance at low temperature are the main reasons for the
continued use of nickel-cadmium batteries in aviation. Most are flooded and require high
maintenance that includes exercising to eliminate memory. The service consists of totally
discharging the battery and placing a shortening strap across each cell for 24 hours. Each
battery is also checked for capacity with a battery analyzer.

Although aircraft carry many batteries aboard, their sole purpose is to provide starting
and backup power. No passenger would dare fly to Europe or Asia on battery power alone.
One can clearly see the limitations of batteries for large engines, and we need to rely on
fossil fuel a little bit longer. (Let’s not give away this precious nonrenewable resource too
cheaply by allowing people to squander the oil, especially if alternative energy storage
devices, i.e. the batteries, can be used for ground transportation.)

Batteries for Aerospace
Early satellites used exclusively NiCd batteries. This, by the way, exposed the “memory”
phenomenon in that NiCd could remember the amount of energy that was used on a tightly
regulated discharge schedule. If the discharge lasted longer than normal, the battery would
suffer a mysterious voltage drop. Today, most modern satellites, including the Hubble, use
nickel-hydrogen cells (see Chapter 2, “Nickel-hydrogen,” on page 65). One of the
enduring qualities of nickel-hydrogen is long cycle life. To optimize longevity, engineers
over-design the batteries to achieve a small depth of discharge of only 6 to 10 percent.

High price and large size limit nickel-hydrogen batteries for satellite applications. Each
cell has the appearance of a small steam engine and costs about a thousand dollars. These
batteries are specially made for the application.

Satellites designed with a life span of five years or less often use lithium-ion. A new
breed of Li-ion is being developed that promises to last 18 years. This would satisfy most
satellite requirements and replace the heavier nickel-based systems. The battery in
development is a large 140Ah cell. Li-ion is lighter in weight, is easier to charge and has a
lower self-discharge than the nickel-based battery systems of old. Furthermore, industrial
versions of Li-ion promise to exceed the life span of nickel.

Stationary Batteries
Stationary batteries are almost always lead acid. Size and weight is of lesser concern. The
limited cycle count does not pose a major problem because the batteries are seldom deep
discharged. Large stationary systems are mostly mature flooded systems that provide a
reliable and economical service, but they need regular maintenance in form of checking
the electrolyte level and adding water. Automatic watering reduces some of this routine
maintenance work.

Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) offers a lower-cost alternative to flooded lead acid.
Being maintenance-free, the battery can be installed and forgotten. This benefit is often
taken to the extreme in that the batteries are neglected. In the absence of adding water,
maintenance comes in the form of checking the voltage, internal resistance and verifying
capacity.

Flooded nickel-cadmium batteries are used in applications that need regular deep
cycling or are exposed to hot and cold temperatures. NiCd for stationary applications is
about four times the price of lead acid; however, the vendors say that improved longevity
will make up for the higher cost. Flooded nickel-cadmium batteries are non-sintered and
don’t have memory.

 Battery manufacturers are introducing NiMH and Li-ion batteries for stationary uses.
The advantages are wide temperature range and the ability to deep cycle and fast charge.
These batteries have a small footprint, need minimal ventilation and have a long life.
When storing energy from renewable sources, such as from solar cells, NiMH and Li-ion
do not suffer from sulfation as lead acid does when not fully charged. Li-ion has the added
benefit of being light. It can be made semi-portable for temporary systems and remote
installations.

NiMH and Li-ion are more expensive than lead acid and the industry will continue to
rely on lead acid batteries for common UPS systems. Experts predict that alternate
chemistries will find market acceptance for general use once the price can be lowered to
$200/kWh, the cost of a lead acid system. Lithium-based stationary batteries cost as much
as $1,500/kWh.

Grid Storage Batteries
Renewable energy sources such as wind and sun do not provide a steady stream of power,
nor do they harmonize with user demand. Large energy storage batteries called load
leveling or grid storage batteries are needed to provide a seamless service.

Storing energy when the demand is low is not new. Hydroelectric power stations use
excess electricity to pump water back up to the reservoir at night for use the next day.
With an efficiency factor of 70–85 percent, pumped hydro is easier to manage than
adjusting the generators to the exact power need. Flywheels also serve as energy storage.
Large electric motors spin up one-ton flywheels when excess energy is available to supply
brief energy deficiencies. Flywheels are the most expensive energy storing media,
followed by Li-ion. Pumping compressed air into underground cavities is another way to
store energy, but load leveling batteries are the most practical for wind farms and solar
installations.

A single wind turbine generates about 30kW of power and a typical wind farm produces
30–300 megawatts (MW) in total. To get a better idea of electric mega-power, 1MW feeds
50 houses or a super Walmart store. A 30MW wind farm uses a storage battery of about
15MW. This is the equivalent of 20,000 starter batteries and costs about $10 million.
Besides wattage, the battery industry also uses Volt-amps (VA) to specify battery capacity.
(See Chapter 1, “Watts and Volt-amps (VA)” on page 33.)

Most energy storage batteries are lead acid; newer systems lower than 1MW include
sodium-sulfur and Li-ion. The battery management system (BMS) keeps the battery at 50
percent charge to allow absorbing energy on wind gusts and delivering on high load
demands. Modern BMS can switch from charge to discharge in less than a second. This
helps stabilize the voltage on transmission lines.

Batteries for Personal and Fleet Use

It is interesting to observe that batteries cared for by a single user generally last longer
than those operating in an open fleet system where everyone has access but no one is
responsible. A personal user is one who operates a mobile phone, a laptop or digital
camera for business or pleasure. He or she usually cares for the battery and makes all
efforts to follow the recommended guidelines. With time, the user gets to know the battery
like a good friend, and critical failures are rare because the owner adjusts to the changing
condition, lowers expectations and replaces the pack when it becomes a nuisance.

The desire to care for the batteries is not witnessed among fleet users. The packs belong
to a pool of unknown batteries and operate in a sharing arrangement. While an individual
user can live with reduced runtime, the fleet operators have little attachment to the battery
and show no patience with anything that is less than perfect. They grab a battery from the
charger and expect it to last through the shift. At the end of the day, the battery is plugged
into the charger again, ready for the next user. Having serviced batteries for fleet users for
many years, I noticed shorter service life on fleet packs than those for personal use.

How can fleet batteries be made to last longer? I made an interesting observation on
battery life in comparing two defense organizations, the US Army and the Dutch Army,
both of which I had the pleasure of visiting. The armies in question use fleet batteries and
deploy them similarly with the following exception.

The US Army issues batteries without a maintenance program. If the battery fails,
another pack is released, no questions asked. Little or no care is taken and the failure rate
is high. The Dutch Army, on the other hand, has moved away from the open fleet system
by making the soldiers responsible for their batteries. The entrusted packs become part of
their personal belongings, similar to food and clothing. The army made the change to
reduce operational costs and improve reliability.

The results are startling. Since the Dutch Army adapted this new regime, the failure rate
has dropped considerably and battery performance has increased. Unexpected downtime
has almost been eliminated.

I should mention that the Dutch Army used nickel-cadmium batteries at the time of the
study. Each pack received periodic maintenance on a Cadex battery analyzer to prolong
service life. Batteries that did not meet the required 80 percent target capacity were
reconditioned, and those failing to meet the target setting were replaced. Meanwhile, the
US Army had switched to nickel-metal-hydride, a chemistry that is known to offer higher
capacity but shorter service life. Today, both armies use lithium-ion on their new
equipment.

Public safety organizations use a mix of NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. Checking with a fire
department to find out which chemistry works best, I learned that Li-ion is indeed
superior. After 15 months of use, the Li-ion batteries tested on a Cadex battery analyzer
still showed 92–95 percent capacity, and the users are confident that the batteries can be
used reliably for two to three full shifts on a single charge. Such performance would not
have been possible with nickel-based batteries. But battery breakdowns still occur and the
failure rate continues to be relatively high in fleet use. This might be user-related, and the
Dutch Army model of assigning a battery as a personal belonging might solve this
problem.

The lighter weight and longer runtime of Li-ion also offers noticeable advantages for
power tools. Stores say that Li-ion batteries generate fewer returns than nickel-based
packs, and this is in part due to the protection circuit that prevents reverse polarization on
overload. Medical instruments are also switching to Li-ion but regulatory conditions make
the change cumbersome. Bureaucracy can indeed stifle new technology rather than
promote it.

Calculating Reserve Capacity
Everyone wants a battery that is small and light, but there are compromises, especially if
the margin for failure is narrow for critical missions. When calculating battery size, the
fleet user should consider two factors: [1] allowing for spare capacity to provide for
unforeseen activities, and [2] anticipating capacity fade that occurs naturally with the age
of the battery. Equipment manufacturers tend to ignore the fading aspect when calculating
the required capacity and base the service on a new battery with full capacity.

The acceptable capacity performance range of a well-managed battery fleet is 80 to 100
percent, meaning that packs that fall below the 80 percent threshold are replaced.
Allocating 20 percent fade in addition to a 20 percent emergency reserve would reduce the
usable battery capacity to 60 percent. Such a large reserve for a worst-case scenario may
not be practical and battery users go for more leniency. A battery analyzer plays an
important role in battery management in that the batteries are checked every one to thee
months to ensure they all fall within the anticipated performance bandwidth.

Avoiding Battery Failure
High failure rate and unreliable battery performance have prompted many organizations to
check fleet batteries as part of quality control. This entails inspecting new batteries as well
as maintaining packs deployed in the field. Conventional wisdom says a battery should
always perform flawlessly when new. Yet many users know that a fresh supply of batteries
does not always meet the specifications. Some purchasers check incoming batteries with a
battery analyzer and return an entire lot if one in 10 does not meet the capacity
requirements. Placing underperforming batteries into the field can jeopardize an entire
system with unpredictable performance and frequent downtime.

A customer will occasionally call a maker of battery analyzers, such as Cadex, to
complain that the unit is faulty and no longer indicates correct capacity readings when
testing batteries. In most cases, the customer has just purchased a new batch of batteries,
and when tested, their capacities were at an unacceptable low level of 70 percent instead
of the specified 100 percent. The customer naturally assumes that it can’t be these new
batteries and blames the analyzer.

Battery analyzers also perform the important function of restoring faded batteries and
weeding out deadwood. Weak batteries can hide among their good peers and everything
seems fine. Yet, when the system is put to the test in an emergency situation, these non-
performers can wreak havoc. Underperforming batteries are the cause of many operational
failures.

Organizations tend to postpone battery maintenance until a crisis situation develops.
This happened to a fire department in the Vancouver area, and the two-way radios
experienced chronic communication problems, especially during callouts lasting more
than two hours. Although the radios seemed to function well in receive mode, the
firefighters had trouble transmitting. They were often left in peril, unaware that their calls
for help had not gone out.

Responding to the growing complaints from firefighters, the fire brigade acquired a
Cadex battery analyzer to service all batteries. Packs that failed to recover and deliver the
required target capacity of 80 percent were replaced. The technician supervising the
service was surprised to see how many fleet batteries were underperforming. Many had
capacities of only 20 percent after a full charge, a level that is not sufficient for field use.

Shortly after servicing the batteries, the firefighters were summoned to a large fire that
lasted for 10 hours and demanded heavy radio traffic. To their astonishment, none of the
radios failed, and the success of this flawless operation was accredited to the battery
performance. The captain of the fire brigade personally contacted the manufacturer of the
battery analyzer and endorsed the device enthusiastically.

On another occasion, a Cadex representative was allowed to visit the emergency
management facility of a large US city where over 1,000 batteries sat in chargers. The
green lights glowed, indicating that the batteries were ready at a moment’s notice. The
officer in charge stood erect and said confidently, “We are ready for any emergency.”

Knowing that nickel-based batteries sitting in chargers have been weakened by
memory, the representative asked the officer to hand over a battery from the charger to do
a validation check. He obliged and within seconds into the test, the analyzer indicated a
fail condition. In an effort to make good, the officer grabbed another battery from the
charger, slid it into the battery analyzer and it also failed. Subsequent packs were tested
with the same failing results.

Such scenarios are not isolated, and in most cases even the operators in charge do not
know about the condition of batteries on standby. If the failure were known, lack of funds
and political considerations would likely stand in the way of a fix. A maintenance program
that mandates periodic verification of battery readiness would prevent the system from
falling into disrepair. All the operator can do meanwhile is pray that no emergency will
occur.

A user group that relies heavily on batteries is the military. Defense organizations take
great pride in acquiring the best-performing equipment. When it comes to batteries,
however, there are exceptions and batteries often escape the scrutiny of military
inspection. Auditors pass them on visual appearance rather than performance.
Maintenance requirements are frequently ignored and little effort is made to keep track of
capacity, cycle count and age. In time, weak batteries get mixed up with new ones and
soldiers begin carrying rocks instead of batteries. Figure 10-2 illustrates this situation in a
cartoon format.

Figure 10-2: Soldier carries rocks instead of batteries

Maintenance keeps deadwood out of the military arsenal.


Courtesy of Cadex

1 3S1P refers to three single cells in series to attain a nominal voltage of 10.8V.


Chapter 11 | Cost of Mobile Power

Lifting off in a large airplane is always exhilarating. At a full weight of almost 400 tons,
the Boeing 747 requires 90 megawatts of power to get airborne. Takeoff is the most
demanding part of the journey, and when the plane reaches cruising altitude the power
consumption decreases to half.

Powerful engines were used also when the mighty Queen Mary was launched in 1934.
The 81,000-ton ocean liner measuring 300 meters (1,000ft) in length was propelled by
four steam turbines producing a total power of 160,000hp (120 megawatts). While in
service, the ship carried 3,000 souls and traveled at a speed of 28.5 knots (52km/h). The
Queen Mary is now retired in Long Beach, California.

Battery Against Fossil Fuel

Large propulsion systems are only practical with internal combustion engines, and fossil
fuel serves as a cheap and readily available power source. Low energy-to-weight ratio in
terms of net calorific value (NCV), as well as a relatively short life span, makes batteries
unsuitable beyond a given application. While fossil fuel delivers a NCV of 12,000Wh/kg,
a manganese type lithium-ion battery offers 120Wh/kg, which is one hundred times less
per weight. Even at a low efficiency of 25 percent, the internal combustion engine
outperforms the best battery in terms of energy-to-weight ratio. The capacity of a battery
would need to increase twenty-fold before it could compete head-to-head with fossil fuel.

Another limitation of battery propulsion over fossil fuel is the fuel by weight. While the
weight diminishes as it is being consumed, the battery has the same deadweight whether
fully charged or empty. This puts limitations on EV driving distance and would make the
electric airplane impractical. Furthermore, the combustion engine delivers full power at
freezing temperatures and continues to perform well with advancing age, a trait that is not
achievable with the battery. A battery that is a few years old may deliver only half of the
rated capacity.

Power from Primary Batteries
Energy from non-rechargeable batteries is most expensive in terms of cost per kilowatt-
hours (kWh). Primary batteries are used for low-power applications such as wristwatches,
remote controls, electric keys and children’s toys. Military in combat, light beacons and
remote repeater stations also use primaries because charging is not practical. Table 11-1
estimates the storage capability and cost per kWh of primary batteries.

Table 11-1: Energy and cost comparison of primary alkaline cells. Energy from primary batteries is most expensive;
cost increases with smaller battery sizes.

Power from Secondary Batteries
Improved runtimes, lower unit price and the convenience of recharging have shifted many
portable applications previously reserved for primary batteries to rechargeable batteries.
Table 11-2 compares the cost of power with rechargeable batteries. The cost is based on
battery price and the number of possible discharge/charge cycles. The analysis does not
include electricity for charging or the cost of purchasing and maintaining charging
equipment. The table compares commercial battery packs used for communications,
computing or medical devices.

Table 11-2: Energy and cost comparison using rechargeable batteries. Older technologies have lower cost/kWh than
newer systems; larger cells are most cost-effective. The costs are commercial packs at estimated over-the-counter prices.

Power from Other Sources
With dwindling fossil fuel supply, governments and the private sector are studying
alternate energies. Table 11-3 compares the cost to generate 1kW of power by taking into
account the initial investment, adding the consumption of fuel and including the eventual
replacement of the system. Power from the electrical utility grid is most cost-effective;
consumers in industrialized countries pay between $0.05 and $0.25US per kWh. (The
typical daily energy consumption per household is 25kW.) Gasoline (and equivalent) is the
most economical portable fuel.

Table 11-3: Cost of generating 1kW of energy. The table includes the initial investment, fuel consumption,
maintenance and eventual replacement of the equipment. The figures are estimates at the time of writing.

The fuel cell is most effective in converting fuel to electricity, but high equipment cost
makes this power source expensive in terms of cost per kWh. In virtually all applications,
power from the fuel cell is considerably more expensive than from conventional methods.

We now look at the energy that our bodies consume. An active man requires 3,500
calories per day to stay fit, which relates to roughly 4,000 watts in a 24-hour day (1 food
calorie = 1.16 watt-hour). Traveling on foot covers about 40km (25 miles) per day and a
bicycle increases the distance by a factor of four to 160km (100 miles). Eating two
potatoes and a sausage for lunch can propel a bicyclist for the entire afternoon, covering
40km (25 miles), as I have experienced myself. The human body is amazingly efficient in
converting food to energy.

Table 11-4 compares the energy per passenger/kilometer for a loaded Boeing 747, the
retired Queen Mary ocean liner, a gas-guzzling SUV, a fit person on a bicycle, and a
person walking on foot. The figures are estimated.

 23

Table 11-4: Power needs of different transportation modes. In terms of high-speed transportation, air travel consumes
the least amount of energy per passenger-km. The boat is efficient for slow and heavy freight. The absolute lowest
energy consumption is the bicycle.

Bicycles are by far the most effective form of transportation. Comparing the energy
consumption of a bicycle to that of a car, a cyclist would consume only 0.4 liter of fuel per
100km (630mpg). Walking is also efficient; it uses about one liter per 100km (228mpg).
The problem with self-powered propulsion is the limited travel range before fatigue sets
in.

In terms of energy usage, cars are one of the least efficient modes of transportation. The
internal combustion engine utilizes only 25 percent of the net calorific value from the fuel
for propulsion. The calculation looks even worse when taking into account the weight of
the vehicle with a single passenger, the driver. The ratio of machine to man is typically
ten-to-one. When accelerating a 1.5-ton vehicle, less than two percent of the energy moves
the 75kg (165lb) driver, his briefcase and the lunch bag; 98 percent goes to heat and
friction. Even a modern jet plane has better fuel efficiency than a car. A fully occupied
Airbus 340 gets 3.4l/100km (70mpg), cruising at 950km/h (594mph).

Trains are one of the most efficient modes of transportation. The 36km Yamanote circle
line connecting major urban centers in Tokyo carries 3.5 million passengers per day.
During rush hour, the 11-car train runs every 150 seconds. Such a passenger volume
would be unthinkable by private cars on city streets. Trains are also economical to move
freight. Transporting one ton of freight consumes only 0.65 liters of fuel per 100km
(362mpg).

Affluent societies want personal transportation, but with a large critical mass driving
vehicles on government-funded highways with minimal contribution by the drivers and
without mandated limits, this free-roaming lifestyle is taking a toll on our energy
resources. Developing countries also desire personal transportation. As car become
affordable to them, they will begin consuming fossil fuel too and this will increase the
need for hydrocarbons further. According to the US Department of Energy, 71 percent of
the oil consumed in the USA is for transportation. Out of this, 51 percent goes to
passenger cars and light trucks. Smaller vehicles and the development of efficient rail
systems could cut the energy for transportation in half. (See “Peaking of Oil,” on page
285.)

Alternate Fuels for Transportation
Governments are exploring ways to reduce the dependency on fossil fuel and to lower
emissions. They do this by promoting the electric car. This is done in good faith, but
looking at Figure 11-5 we may be facing an impossible task. Many readers will agree that
the success of personal transportation was only made possible with the abundance of oil at
very low price in terms of net calorific value. The notion of driving a large vehicle for
long distances may not be transferable with battery propulsion, even with government
subsidies. Today’s batteries are weak contenders against petroleum, and the chart below
demonstrates this. Li-ion, the battery choice for the electric vehicle, is hardly visible; the
90 percent efficiency of the electric motor does not make up for the low net calorific
value.

Hydrogen is also being dwarfed by petroleum. The slightly better efficiency of the PEM
fuel cell in energy conversion compared to the IC engine has only a marginal benefit. In
addition, hydrogen cannot be pumped from the earth as oil and needs energy to generate.
Hydrogen can be seen as portable energy storage that needs energy to produce, similar to
charging a battery.

Let us conserve liquid fossil fuel because alternative energies will be more expensive.
Daimler’s CEO, Dieter Zetsche, knows this and stressed at a 2010 meeting in Stuttgart,
Germany, that major research and developments are needed now because, “in the long run
there’s no alternative to the electric vehicle.” EV makers know that the investment is
speculative and that the return will be moderate for some time to come. The success of the
electric vehicle will ultimately lie on the battery. Performance, longevity and price will be
the deciding factors.


Figure 11-5: Net calorific values of fuels with conversion efficiencies. The net calorific values of diesel and gasoline
surpass hydrogen and Li-ion. The conversion efficiency refers to thermal output and does not include friction and drag.

* CNG (compressed natural gas) is 250 bars (3,625psi) ** Hydrogen is at 350 bar (5,000psi)

Net Calorific Value

Since the beginning of time, mankind had a good selection of fuels at his disposal and
Table 11-6 provides the net calorific value of ancient and modern fuels by mass (kg) and
volume (liter). With the exception of hydrogen by mass, hydrocarbons offer the highest
energy by weight. Hydrocarbons are petroleum, natural gas and coal, which are derived
from living matter of past geological times. The sun, the source of all life, provided these
canned energies.

Oil and natural gas can be drawn from the earth with minimal preparation, but hydrogen
needs energy to produce. This is similar to charging a battery, spinning up a flywheel or
pressurizing a tank. In addition, the storage and delivery of hydrogen is more difficult than
fossil fuels and in terms of yield, energy by volume provides the truer picture.

The deciding factors when choosing a fuel for heating and propulsion are availability,
convenience and cost. Fossil fuels are one of the cheapest, most efficient and readily
available energies. Pollution and long-term sustainability are less important while the
supply lasts.

 45

Table 11-6: Energy densities of fossil fuel and electrochemical batteries
Fossil fuel carries roughly 100 times the energy per mass compared to Li-ion.

Complied from various sources. Values are approximate.

1 Cycle life is based on battery receiving maintenance.

2 1 joule is the energy of 1A at 1V for 1 second, or 1 watt/s, or 0.238 calorie/s; 4.186 joules raise the temperature of 1g
of water by 1° Celsius; 1,000 joules are 0.277Wh.
3 1 joule is the energy of 1A at 1V for 1 second, or 1 watt/s, or 0.238 calorie/s; 4.186 joules raise the temperature of 1g
of water by 1° Celsius; 1,000 joules are 0.277Wh.
4 Hydrogen has the highest energy to mass ratio (Wh/kg), but energy by volume (Wh/l) reveals a truer picture in terms
of storage and delivery. Diesel has almost 14 times the specific energy of pure hydrogen by volume (750Wh/l at 350 bar
or 5,000psi)
5 Hydrogen has the highest energy to mass ratio (Wh/kg), but energy by volume (Wh/l) reveals a truer picture in terms
of storage and delivery. Diesel has almost 14 times the specific energy of pure hydrogen by volume (750Wh/l at 350 bar
or 5,000psi)








Fossil fuel produces 12,000Wh of

energy per kilogram; a battery holds

120Wh per kilogram. Even with

the low efficiency of a combustion

engine, fossil fuel delivers 30 times

more energy than lithium-ion.



Chapter 12 | Electric Powertrain

Propulsion by an electric powertrain is not new — Ferdinand Porsche designed a hybrid
vehicle in 1898. Called the Lohner-Porsche carriage, the hybrid function served as an
electrical transmission rather than power boost, which is the primary purpose of the
current hybrids. With Mr. Porsche in the driver’s seat, the car broke several speed records
in Austria, including a record set at the Exelberg Rally in 1901.

Another example of an early hybrid was the 1915 Woods Motor Vehicle built in
Chicago. It used a four-cylinder internal combustion engine in conjunction with an electric
motor. Below 25km/h (15mph) the electric motor propelled the vehicle, and at higher
speeds the gasoline engine kicked in to take the vehicle up to a top velocity of 55km/h
(35mph). As part of the Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, Victor Wouk installed a
hybrid powertrain in a 1972 GM Buick Skylark, but the EPA (US Environmental
Protection Agency) canceled the program in 1976. Meanwhile, Honda and Toyota made
headway by commercializing fuel efficient hybrid cars.

Reducing Fuel Consumption

Governments have been trying to reduce fuel consumption and lower pollution without
imposing drastic change on the driving habits of the motorist, and the hybrid car fits the
bill well, especially in large cities. So strong is the acceptance on the political scene that
the move has crossed the Atlantic. Germany and France, with their fuel-efficient and
clean-running diesel engines, are showing a good face by adding hybrid versions to their
lines of cars. However, a visit to the auto show in Frankfurt in 2009 proved that muscle
cars still attract the largest crowds, while vehicles with a low carbon footprint sat
neglected on the show floor.

Batteries play an important role in electric powertrains, and the price per kilowatt-hour
varies according to battery type. Table 12-1 lists typical batteries for mobility. At $120 per
kWh, a deep-cycle-battery for golf cars is most economical, followed by starter and
forklift batteries. Complex manufacturing, rare raw materials, electronic safety circuits
and management systems make newer technologies more expensive than older systems.
High-volume production will moderate the price only marginally. Batteries for
powertrains are about $1,000 per kWh.

The electric vehicle will tell how far the battery can go, and we hope for success.
Advancing further and deploying batteries for heavy trains, large ships and passenger
airplanes makes little sense today. Current battery technologies are not yet suited to
replace petroleum; the NCV of a battery is low, the price is high and the life span short.
Finding a new energy source comparable to petroleum products will be difficult to find.

12

Table 12-1: Battery sizes of wheeled mobility
The estimated cost/kWh is lowest with lead acid and most expensive with lithium-ion.

Hybrid Electric Vehicle
The purpose of the modern hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is to conserve fuel without
sacrificing performance, and the HEV achieves this by using an electric motor to assist the
internal combustion (IC) engine on acceleration and harness kinetic energy when braking.
The IC engine turns off at a traffic light and the electric motor propels the car through
slow-moving traffic. This saves 10–12 percent in fuel, reduces pollution and lowers the
noise level. On full power, both the IC and electric motors engage simultaneously for
optimal acceleration.

The hybrid power sharing has advantages in that the car can be fitted with a smaller IC
engine, which can be tuned for maximum fuel efficiency rather than high torque. This
marriage works well because an electric motor of the same horsepower has better torque
for acceleration than the sluggish IC engine. The IC engine works best for highway
cruising.

The HEV uses a mechanical powertrain to transfer power from the IC engine to the
wheels, and in this respect the HEV resembles an ordinary vehicle with a crankshaft and a
clutch. The difference is the sharing of the propulsion with the electric motor. This type of
hybrid is known as parallel configuration. Early models ran on lead acid, but these
batteries were too heavy. Today, Honda and Toyota use nickel-metal-hydride and are
gradually switching to lithium-ion. Besides higher capacities, Li-ion is easier to charge
and has a lower self-discharge than NiMH, but the batteries are substantially more
expensive.

The HEV battery consists of cylindrical or prismatic cells connected in series to attain
several hundred volts. Airflow around the cells provides cooling, and many designs use
cabin air to keep the battery at a moderate temperature while driving. The warm air heats
the battery when cold, and air-conditioned air keeps it cool in warm climates. To improve
temperature control, some batteries use liquid coolants. Figure 12-2 shows a
demonstration pack of an early Toyota hybrid car battery that is air-cooled.

Figure 12-2: Nickel-metal-hydride battery

The air-cooled battery is installed behind the back seat.

Courtesy of Toyota Museum, Nagaya, Japan

Battery longevity is a critical requirement for a hybrid car. While a 3- to 5-year battery
life is acceptable in a consumer product, such short service would pose a major drawback
for a hybrid battery costing $2,000–3,000. Battery replacement would constitute an
expense comparable to a motor or transmission overhaul.

Most batteries for HEVs are guaranteed for eight years. To meet this long service life,
the cells are optimized for longevity rather than small size and low weight, as is the case
with portable consumer products. The battery manufacturers achieve this in part by using
a thicker and more durable separator. To reduce stress, the battery operates in the 20–80
percent state-of-charge bandwidth, or roughly 3.5– 4.0V/cell for Li-ion, rather than the
customary 4.20V/cell.

HEV batteries avoid deep discharges and in many ways operate similarly to a starter
battery by applying short power bursts for acceleration rather than long, continuous
discharges. Rarely will an HEV battery discharge to a low 20 percent state-of-charge
(SoC). Under normal use, a parallel HEV consumes less than two percent of the available
battery capacity per mile (1.6km). Capacity fade can go unnoticed, and an HEV battery
will still work well with less than half the original capacity.

Figure 12-3 shows the battery capacity of six hybrid cars at a 256,000km (160,000
mile) end of life. The US Department of Energy’s FreedomCAR Vehicle Technologies
Program (FCVT) performed the test in 2006 according to SAE J1634 recommended
practices. It included the Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius. The hybrid battery
of the two Honda Civic vehicles had 68 percent remaining capacity; the Insight had 85
percent and the Prius 39 percent. Even with lower capacity, the fuel efficiency was not
severely affected. The Insight showed a 1.2mpg (0.12L/km) decrease in fuel economy
during the test, while the Prius reduced the fuel efficiency by 3.2 mpg (0.33L/km). The
air-conditioning was turned off in both cases.

Figure 12-3: End-of-life battery capacity of HEVs
At 256,000km (160,000 miles), the two Honda Civic vehicles had 68% capacity, the Insight 85% and the Prius 39%. The
capacity fade did not affect the fuel efficiency by much.

Courtesy of FreedomCAR Vehicle Technologies Program

Paradox of the Hybrid Vehicle

As good as a hybrid may be, the car is not without paradoxes. At a conference addressing
advanced automotive batteries, an HEV opponent challenged a maker of HEV vehicles by
saying that a diesel car has better fuel economy than a hybrid. Being a trained salesman,
the HEV manufacturer flatly denied the claim. Who is right? Perhaps both. On the
highway, the diesel car is clearly more fuel-efficient but the HEV has better fuel economy
in city driving. Harnessing regenerative braking and accelerating with a high-torque
electric motor offers advantages that the German diesel cannot provide. Combining the
two would provide the best solution, but low fuel prices do not justify the high cost of a
diesel-hybrid.

Someone asked further: “What would happen if the HEV depletes the battery while
driving up a long mountain pass? Will the car have enough power with the small IC
engine?” “Yes,” the respondent replied. “The car would make it without batteries but
would have marginal power to maneuver.”

To compensate for this eventuality, some HEV manufacturers offer SUVs featuring a
full-sized IC engine of 250hp and an electrical motor of 150hp — 400hp in total. Such
vehicles will surely find buyers, especially if the government provides grant money for
being “green.” It’s unfortunate that consumers purchasing small cars or taking public
transportation won’t qualify for such a generous handout.

Wolfgang Hatz, the head of powertrain for Volkswagen Group, said that hybrid
technology is a very expensive way to save a small amount of fuel and states that
Volkswagen only makes hybrids because of political pressure. Hatz argues that Toyota
would have a problem producing the hybrid cars in high volumes and points out that the
automotive industry would go bankrupt if all cars needed to be hybrid. Hatz supports the
modern diesel as the most energy-efficient motor, especially on highways.

Hybrids are socially acceptable and governments support them with subsidies because
they don’t impose a lifestyle change for the voters. But simply making an SUV a hybrid
by adding batteries and an electric powertrain does not provide a lasting solution to the
dwindling oil supply. Driving a two-ton vehicle eats up precious resources, even if part of
the 400hp propulsion system comes from a “clean” motor. Common sense reminds us that
we should go back to lighter vehicles with a fraction of the horsepower of present
monsters.

Volkswagen may have a solution — the 1-liter Car (Figure 12-4). It is so called because
the concept vehicle burns only one liter of fuel per 100km. To prove the concept, VW
chairman Dr. Ferdinand Piëch drove the car from their headquarters in Wolfsburg to
Hamburg, Germany, for a shareholders meeting. He averaged just 0.89 liters per 100km
(317mpg) along the way.


Figure 12-4: Volkswagen’s 1-liter Car

The 1-liter Car is said to be the most economical car in the world. VW plans limited production of a hybrid-based 1-liter
car by 2013.

Courtesy of Volkswagen AG

Aerodynamics and weight are key to low fuel consumption. While a typical car has a
drag coefficient of 0.30, the 1-liter car comes in at only 0.16. Carbon fiber and a
magnesium frame reduce the weight to 290kg (640lb). The one-cylinder diesel engine
generates 8.5hp (6.3kW) and the 6.5-litre (1.43 gallon) fuel tank has a range of 650
kilometers (400 miles) at an average fuel consumption of 0.99 liter per 100km (238mpg).
In 2013, the second edition L1 based on a hybrid system will go into limited production.
Even if fuel prices were to increase tenfold, this car would still provide economical
transportation, and without government subsidy.

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
The next step towards electrifying the powertrain is moving to the plug-in hybrid electric
vehicle (PHEV). The PHEV is a commuter car with a serial configuration that runs mostly
on battery. It has no mechanical powertrain and relies solely on electric motors for
propulsion. Instead of the IC engine transferring kinetic power directly to the wheels, as is
common with the HEV, the IC engine engages only when the batteries get low to activate
a generator and produce electricity for the electric motors. A fully charged battery is good
for about 50km (30 miles), and the IC engine with generator has adequate power to drive
beyond this distance.

The PHEV is ideal for commuting and doing errands in the neighborhood. When
driving on the batteries there is no gasoline consumption, nor is there a gas tax and the
roads are virtually free to use. PHEV users will notice only small increases in their utility
bills for charging the batteries at home. No more hefty bills at gas stations — or so it
seems.

Unlike the parallel HEV that relies on the battery for brief moments, the PHEV battery
is in charge depletion mode, meaning that the battery must work harder than with the
HEV. This adds stress and reduces longevity. While a capacity drop to 39 percent, as seen
on the Toyota Prius battery in Table 12-3, has little effect on the overall performance of an
HEV, the same loss on a PHEV would reduce the driving distance from the specified
50km to 20km (30 to 12 miles) before the IC engine kicks in. This would likely call for a
battery replacement.

The Chevy Volt is one of the first PHEV cars. The 181kg (400 lb) battery has 220 Li-
ion cells and stores 16kWh of energy to drive a 149hp (111kW) electric motor. Each
prismatic cell has the size and shape of a paperback book. Temperature control keeps the
battery at 20–25°C (68–77°F) during driving and while charging. An 115VAC outlet fills
the battery in eight hours; a 230VAC reduces the charging time to three hours. GM
specifies a commute of 64km (40 miles) before the 1.4-liter four-cylinder IC engine kicks
in to activate the 53kW AC generator that powers the electric motors. Capacity fade with
aging will manifest itself in reduced driving distance before the IC engine kicks in.

As good as the PHEV sounds, the long-term savings may be smaller than expected,
especially if a battery replacement is necessary during the life of a car. With careful use
and proper maintenance, a modern car can go for 15–20 years on the original IC engine; a
battery replacement with the PHEV will likely be necessary at the car’s mid life point.
Menahem Anderman, a leading expert on advanced automobile batteries, says we still
have no suitable battery for the PHEV and expresses concern that the reliability of lithium-
ion technology for automotive applications has not yet been proven.

To obtain an acceptable driving range, the PHEV needs a battery that is five times larger
than that of the HEV. While the HEV gets by with a moderate-size battery of 1–2kW, the
PHEV battery is in the 5–15kWh range and costs up to $12,000. Car manufacturers must
provide an eight-year warranty and the capacity threshold has yet to be determined.

Battery aging is an issue that car manufacturers avoid mentioning in fear of turning
potential buyers away, and this concern increases with the PHEV. While we accept
runtime declines on our cell phones and laptops and adjust to lower expectations
accordingly, a car buyer paying big money for new technology may not be so forgiving.
The motorist is familiar with ample power and minimal degradation in performance as the
car ages and when driving in cold temperatures. The battery cannot match this
performance, and the owner will need to tolerate a decrease in distance driven during
winter, as well as accept a small reduction in delivered mileage with each advancing year
due to battery aging. While a $2,000–3,000 battery replacement is feasible for an HEV, the
$10,000–12,000 PHEV battery will determine the life of the car.

 Modern cars do more than provide transportation; they also include amenities for safety,
comfort and pleasure. The most basic of these are the headlights and windshield wipers.
Buyers also want heating and air-conditioning, services that are taken for granted with IC-
powered vehicles but will need to be used sparingly in a PHEV. Heat that is a natural by-
product from the IC engine must be generated with battery power in the PHEV. The larger
concern is air-conditioning; an AC unit to cool the cabin draws 3–5kW of power.

Many PHEV buyers will overlook these concerns; they value the environmental benefit
and the pleasure of driving a vehicle powered by electricity. The drivers will adapt to a
new lifestyle routine — wherein they charge their vehicle at night when the electric grid
has excess capacity and drive measured distances during the day. Users of these cars will
also appreciate the new charging stations being installed at workplaces and shopping
malls.

Electric Vehicle
As mentioned, cars with electric powertrains have been around for more than 100 years.
At the turn of the century, a car buyer had three choices of propulsion system: electric,
steam, and internal combustion (IC) engine, of which the IC engine was the least common

The electric cars appealed to the upper class and the vehicles were finished with fancy
interiors and expensive materials. Although they were higher in price than the steam and
gasoline-powered vehicles, the wealthy chose the electric car for its quiet and comfortable
ride over the vibration, smell and high maintenance of gasoline-powered counterpart. Best
of all, the electric vehicle (EV) did not require changing gears. Back then, the knuckle
busting, wrist-wrenching chore of shifting gears was the most dreaded task for driving a
gasoline-powered car. Nor did the EV need manual cranking to start the motor, a task the
upper class did not want to be seen doing. Since the only good roads were in town, the
limited range of the EV was no problem, and most of the driving was local commuting.
Production of the EV peaked in 1912 and continued until the 1920s.

The battery of choice for the EV was lead acid. For an added fee, the buyer could fit the
Detroit Electric with a nickel-iron (NiFe) battery, a technology Thomas Edison promoted.
NiFe had a cell voltage of 1.2V, was robust and could endure overcharging and repeated
full discharging. Being a good businessman, Edison continued to promote NiFe over lead
acid by boasting its good performance at subfreezing and hot temperatures. Then in 1914,
a devastating fire destroyed the Edison factory and the popularity for this battery began to
decline. On a purely technological level, NiFe provided only a slightly better specific
energy to lead acid and was expensive to manufacture. In addition, the battery performed
poorly at low temperatures and the self-discharge was 20–40 percent a month,
considerably higher than lead acid.

The Detroit Electric, one of the most popular EVs then, was said to get 130km (80
miles) between battery charges. Its top speed was 32km/h (20mph), a pace considered
adequate for driving. Physicians and women were the main buyers. Thomas Edison, John
D. Rockefeller, Jr. and Clara Ford, the wife of Henry Ford, drove Detroit Electrics. Figure
12-5 shows Thomas Edison with his 1914 Detroit Electric model.

Figure 12-5: Thomas Edison with a 1914 Detroit Electric, model 47

Thomas Edison felt that nickel-iron was superior to lead acid for the EV and promoted his more expensive batteries.

Courtesy of National Museum of American History

Henry Ford’s mass-production and cost-cutting measures in 1912 were not the only
reason for the shift towards gasoline-powered cars. The invention of the starter motor, the
need to travel longer distances, and the discovery of Texas crude oil made the IC engine
more attractive and affordable to the general public.

The EV became a thing of the past until the early 1990s when the California Air
Resources Board (CARB) began pushing for more fuel-efficient and lower-emission
vehicles. It was the CARB zero-emission policy that prompted General Motors to produce
the EV1. Available for lease between 1996–1999, the EV1 initially ran on an 18kWh lead
acid battery. The lead acid was later replaced with a 26kWh NiMH pack. Although the
NiMH gave an impressive driving range of 260km (160 miles), the EV1 was not without
problems. Manufacturing costs rose to three times the cost of a regular gasoline-powered
car, and in 2001 politicians changed the CARB requirements, which prompted General
Motors to withdraw the EV1, to the dismay of many owners. The 2006 documentary film
Who Killed the Electric Car? gives a mixed impression of government-initiated programs
for cleaner transportation.

To match the range of an IC-powered vehicle, the EV needs a battery capable of
delivering 25–40kWh. This is twice the battery size of a PHEV and 10 times that of the
HEV. The electro-chemical battery is not the only expense added to the EV; the power
electronics to manage the battery make up a large part of the vehicle cost. An EV without
a battery is roughly the same cost as a traditional gasoline-powered car. Figure 12-6 shows
the battery of the Nissan Leaf as part of the under-chassis installation.

Figure 12-6: Cutaway battery of Nissan Leaf electric vehicle. The Leaf includes a 24kWh lithium-ion battery with a
city driving range of 160km (100 miles). The battery fits under the floor of the car, weighs 272kg (600lb) and is
estimated to cost $15,600 (2010).

Courtesy of Nissan Motors

A valid concern with the EV is the limited driving range, especially in cold and hot
weather. Designed to go 160km (100 miles) on a charge, the BMW Mini E traveled about
half that distance in cold weather before running out of power. Additional energy is drawn
to heat the cabin and battery performance drops in cold temperatures. While thermal
technologies are making advances, achieving a comfortable cabin environment remains an
issue with most EV designs. To conserve energy, EV drivers use the heat and air-
conditioning sparingly and drive in a reasonable manner.

The Mini E takes 6–8 hours to fully charge the battery on a regular 115VAC outlet.
High-power outlets (220–240VAC) can reduce the charge time to 3–5 hours, and high-
power public fill-up stations can charge a battery in two hours. In most cases it’s the
available electrical outlet and not the battery that governs charge times. Charging a 40kWh
battery in six minutes, as some battery manufacturers might claim possible, would require
400kW of power. An ordinary 115VAC electrical outlet provides only 1.5kW, and a
230VAC, 40A kitchen stove outlet delivers 9kW. (The electric kitchen stove is often the
household appliance that draws the most power. It feeds off a 230VAC, 40-ampere
circuit.)

Car manufacturer Tesla Motors focuses on building EVs that generate zero emissions
with very high performance. Its electric Roadster boasts a zero-to-96km (zero-to-60 mp)
acceleration of 3.9 seconds. The 7,000 Li-ion cells store 53kWh of electrical power and
deliver a driving range of 320km (200 miles). Liquid cooling prevents the cells from
exceeding 35°C (95°F). To achieve the five-year warranty, Tesla charges the Li-cobalt
cells to only 4.10V instead of 4.20V/cell. The electronics circuits inhibit charging at
freezing temperatures. At $130,000, this car turns heads and becomes a discussion item,
however, the $40,000 cost of a replacement battery could cause concern for long-term
Tesla owners.

A battery for the electric powertrain currently costs between $1,000 and $1,200 per
kWh. According to the Boston Consulting Group (BCG), relief is in sight. BCG claims
that the price of Li-ion will fall to $750 per kWh within the next decade. Meanwhile,
batteries for consumer electronics are only US$250–400 per kWh. High volume,
automated manufacturing, lower safety requirements and shorter calendar life make this
low price possible. BCG predicts that Li-ion batteries for the powertrain will eventually
match these consumer prices, and the cost of a 15kWh battery will drop to about $6,000
from $16,000.

The largest decrease in battery prices is expected to occur between now and 2020, with
a more gradual decline thereafter. According to BCG, the anticipated calendar life of the
battery will be 10–15 years. E-One Moli Energy, a manufacturer of lithium-ion cells for
power tools and electric vehicles, points out that the cost of Li-ion can be reduced to $400
per kWh in high volume, however, the peripheral electronics managing the battery,
including heating and cooling, will remain high, essentially doubling the price of a pack.
Reductions are also possible here, and E-One Moli Energy predicts that the electronics
will only make up 20 percent of the cost of an EV battery in five years. These forecasts are
speculative, and other analysts express concern that the carmakers may not be able to
achieve the long-term cost target without a major breakthrough in battery technology.
They say that the current battery cost is 3 to 5 times too high to appeal to the consumer
market.

On the surface, driving on electricity is cheaper than burning gasoline but today’s low
fuel prices, uncertainty about the battery’s service life, along with unknown abuse
tolerances and high replacement costs, will reduce the incentive for buyers to switch from
a proven concept to an electric vehicle. If a driver wants the 500km range between fill-ups
that is achievable with a gasoline-powered car, the battery would need a capacity of
75kWh according to Technology Roadmaps Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(EV/PHEV). At an estimated $400 price tag per kWh, such a battery would cost over
$30,000 and weigh nearly a ton.

Technology Roadmaps compares the energy consumption and cost of gasoline versus
electric propulsion as follows: An EV requires between 150 and 200Wh per km depending
on speed and terrain. At a consumption of 200Wh/km and an electricity price of $0.15 per
kWh, the energy cost to drive an EV translates to $0.03 per km. This compares to $0.06
per km for an equal-size gasoline-powered car and $0.05 per km for diesel. The price
estimations exclude equipment costs, service and eventual replacement of the battery and
IC engine.

To prepare for the EV market, researchers and battery manufacturers have invested
significant resources to develop better battery technologies, and many are taking
advantage of generous government incentives. But there is a danger. For the sake of
optimal specific energy, some start-up companies are experimenting with aggressive
design concepts using volatile chemicals that compromise safety. They may push the
envelope by announcing impressive advances, emphasizing only the pros and squelching
the cons. Such behavior will get media attention and entice venture capitalists to invest,
however, hype contributes little in finding a solution that will improve existing battery
technologies.

The battery will determine the success of the EV, and until improvements are achieved
in terms of higher specific energy, longer service life and lower cost, the electric
powertrain may be limited to a niche market. While governments spend large sums in the
hope of improving current battery technologies, we must realize that the electrochemical
battery has limitations. This was made evident when motorists tested eight current and
future models with electric powertrains and attained driving ranges that were one-third
less than estimated. Table 12-7 lists a rundown of range and charge times. The electric
cars were tested in real-life conditions on highways, over mountain passes and under
winter conditions in 2010.

To make the electric vehicle affordable in the near future, early models will need to be
light and restricted to short driving distances of 160km (100 miles) or less. Battery weight
and cost will set these limitations. The successful EV will likely be a subcompact
commuter car owned by drivers who adhere to a tightly regimented driving routine and
follow disciplined recharging schedules. If the battery delivers as promised, these drivers
will indeed realize cost savings and reduce greenhouse gases. Another benefit is reduced
noise on city streets.

The environmental benefit of driving an EV is limited unless renewable resources
provide electricity to charge the batteries. Burning coal and fossil fuel to generate
electricity simply shifts pollution out of congested cities to the countryside. The electricity
in the USA is being generated by burning coal (50%), natural gas (20%) and nuclear
(20%). Renewable resources to generate electricity are hydro (8%) and solar and wind
(2%). One of the advantages of the EV is that it can be charged at night when the power
grid has extra capacity.


Table 12-7: Electric vehicles with battery type and driving range (2010)
The travel distance is less than advertised; battery aging will shorten the range further.

Going electric may also beg the question, “Without fuel tax revenue, who will pay for
road construction and maintenance?” Roads cost governments billions to build and repair,
and EV drivers are entitled to use them virtually for free. Higher taxes would eventually
need to cover these expenses. This poses an unfair burden for commuters using public
transportation. They pay double: the tax to pay for highways and the fare for the train.

The high cost of the EV against the lure of cheap and readily available fossil fuel will
make the transition to a cleaner way of living difficult. Government subsidies may be
needed to make “green” cars affordable to the masses. Many argue, however, that this
handout of public money is unfair and suggest that the tax dollars should go to building
more efficient public transportation systems.

The goal of governments should be to limit the number of cars on roads by offering
different modes of transportation. Commuter trains are one of the most efficient ways of
moving people comfortably and fast. Changing the focus away from cars and highways
would, for the first time in 100 years, hand the cities back to the people who are the
rightful owners. Such a change in direction would make our dwelling places more
enjoyable, and future generations would thank their forefathers for the prudent planning.
It’s worth noting that some of the most desirable cities were built before the invention of
the car. Designers had the movement of people in mind. This, I believe, was done more
out of necessity than foresight. Europe is leading in the list of the most desirable and
livable cities; North America trails behind.

Batteries for Electric Cars
Battery manufacturers are tooling up for the electric vehicle, but what would happen if it
failed? Could there be a déjà vu of the fuel cell in the 1990s, or the bio fuels in the last
decade that cannot survive without heavy government subsidies? In 2010, the US
Department of Energy (DOE) has admitted that some critical parameters of Li-ion are not
met. Newer NiMH batteries, which are cheaper and safer than Li-ion, are also suitable for
the electric powertrain but these mature systems are often excluded from government
grants for research.

There are no ideal contenders for the electric powertrain, and lithium-ion remains a
good choice. Out of the five candidates illustrated in Figure 12-8, Li-nickel-manganese-
cobalt (NMC), Li-phosphate and Li-manganese stand out as being superior. The popular
Li-cobalt (not listed) used in consumer products was thought to be not robust enough;
nevertheless, this high energy dense “computer battery” powers the Tesla Roadster and
Smart Fortwo ED.

The illustration compares batteries in terms of safety; specific energy, also known as
capacity; specific power, or the ability to deliver high current on demand; performance, the
ability to function at hot and cold temperatures; life span, which includes the number of
cycles delivered as well as calendar life; and finally cost. The figure does not mention
charge times. All batteries offered for EV powertrains can be charged reasonably fast if a
suitable electrical power outlet is available. A charge time of a few hours is acceptable for
most users, and super-fast charging is the exception. Nor does the table reveal self-
discharge, another battery characteristic that needs scrutiny. In general, Li-ion batteries
have low self-discharge, and this parameter can mostly be ignored when the battery is
new. However, aging when exposed to heat pockets can increase the self-discharge of the
affected cells and cause management problems. Among the EV battery candidates, Li-
phosphate exhibits a higher self-discharge than the other systems.


Figure 12-8: Batteries for electric cars. Challenges, opportunities and outlook for 2020. The compromises are in
safety, specific energy, cost and temperature performance.

Note: The further the shapes extend outwards on the axis, the better the battery will be.
With special permission from the Boston Consulting Group (BCG), © 2010

None of the five battery candidates in Figure 12-8 show a significant advantage over
others, and the size of the spider fields are similar in volume, although different in shape.
Focusing on one strong attribute inevitably discounts another. NCA, for example, has a
high capacity but presents a safety challenge, whereas Li-phosphate is a safer system but
has lower capacity. In the absence of a clear winner, car manufacturers include peripherals
to compensate for the deficiencies. Battery manufacturers in turn assist by custom-
designing the cell to strengthen the important characteristics needed for the application.
Here is a brief summary of the most important characteristics of a battery for the electric
powertrain.

Safety is one of the most important aspects when choosing a battery for the EV. A single
incident blown out of proportion by the media could turn the public against such a vehicle.
Similar concerns occurred 100 years ago when steam engines exploded and gasoline tanks
caught fire. The main concern is a thermal runaway of the battery. Carefully designed
safety circuits with robust enclosures should virtually eliminate this, but the possibility of
a serious accident exists. A battery must also be safe when exposed to misuse and
advancing age.

Life span reflects cycle count and longevity. Most EV batteries are guaranteed for 8–10
years or 160,000km (100,000 miles). Capacity loss through aging is a challenge,
especially in hot climates. Auto manufacturers lack information as to how batteries age
under different user conditions and climates. To compensate for capacity loss, EV
manufacturers increase the size of the batteries to allow for some degradation within the
guaranteed service life.

Performance reflects the condition of the battery when driving the EV in blistering
summer heat and freezing temperatures. Unlike an IC engine that works over a large
temperature range, batteries are sensitive to cold and heat and require some climate
control. In vehicles powered solely by a battery, the energy to moderate the battery
temperature, as well as heat and cool the cabin, comes from the battery.

Specific energy demonstrates how much energy a battery can hold in weight, which
reflects the driving range. It is sobering to realize that in terms of output per weight, a
battery generates only one percent the energy of fossil fuel. One liter of gasoline (1kg)
produces roughly 12kW of energy, whereas a 1kg battery delivers about 120 watts. We
must keep in mind that the electric motor is better than 90 percent efficient while the IC
engine comes in at only about 30 percent. In spite of this difference, the energy storage
capability of a battery will need to double and quadruple before it can compete head-to-
head with the IC engine.

Specific power demonstrates acceleration, and most EV batteries respond well. An
electric motor with the same horsepower has a better torque ratio than an IC engine.

Cost presents a major drawback. There is no assurance that the battery’s target price of
$250–400 per kWh, which BCG predicts, can be met. The mandated protection circuits for
safety, battery managements for status, climate control for longevity and the 8–10-year
warranty add to this challenge. The price of the battery alone amounts to the value of a
vehicle with IC engine, essentially doubling the price of the EV.

Availability of Lithium
The demand for Li-ion batteries is increasing, and finding sufficient supply of lithium as a
raw material is testing the mining industry. A compact EV battery (Nissan Leaf) uses
about 4kg (9 lb) of lithium. If every man, woman and teenager were to drive an electric
car in the future, a lithium shortage could develop and rumor of this happening is already
spreading.

About 70 percent of the world’s lithium comes from brine (salt lakes); the remainder is
derived from hard rock. Research institutes are developing technology to draw lithium
from seawater. China is the largest consumer of lithium. The Chinese believe that future
cars will run on Li-ion batteries and an unbridled supply of lithium is important to them.

 In 2009, total demand for lithium reached almost 92,000 metric tons, of which batteries
consume 26 percent. Figure 12-9 illustrates typical uses of lithium, which include
lubricants, glass, ceramics, pharmaceuticals and refrigeration.

Figure 12-9: Lithium consumption (2008)

Batteries consume the largest share of lithium, and with the advent of the electric vehicle the demand could skyrocket.
For now, the world has enough proven lithium reserves.

Courtesy of Talison Minerals

Most of the known supply of lithium is in Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Australia and
China. The supply is ample and concerns of global shortages are speculative, at least for
the moment. It takes 750 tons of brine, the base of lithium, and 24 months of preparation
to get one ton of lithium in Latin America. Lithium can also be recycled an unlimited
number of times, and 20 tons of spent Li-ion batteries yield one ton of lithium. This will
help the supply, but recycling can be more expensive than harvesting new supply through
mining.

Named after the Greek word “lithos” meaning “stone,” lithium is inexpensive. The raw
material costs a fraction of one cent per watt, or less than 0.1 percent of the battery cost. A
$10,000 battery for a plug-in hybrid contains less than $100 worth of lithium. Shortages
when producing millions of large batteries for vehicles and stationary applications may
increase the price. Cobalt, another component found in some Li-ion batteries, is expensive
and if required in high volume, demand for this hard and lustrous gray metal could cause
global shortages.

At the time of writing, there are no other materials that could replace lithium, nor are
battery systems in development that offer the same or better performance as lithium-ion at
a comparable price. Rather than worrying about a lack of lithium, graphite, the anode
material, could also be in short supply. A large EV battery uses about 25kg (55lb) of anode
material. The process to make anode-grade graphite with 99.99 percent purity is expensive
and produces much waste.

There is also a concern about pending shortages of rare earth materials for permanent
magnets. Electric motors with permanent magnets are among the most energy efficient
and they find their way into EV powertrains. China controls about 95 percent of the global
market for rare earth metals and expects to use most of these resources for its own
production.

Fuel Cell Vehicles
The fuel cell as a propulsion system is in many ways superior to batteries, as it needs to
carry less energy storage devices by weight and volume compared to a vehicle propelled
by batteries alone. Figure 12-10 illustrates the practical travel range of a vehicle powered
by a fuel cell (FC) compared to lead acid, NiMH or Li-ion batteries. One can clearly see
that lead- and nickel-based batteries simply get too heavy when increasing the size to
enable larger distances. In this respect, the fuel cell enjoys similar qualities to the IC
engine in that it can conquer large distances with only the extra weight of fuel.

Figure 12-10: Driving range as a function of energy storage. The logarithmical curves of battery power place
limitations in terms of size and weight when increasing distances between charges. In comparison, the fuel cell and IC
engine share a linear progression.

Note: 35MPa hydrogen tank refers to 5,000psi pressure; 70MPa is 10,000psi.
Courtesy of International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 34, 6005-6020 (2009).

Although the fuel cell assumes the duty of the IC engine in a vehicle, poor response
time and a weak power band make onboard batteries necessary. In this respect, the FC car
resembles an electric vehicle with an onboard power aggregate to keep the batteries
charged. The battery is the master and the fuel cell becomes the slave. On start-up, the
vehicle relies 100 percent on the battery and the fuel cell only begins contributing after
reaching a steady state in 5–30 seconds. During the warm-up period, the battery must also
deliver power to activate the air compressor and pumps. When warm, the FC provides
enough power for cruising, and when the vehicle is accelerating or climbing hills both the
FC and battery provide power. During braking, the kinetic energy is returned to charge the
battery.

The FC of a mid-sized car generates around 85kW, or 114hp. The energy is coupled to
an electric motor with a similar or slightly higher power output. The onboard battery has a
capacity of around 18kW and provides throttle response and power assist when passing
vehicles or climbing hills. The battery serves as a buffer similar to the HEV and does not
get heavily stressed by repeated deep cycling, as is the case with the EV.

Hydrogen costs about twice as much as gasoline, but the high efficiency of the FC
compared to the IC engine in converting fuel to energy gives the same net effect on the
pocketbook, with the benefit of less greenhouse gas and reduced pollution.

Hydrogen is commonly derived from natural gas. Critics might well ask, “Why not burn
natural gas directly in the IC engine instead of converting it to hydrogen through a
reformer and then transforming it to electricity in a fuel cell to feed the electric motors?”
The answer is efficiency. Burning natural gas in a combustion turbine to produce
electricity has an efficiency factor of only 26–32 percent, while using a fuel cell is 35–50
percent efficient. We must keep in mind that the machinery required to support the clean
FC is far more expensive and requires additional maintenance over the more simplistic
burning process.

Complicating matters further is the fact that we have no hydrogen infrastructure, and
the cost of building one is prohibitive. A refueling station capable of reforming natural gas
to hydrogen for the support of 2,300 vehicles costs over $2 million to build. In
comparison, a charging outlet for the EV is less than $1,000, but the refill time would be
longer than with the FC. Meanwhile, we have plenty of gas stations that offer a quick fill-
up of cheap fuel.

Durability and cost are other concerns with the fuel cell, and there have been
encouraging improvements. The service life of an FC in a car driven in normal traffic
conditions has doubled from 1,000 hours to 2,000 hours. The target for 2015 is 5,000
hours, or the full life of a vehicle driving 240,000km (150,000 miles). Further challenge is
cost. The fuel cell costs substantially more to manufacture than an IC engine. As a simple
guideline, the FC vehicle will be more expensive than a plug-in hybrid, and the plug-in
hybrid will cost more than a regular gasoline-powered car. Based on our relatively low
fuel prices, using alternative conversion methods is difficult to justify in terms of cost
savings. The benefit goes to the environment.

1 The e-bike only compares nickel- and lithium-based batteries used in the West.

2 The e-bike only compares nickel- and lithium-based batteries used in the West.


Afterword | Hunger for Energy

In medieval times, King Henry VIII (1491–1547) was already concerned about an energy
shortage. He worried that England could not produce enough wood for heating, cooking
and building houses and urged citizens to conserve. Coal mining in the 1700s lifted this
concern, as an abundant new energy source was made available. Coal soon became the
nucleus of the Industrial Revolution. It powered the steam engine and provided heat for
homes. Soon, burning large amounts of coal began to darken the skies over cities and
cause health problems.

Hooked on Cheap Energy
In 1859, explorers discovered oil, first in Pennsylvania and then in Texas. In 1900, the
Middle East became a key supplier of oil. By World War I, Mexico, Venezuela and Iran
began pumping the liquid energy as well. Oil was cheap, plentiful, easy to transport, safe
to use and relatively clean to burn. It soon became the preferred energy resource. Figure
A1 illustrates the first US oil well in northwestern Pennsylvania.

Figure A1: First US oil well

Searching for an alternative to scarce whale oil, Edwin L. Drake erected a derrick and started drilling for oil using an old
steam engine. To prevent the shaft from collapsing, he lowered the drill inside an iron pipe. In 1859, Drake found oil but
his fortune was short-lived; he did not patent the drilling invention. Within months, oil fields sprung up across
northwestern Pennsylvania, the oil price dropped, and Drake lost his family savings on speculative oil stock investments.

Drake Well, Titusville, Pennsylvania, August 27, 1859

Although seemingly endless in supply, oil is non-renewable and will eventually run out.
Having had liberal consumption for over 100 years, no one wants to be reminded that we
might have to do with less, or even go without it. We are in denial and cannot fathom life
without this cheap energy source. Cars run on an oil product, roads connecting cities are
paved with tar made from oil, and plastics for our everyday products are made from oil
derivatives. Oil-based fertilizers enrich food yields, and oil-fed farm machinery harvests
produce cheaply and transports it to our dinner tables. As of 2002, each calorie eaten in
the USA required roughly 10 calories of fossil fuels to produce — we practically eat oil!

Heating our homes is a matter of setting the thermostat. Gathering wood for the stove is
a thing of the past. Oil has elevated us to live like kings. We eat rich food and wear fine
clothes. Motorized wheels have replaced the need to walk — we could not have it better.

But what will we do when the oil gets too expensive or runs out? Go back to the olden
days? Many would rather die than think about it. As slave labor elevated the standard of
living in the 1700s and 1800s, so too has oil boosted our prosperity today. We got
accustomed to our comfortable existence and claim it as our heritage, not realizing that
this lifestyle is not sustainable, nor can it be adopted for the global population. Even a 30
percent reduction in our oil supply could cause an economic collapse. We are hooked on
oil and everyone knows this.

As wood led to coal and coal to oil, scientists count on hydrogen as the next energy
miracle. It’s unlimited in supply and clean to burn. Cars powered by the hydrogen fuel cell
run so clean that the hot water from the tailpipe could be used to serve tea. But hydrogen
is expensive to produce and it takes as much energy to create as it delivers. In addition, an
affordable fuel cell for cars might still be 20 years away. Not to worry… we’ll still have
enough oil until then, so let our grandchildren fret.

We remember the biblical story of multiplying bread and fish to feed the hungry, a
miracle that reproduced food without labor. What strikes me is the crafty mind of a few
clever businessmen at that time who wanted to harness this free bonanza for the good of
the land and their own pocketbook. Their plan backfired; Jesus knew about their craftiness
and withdrew.

As multiplying bread and fish fed the multitude for only one day and the crowd soon
got hungry again, so also will the bounty of oil be consumed one day. An endless supply
of this precious natural gift would corrupt mankind and bring eventual disintegration.
Wars over oil, past and present, are a clear sign of our vulnerability and of the growing
greed over a resource that took Nature millions of years to create. Mankind survived
before oil and will continue to do so after.

Table A2 shows how our forefathers used energy sources before oil. It compares the
kinetic power of an ox in prehistoric times with newer energy sources of the Industrial
Revolution and today’s super engines, with seemingly unlimited power.

Table A2: Ancient and modern power sources
The energy of our forefathers was sufficient and sustainable.

Peaking of Oil
Oil is cheap. When considering that one barrel of oil has the same amount of energy as up
to 25,000 hours of hard human labor, we begin to understand the term “virtually free.” At
a moderate $10 per hour, a barrel of oil would amount to $250,000 of labor. John Meyers,
author of The Crude Awakening, warns us of the eventual end of oil. Meyers reminds us
that oil discoveries peaked in the 1960s and that global oil reserves have not increased
since 1990. Meyers further explains that oil exploration is producing fewer high-yield oil
fields.

According to Chevron Oil, the world consumes two barrels of oil for every barrel
discovered. As this cheap resource is becoming more difficult to find, oil companies are
reverting to more complex extraction methods that raise environmental concerns.
Removing a barrel of oil from tar sands and oil shale devours about one-third of the
energy it yields and consumes 10 times the amount of water it produces in oil, writes
Andrew Nikiforuk in Tar Sands: Dirty Oil and the Future of a Continent (Greystone
Books, 2008).

Figure A3 shows the oil consumption from 1900 to 2000 and estimates the decline
towards the year 2100. The graph also reminds us of the growing debt that governments
and citizens have accrued during the time of plenty. This debt will be difficult to pay back
once the oil runs out. Rather than perceiving oil as a permanent commodity, we must look
at this resource as a momentary blip lasting for a mere 200 years in the history of
mankind.

Figure A3: Oil consumption from 1900 to 2000 and the predicted decline to year 2100
While drawing from this valuable resource, governments and citizens amassed record debt.

Courtesy of Hubbert’s Peak. Shell geologist Marion King. Hubbert predicted that global production would peak at
around 2016 with a 2 percent net annual decline thereafter.

 In the 1970s, the then US president Nixon said that Americans have enough oil to last
for centuries. Then came the energy crisis and citizens adjusted to a more frugal lifestyle.
When the acute shortage ended, Nixon told Americans to revert to the former gluttony and
“go, go, go, drive, drive, drive, burn, burn, burn!” Citizens obliged and began burning
more than ever.

We doubled and quadrupled the horsepower in cars, and fuel efficiency was put on the
back burner. Buyers wanted more power and gas remained affordable. We only needed to
work for a few minutes to buy a liter (34oz) of this super energy. For the price of a cup of
coffee in a restaurant, four passengers can ride 40km (25 miles). Accelerating two tons of
steel to a high speed costs next to nothing and it is exhilarating. Why stop the fun?
“Driving is our privilege,” we say, and no government can take this away from us.
Meanwhile, motorists have crowned the car as the ruling king of the land and they demand
more highways.

In the 1930s, Europe had a different vision of the car. With a large rural population,
farmers needed low-cost transportation, and Citroën, a French carmaker, designed a
“rugged umbrella on four wheels.” The car carried workers with a 100kg (220lb) payload
and traveled at a speed of 60km/h (37mph). The vehicle was to drive across a ploughed
field without breaking the eggs it was carrying and consume no more than three liters of
gasoline per 100km (78mpg). The first models had a 375cc motor that developed nine hp;
the 2CV (this author’s first car) had the larger 425cc engine with 18hp. With a tailwind,
the car would reach 85km/h (53mph).

Today, 275hp (200kW) motors propel cars, SUVs and light trucks. These are power
plants that could provide electrical energy to 10 houses. Most vehicles carry only the
driver and there are few restrictions as to vehicle size, horsepower and distances driven.
Our highways are mostly free to use and whatever we can afford to put on them is fine.
General tax revenue and the gas tax pay for the highways. Meanwhile, governments are
slipping further into debt.

Environmental Concerns
Besides dwindling resources, we also have environmental issues. Concerns relating to
burning fossil fuel were first published in the early 1970s, governments acknowledged the
possible environmental impact in 1991, and 20 years later global warming is continuing at
an alarming rate. The 39 percent increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) since 1900 may have
appeared harmless at first, but scientists are beginning to worry about the most rapid
changes in temperature patterns in recorded history. Thousands of initiatives have been
discussed, some have been implemented, but few slow the production of greenhouse gas
and the imbalance continues to grow. We have gotten into whitewater rafting — we are all
in it and it’s too late to get out. Everyone hangs on for the ride, lest we drown!

 To reflect on our frivolous energy consumption, let’s step into a time capsule and fly
500 years into the future. As we mingle with the crowd in the new world, we hear folks
grumbling about the boisterous oil pow-wow that started in the early 1900s and lasted
until the end of 2000. We learn that these future generations despise the lavish lifestyle of
the past. They say, “Our forefathers burned the vast global oil reserve virtually overnight,
built cities with only the car in mind to satisfy adult pleasures, and gave little
consideration to children, future sustainability and quality of life.”

Folks in the new word fret over the environmental damage that forced millions of
farmers in water-starved territories to flee the land because of encroaching deserts. School
textbooks describe how during the time of cheap oil, wealthy businessmen lined their
pockets while politicians sank the countries into debt so deep that it became impossible to
repay the money borrowed. Folks wonder why educated government leaders could not
predict the end of cheap oil.

No one likes changes, and when the medical associations realized in the 1970s that
smoking tobacco is harmful to human health, US president Ronald Reagan hinted, and I
paraphrase, “Yes, we must tell citizens to smoke less, but let’s not hurt the tobacco
industry.” In newspapers we read how governments spend billions of dollars to reduce the
dependency on oil, and on the next page we are bombarded with full-page ads promoting
monster SUVs and trucks offering larger engines and more horsepower than last year’s
models. Governments must work with the private sector to achieve energy sustainability
and prepare for alternate energy resources. Opposing the objective is like putting one jet
engine on reverse-thrust while flying mid air.

Will our politicians have the strength to lead the world after the peak-oil era? Giving
subsidies to encourage old habits for the sake of short-term economical and political gains
will not prepare us for the future. Instead of racking up debts to hide from the true cost of
energy, a strong government should build reserves to prepare for the higher energy costs.
Biblical Joseph did this in Egypt 3,000 years ago. Foretold in a prophetic dream about
seven prosperous years followed by seven meager years, Joseph stored grain during the
bountiful seven years to bridge the famine years that followed (Genesis 41). It seems as if
our Creator has given man enough intelligence to restrain nature but not enough to prevent
destruction. Energy, the servant that brought much prosperity, may one day turn back and
demand its wages.

To satisfy the hunger for energy, we devour more resources than the Earth can provide.
Our consumption is one-and-a-half times what the Earth can produce in a sustainable
continuum. Governments are hesitant to educate citizens to live with less, lest the
economic will suffer. Yet, while energy is still abundant and cheap, we must begin
reducing consumption and switch to renewable resources, an exercise that will gradually
replace oil. Scientists have made several attempts at this in the past, but the results have
been mixed.

In the 1990s, we put faith in the fuel cell using clean hydrogen. Technical hurdles and
high costs still stand in its way as an alternative to the internal combustion engine. The
first decade in the twenty-first century drew the world to renewable energies such as solar
power, wind energy and bio-fuels. While this is a positive more, these energies cost
several times more than fossil fuels, and to compensate governments provide subsidies.
An installed solar system costs $10–12 per watt; generating one kWh is $0.40. Wind
power comes in at roughly half this. Meanwhile, electricity from the grid is only
$0.10kWh in many parts of the world. It costs $9 to produce 10 liters (2.6 US gallons) of
ethanol. The limitation of ethanol production is availability of land and sufficient water.

We cannot afford another miscalculation, especially when our governments have spent
billions of tax dollars to develop a battery for the vehicular powertrain. This outlay comes
at a time when our countries are already in deep debt and citizens are not prepared to
change their way of life. Nor are cities being planned for efficient transit and fewer cars.

The battery of the future should do more than provide transportation. It must solve our
future energy needs by capturing electrical energy from renewable sources and delivering
it to the people for consumption. This super battery must store energy when it is available
in abundance and distribute it when the demands are high. Such a cycle would be
sustainable and do minimal harm to our environment.

No battery exists today that is capable of substituting for fossil fuel. Science may one
day discover a power source that lies outside the electrochemical battery and works on the
law of physics, producing energy in a continuous form much like our sun. Once we shift
our minds away from oil, such an achievement might be possible.

Pledge to Humanity
The goal for humanity is to attain an environment that is sustainable, find spiritual
fulfillment and provide social justice. Rich nations may not reach this objective without
the help of poorer countries. The developing world might one day come forward to teach
the well established that material possessions do not satisfy and that the deeper meaning of
life lies in love, relationships and spiritual fulfillment. These caring people will tell the
rich nations to go back to the basics and rediscover the bounty of this earth by letting go of
excess baggage. Individuals who find the virtue of simplicity will enjoy life more with
fewer material possessions than those who have plenty and strive for more.









We hear about improved battery

technologies, each offering distinct

advantages, but none providing a

fully satisfactory solution to

today’s power needs.

Glossary

AC
Alternating current; current flows in both directions. Household current is AC.

AGM (Absorbent Glass Mat) battery
A lead acid battery using a glass mat to promote recombination of the gases produced by
the charging process.

Ampere-hours (Ah)
The energy drawn from a battery in one hour. (A current of 1A for one hour = 1Ah.)

Anode
The electrode on which oxidation occurs is called the anode; it releases electrons. When
applying power to a device (vacuum tube, diode, battery on charge), the anode is positive;
withdrawing power on discharge makes the anode negative. In a device that consumes
power (charge), the anode of a battery is positive; a device that provides power
(discharge), the anode is negative.

Barrel
Measuring unit for oil and other industries; 1 barrel has 42 US gallons, 35 Imperial gallons
or 159 liters.

Battery
Electrochemical cell, or cells, connected in series (some may be in parallel). A battery is
composed of the anode (negative electrode), cathode (positive electrode), separator and
electrolyte as catalyst.

Battery cycle
Full charge, followed by a full discharge and recharge. No standard exists as to what level
the battery needs to be discharged to constitute a cycle.

Battery Management System (BMS)
System inside or outside of a battery to manage charge and discharge, as well as report
state-of-function; BMS is an important part of hybrid and electric cars, as well as
satellites.

Bluetooth
Low-power radio communications to support personal consumer devices and peripherals
over short distances of up to 10 meters (30 feet). Bluetooth borrowed the name from
Harald Bluetooth, a king in Denmark more than 1,000 years ago.

Boolean bit
A system of symbolic logic devised by George Boole in the 1840s; used in computers.

Button cell
Miniaturized battery also known as coin cell. Most are non-rechargeable.

Capacitance
Unit to hold an electrical charge in a capacitor (or condenser), which is measured in farad.
The stored energy is in the form of a static charge (voltage difference between two electric
fields separated by a dielectric insulator).

Capacitor
A device consisting of two conductive surfaces separated by an insulator. The resistance of
a capacitor is indefinite on DC and decreases with rising frequency. When placed in the
path of an AC current, the voltage lags behind the current (opposite of a coil).

Capacity
Electrical energy of a battery as expressed in ampere-hours (Ah). The energy is measured
by observing the elapsed time while discharging a battery at a constant current to the
specified end-of-discharge voltage.

Capacity offset
Capacity correction when discharging a battery under a higher or lower C-rate than
specified. For example, a lead acid battery produces a higher capacity if discharged at a
20-hour rate than at a 5-hour rate. See also Peukert law on page 139.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Heavy odorless gas formed during respiration, combustion and decomposition of organic
substances. Plants absorb CO2 from the air by in photosynthesis.

Cathode
Electrode in an electrochemical cell in which reduction takes place, absorbing electrons.
During discharge the positive electrode of the cell is the cathode. During charge the
situation reverses and the negative electrode of the cell is the cathode. In a discharging
battery, the cathode refers to the positive electrode.

C-code
Abbreviation of “configuration code” defining the battery parameters; C-code is stored in
a battery adapter and configures the analyzer to the correct battery settings (Cadex
systems).

Cell mismatch
Cells within a battery pack that have different capacities, voltages or resistive values.
Differences in capacity are most common.

Cell reversal
During deep discharge, the strong cells apply a reverse polarity across a depleted cell
when discharging too low. Cell reversal can damage the cell.

Charge
Replenishing electrical charge to a cell or battery.

Cobalt (Co)
Hard, lustrous, gray metal with atomic number 27; used for batteries, preparation of
magnets, and high-strength alloys.

Co-generation
Utilization of heat or kinetic force as by-product. Heat drives steam turbines; kinetic force
produces electricity through a generator.

Coke
Derivative of coal from which most gases have been removed through heating.

Coulomb
Unit of electric charge. One coulomb (1C) is equal to 1 ampere in 1 second.

C-rate
Unit by which charge and discharge times are scaled. At 1C, the battery charges and
discharges at a current that is at par with the marked Ah. For example, 1C charges and
discharges a 2Ah battery at 2A; 0.5C at 1A and 0.25C at 0.5A.

Current-limiting charger
Charging occurs by keeping the current constant and allowing the voltage to fluctuate
(typically used on NiCd and NiMH chargers).

Cycle
Charge/discharge/charge of a rechargeable battery. No standard exists as to what depth of
discharge (DoD) constitutes a cycle.

Cycle life
Number of cycles before a battery is no longer usable. (A battery is considered non-usable
if the delivered capacity of a fully charged battery falls to 60–80 percent; the application
specifies the capacity threshold.)

Cylindrical cell
Positive and negative plates are rolled up and placed into a cylindrical container.

DC
Direct current; current flows in one direction. A battery delivers a DC current.

DC-to-DC converter
A converter that transforms a direct current (DC) voltage to a higher or lower potential.

Delta Temperature over delta time (dT/dt)
Senses the rate of temperature increase over time rather than measuring the absolute
temperature to detect the full charge state of a battery. (See page 117.)

DoD
Depth of discharge; 100 percent DoD is full discharge; 80 percent DoD is commonly used
for specification. No standard exists as to what DoD constitutes a cycle.

Double-layer capacitor
Capacitor with high farad rating made possible by a double layer that is formed near the
surface of the carbon electrode. Also known as supercapacitor or ultracapacitor, the
double-layer capacitor serves as an energy storage device when fast-charging and high
discharge currents are required.

Dumb battery
Battery containing no electronic intelligence with which to communicate.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
Method to test the electrochemical characteristics of a battery; EIS injects AC signals at
different frequencies and analyzes the response. (See pages 214, 224, etc.)

Electrode
Conducting element within a cell in which an electrochemical reaction occurs.

Electrolyte
Non-metallic conductor of electricity (typically liquid) placed between positive and
negative electrodes of a battery. Physical movement of ions enables current flow.

Energy
The work a physical system is capable of performing over time. In electrical terms,
multiplying voltage times current over time equals Watt-hours (Wh). Energy is also given
in joules (J); 1,000 joules are 0.277Wh.

Energy density
Also known as volumetric energy density; indicates the amount of energy a cell can
contain in volume (Wh/l). The energy density is synonymous with the runtime of a battery.

Energy Star
An organization that promotes energy efficiency. Some countries mandate meeting the
Energy Star requirements.

Exercise
Commonly understood as one or several discharge cycles to the end-of-discharge voltage
threshold with subsequent recharge. Used to maintain NiCd and NiMH batteries.

Farad (f)
Unit of capacitance that stores 1 coulomb of electrical charge when applying 1 volt of
electrical tension.

Fast charge
Typical fast charge time is 1–3 hours; charger detects full state-of-charge and switches to
trickle charge (nickel- and lead-based) or disconnects from any charge (Li-ion).

Float charge
Similar to trickle or maintenance charge. Compensates for the self-discharge of a lead acid
battery.

Frequency
Number of occurrences within a given time. Frequency indicates how many times the
voltage potential changes from positive and negative per second, or how many times a
battery is being cycled in a given time.

Fuel cell
Device converts oxygen and hydrogen into electricity and water.

Fuel gauge
State-of-charge (SoC) indicator estimates the remaining charge of a battery.

Fuzzy logic
A form of multi-valued, mathematical logic derived from a range of blurred data to deal
with reasoning that is approximate rather than precise. Battery rapid testing, image
recognition and weather forecasting use fuzzy logic.

Graphite
A form of carbon with hexagonally crystallized allotrope, used in lead pencils, lubricants,
batteries.

Gravimetric energy density
Also known as specific energy; indicates the amount of energy a cell can contain in
weight (Wh/kg). The gravimetric energy density is synonymous with the runtime of a
battery.

Hertz (Hz)
Unit of frequency; 1Hz constitutes one full cycle per second.

Hydrogen (H)
A chemical element with atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant
chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the universe’s elemental mass.

Hydrometer
Device used to measure the specific gravity of a fluid; reads state-of-charge of lead acid
and other flooded batteries.

Hysteresis charge
Chargers turns off at full charge; a periodic recharge compensates for the self-discharge.

Imaginary impedance
Also known as complex impedance, the imaginary impedance is the electrical resistance
of reactive components that changes with frequency. The capacitive resistance decreases
with rising frequency and the inductance resistance increases.

Impedance
Combination of capacitive, inductive and pure ohmic resistance; applies to battery and
other reactive devices. Impedance is measured in ohms (R) and is frequency dependent.

Inductance (L)
A coil that opposes AC and creates magnetic flux measured in Henry (H). When placed in
the path of an AC current, the current lags behind the voltage (opposite of a capacitor).

Intelligent battery
Also known as a “smart” battery; contains circuitry to enable communication between the
battery, application, charger and user.

Internal resistance
Electrical resistance of a battery pack given in milliohms (mW). A good battery that is
fully charged has a low resistance; an aged or empty battery has a higher resistance.

Intrinsically safe battery
Battery with built-in protection circuitry to allow safe operation in a hazardous area.
Electronic circuit prevents sparks by limiting voltage and current peaks.

Ion
Atom or molecule with unequal number of electrons and protons; provides a positive or
negative electrical charge.



Joule (J)
Measure of energy or cell capacity. For electrical energy, 1 joule is 1 amp at 1 volt for 1
second, or one watt-second; 1Wh = 3.6kJ; 1,00 joules = 0.277Wh; also applies to
mechanical energy.

Lead acid battery
Rechargeable battery in flooded and sealed versions; has a low specific energy and is
commonly used for wheeled mobility and stationary applications.

Lithium (Li)
Soft, silver-white metal belonging to the alkali metal group with atomic number 3.
Lithium is the lightest metal and the least dense in the element family. Johan August
Arfwedson from Sweden discovered lithium in 1817 and it was named after the Greek
word “lithos,” meaning “stone.”

Lithium battery
Battery using lithium metal on the anode. Most lithium batteries are non-rechargeable.

Lithium-ion battery
Rechargeable battery with graphite anode; the cathode consists of cobalt, manganese-
nickel phosphate, or a combination thereof. Other anode materials are being tried.

Lithium-ion polymer battery
Rechargeable battery similar to Li-ion with a solid polymer as electrolyte; addition of
gelled conductive material promotes conductivity.

Lithium polymer battery
Rechargeable battery using solid polymer as electrolyte; requires heat to promote
conductivity.

Load current
Current draw when applying an electrical load.

Maintenance charge
Also known as trickle or float charge, small charge to compensate for the self-discharge of
a battery.

Manganese (Mn)
Chemical element with atomic number 25. Manganese is used in combination with iron
and other minerals in steelmaking and fabrication of Li-ion batteries.

Matrix
In batteries, a matrix serves as a reference to estimate characteristics, such as capacity.

Memory
In nickel-based batteries, memory relates to reversible capacity loss. The modern
definition of memory refers to crystalline formation.

Microsecond (ms)
One-millionth of a second (10-9).

Milliampere-hour (mAh)
Specifies battery capacity or rating; 1000mAh equals 1Ah.

Millisecond (ms)
One-thousand of a second (10-6).

Nano
Latin word for “dwarf.” One nanometer is one-billionth (10-9) of a meter, a diameter of 3–
6 atoms.

NCA
Lithium-ion battery made of nickel-cobalt-aluminum.

Negative delta V (NDV)
Drop in battery voltage when a sealed NiCd or NiMH battery reaches full charge; NDV
detects full charge on nickel-based batteries in chargers.

Newton (N)
International unit of force named after Isaac Newton (1N = 0.2248 pounds of force).

Nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd)
Rechargeable battery using cadmium on the anode and nickel on the cathode; the
electrolyte is alkaline-potassium-hydroxide.

Nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH)
Rechargeable battery commonly used for space applications; uses pressure vessels to
contain the hydrogen.

Nickel-iron battery (NiFe)
Rechargeable battery developed by Thomas Edison in 1901.Used for mining in Europe,
and during World War II. NiFe powered the German V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rockets.

Nickel-metal-hydride battery (NiMH)
Similar to nickel-cadmium; the anode is made of a hydride alloy that is less toxic than the
cadmium of NiCd; offers 30 percent more capacity than NiCd but is less durable.

Nickel-zinc battery (NiZn)
Similar to nickel-cadmium; first developed in 1920 but suffered from short life due to
dendrite growth. NiZn is being reconsidered for commercial uses.

Nit
A unit of illuminative brightness equal to one candle per square meter, measured
perpendicular to the rays of the source.

NMC
Lithium-ion battery made of one-third nickel, one-third manganese and one-third cobalt or
similar combinations.

Nominal voltage
Refers to the accepted standard of a terminal voltage. The nominal voltage of NiCd is 1.20
or 1.25V/cell; Li-ion can be 3.6 or 3.7V/cell.

Nyquist plots
Invented by Nyquist, who worked at Bell Laboratories; Nyquist plots are a way of
showing frequency responses of linear systems. Nyquist plots display both amplitude and
phase angle on a single plot, using frequency as a parameter in the plot.

Ohmic resistance
Pure electrical DC resistance without capacitive and inductive reactance.

OhmTest™
Internal resistance measurement of a battery using pulse method (Cadex trademark).

Organic
Relating or belonging to chemical compounds having a carbon base.

Overcharge
Exceeding the full charge acceptance of a battery. The battery heats up and produces
gases.

Parasitic load
In electrical terms, power consumption when an appliance is turned off.

Passivation layer
Resistive layer that forms in some cells after prolonged storage. The passivation layer
must be broken to enable proper operation; applying a charge/discharge may do this.

Peukert law
Reflects internal resistance and recovery of lead acid and other battery chemistries. A low
reading close to one (1) indicates a well-performing battery with minimal losses.

Phosphate
A salt or phosphoric acid.

Polymer
Electrical insulator that passes ions.

Pouch cell
Cell packaged into a flexible, heat-sealable foil pouch.

Power
Transferable power. In electrical terms, multiplying voltage times current equals power in
watts (W). Power is also given in horsepower (1hp = 746W). Power over time is energy in
Wh or joule.

Power density
Also known as volumetric power density; reflects the loading capability or the amount of
current the battery can deliver. Power density is synonymous with power delivery;
readings are in Wh/l.

Power factor
Ratio of real power to apparent power. The unity power factor of 1.00 delivers 100 percent
of the current to a load; a power factor of 0.50 reduces the contribution to 50 percent. A
purely resistive load (heater elements) has a unity power factor; purely capacitive or
inductive loads have zero pf.

Primary battery
Non-rechargeable battery.

Prismatic cell
A battery in which the positive and negative plates are stacked instead of rolled.

Protection circuit
Electronic circuit built into a battery pack to maintain safe operation of a battery and
equipment when improperly handled.

Quick charger
Charger that charges a battery in 3–6 hours.

QuickSortä
Classification tool that sorts battery state-of-health into groups of good, low and poor
(Cadex trademark).

QuickTestä
Method to quick-test the state-of-health of a battery (Cadex trademark).

Rapid charge
Same as quick charge.

Reactance
Presence of inductive and capacitive resistance; the reading is frequency dependent.

Recondition
Secondary discharge applied below the 1.0V/cell cut-off threshold of a nickel-based
battery; helps break down crystalline formation (memory).

Reformer
A device that extracts hydrogen from fossil and other fuels. The catalytic reaction of a
reformer separates the hydrogen from the carbon in a fuel and mixes the carbon to form
carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere.

Residual capacity
Remaining battery capacity when a portable device cuts off, or capacity prior to charge.

Resistance
Electrical resistance is a restriction of current flow. Batteries with high internal resistance
are unable to deliver high currents on demand; resistance generates voltage drop and heat.

Reverse load charge
Charge method interspersing discharge pulses between charge pulses to promote the
recombination of gases generated during fast charge; helps reduce memory.

Runtime
The length of time a battery can provide power with a charge.

SAE J537
Standard to serve as a guide for testing procedures of automotive 12V storage batteries.

SAE J1634
Electric vehicle energy consumption and range test procedure.

Secondary battery
Rechargeable battery.

Self-discharge
Capacity loss during storage due to internal leakage between the positive and negative
plates in a cell.

Silver-zinc
Rechargeable battery with high specific energy; used for defense and aerospace
applications, as well as professional TV cameras; battery is expensive and has a short
cycle life.

Single-wire Bus
Simplified “smart” battery using only one wire for digital communications.

Slow charge
Overnight charge lasting 10–16 hours at a charge current of 0.1C.

Smart battery
Also known as an “intelligent” battery; pack contains intelligence to communicate
between battery, equipment, charger and user.

SMBus
System Management Bus is a two-wire interface that communicates with the battery and
device by accepting control parameters and providing battery status, such as state-of-
charge, manufacturer information, cycle count and error messages.

Sodium-nickel-chloride
A further development of sodium-sulfur battery. Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project
(ZEBRA) made the battery commercially viable; needs heat for operation, used for large
UPS and EVs.

Sodium–sulfur (NaS)
Gained attention in 1970s and 1980s; battery has a short service life and high
manufacturing costs. The sodium-nickel-chloride battery (ZEBRA) is its successful
replacement.

Soft cell
High cell resistance causes the applied voltage to rise above a defined level during charge
and drops low on a load. Cold temperature or lack of electrolyte causes the soft cell
condition.

Specific energy
Also known as gravimetric energy density; indicates the amount of energy a cell can
contain in weight (Wh/kg). Specific energy (capacity) is synonymous with the runtime of
a battery.

Specific gravity (SG)
Weight ratio of a chemical solution compared to water at a specified temperature. The SG
of water is 1.0; the electrolyte of a fully charged lead acid battery is about 1.30.

Specific power
Also known as gravimetric power density; reflects the loading capability or the amount of
current the battery can deliver. Specific power is synonymous with power delivery;
readings are in Wh/kg.

Spectroä
Stands for multi-model electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (Cadex trademark).

Spectroscopy
Same terminology as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).

Spinel
A hard glassy mineral consisting of an oxide of magnesium and aluminum that forms a
three-dimensional chemical structure. Manganese-based Li-ion consists of a spinel
structure.

Spintronicaä
Monitors battery state-of-charge through magnetic field strength. Applies to lead- and
lithium-based batteries (Cadex trademark).

State-of-charge (SoC)
Indicates the maximum charge a battery can hold. A fully charged battery has 100 percent
SoC; one that is at the half way point has 50 percent and an empty pack has zero SoC.

State-of-function (SoF)
Reflects battery readiness; includes capacity, ability to deliver current (internal resistance),
voltage, self-discharge, charge acceptance and SoC. A battery that meets manufacturer’s
specifications has an SoF of 100 percent; performance degradation lowers the reading.

State-of-health (SoH)
Reflects performance; includes capacity, ability to deliver current (internal resistance),
voltage, self-discharge and charge acceptance. A battery that meets manufacturer’s
specifications has an SoH of 100 percent; capacity loss and other anomalies lower the
readings. SoH excludes SoC.

Sulfation
Lead sulfate crystal formation in a lead acid battery that inhibits current flow, caused by
storage at low state-of-charge.

Supercapacitor
Also known as an ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor, the supercapacitor is an
electrochemical capacitor that can charge and discharge quickly. The specific energy is
about one-tenth that of lithium-ion but has a high cycle life and performs well at cold
temperatures.

System Management Bus (SMBus)
Protocol for “smart” battery.

Thermal runaway
Uncontrolled disintegration of a battery from inside out; can be caused by cell defect,
overcharging, excess heat and other abusive conditions.

Titanate
Substance used for anode material of some lithium-based batteries.

Trickle charge
Also known as maintenance charge, small charge to compensate for the self-discharge of a
battery.

UL1642
Underwriters Laboratories acceptance test for lithium-based batteries. Other agencies are
IEC62133, IEEE1625, IEEE1725 (cell phones), BAJ (Japan), UN.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)
The USB port is a bi-directional data port featuring a 5-volt supply and two data lines to
accommodate auxiliary devices such as memory sticks, keyboards, mice, wireless
interfaces, cameras, MP3 players and battery chargers.

Valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA)
Maintenance-free lead acid battery for uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS);
recombines oxygen (positive plate) with hydrogen (negative plate) during charge; valves
regulate cell pressure through release of gases.

Voltage (V)
Electric energy potential per unit charge. One volt = 1 joule per second. (1,000 joules =
0.277Wh).

Voltage delay
During prolonged storage, some battery systems develop a passivation film on the surface
of the active material, delivering a momentarily lower voltage until the film dissipates
through discharge.

Voltage limit
Set threshold on charge and discharge of a battery.

Voltage-limiting charger
Charging occurs by limiting the battery voltage at a maximum charge level and allowing
current to fluctuate (typically used on lead acid and Li-ion chargers).

Volumetric energy density
Also known as energy density; indicates the amount of energy a cell can contain in volume
(Wh/l). The volumetric energy density is synonymous with the runtime of a battery.

Watt (W)
Unit of power; ampere (A) times volt (V) equals watts (W).

Watt-hour (Wh)
Unit of power in one hour. Multiplying the nominal battery voltage (V) by the rated
capacity (Ah) gives the battery energy in Wh. Example: 14.4V by 2.5A = 36Wh.

Wi-Fi
Radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections; based on
2.4GHz 802.11b standard.

Zapping
Applying a momentary high-current pulse to a battery to evaporate a short. Zapping is said
to improve new NiCd batteries.

Zinc-air
Generates electrical power by an oxidation process of zinc and oxygen from the air. Most
zinc-air batteries are non-rechargeable, offer a high specific energy but poor load
capabilities.

Abbreviation / Conversion

$ Dollar in US currency

18650 Li-ion cylindrical cell format measuring 18mm times 65mm

A Ampere (electrical)

AC Alternating current

ADAC Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club (German automobile club)

AFC Alkaline fuel cell

AGM Absorbent Glass Mat (battery)

AGV Automatic Guided Vehicle

Ah Ampere-hour

APU Auxiliary Power Unit

BAPCO Business Applications Performance Corporation

Bar Unit of pressure; 1 bar = 100kPa; 1 bar = 14.503psi

bbl Measurements of liquid, 1 barrel = 42 US gallons (35 Imperial gallons),
159 liters

BCG The Boston Consulting Group

BCI Battery Council International

BMS Battery management system

BMW Bavarian Engine Works (Bayerische Motoren Werke)

BTU British Thermal Unit; 1 BTU = 1,054 joules; 1 BTU = 0.29Wh

C Celsius, Centigrade (temperature)

cal Calorie; 1cal = 4.18 joules; 1cal = 4.18 watt/s; 1,000 joules = 0.277Wh

CARB California Air Resources Board

CCA Cold cranking amps at –18°C (0°F). The norms differ as follows:

BCI discharges battery at CCA-rate for 30s; battery at or above 7.2V passes

IEC discharges battery at CCA-rate for 60s; battery at or above 8.4V passes

DIN discharges battery at CCA-rate for 30s and 150s; battery at or above 9V
and 6V respectively passes

CCCV Constant current constant voltage (charge method)

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access (cell phones)

CEC Certificate of Equivalent Competency (International regulations)

CID Circuit interrupt device

CIPA Camera and Imaging Products Association

CL Current limiting (as in charging a battery)

CNG Compressed natural gas

CNT Carbon nanotube

CPU Central processing unit

Co Cobalt (metal)

COC Certificate of Competency

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

C-rate Discharge rate of a battery

DC Direct current

DGP Dangerous Goods Panel

DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Standardization)

DLC Double-layer capacitor

DMFC Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

DoD Depth of discharge

DOE Department of Energy (US)

DOT Department of Transportation (US)

DSP Digital signal processor

dT/dt Delta Temperature over delta time (charge method)

EBM Electronic battery monitor

ect. Et cetera. Latin: And so forth

EDTA Crystalline acid

EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

ELC Equivalent lithium content

EMF Electromagnetic field

EMF Electromotive force

EPA Environmental Protection Agency (US)

EV Electric vehicle

F Fahrenheit (temperature)

f Farad (unit of capacitance)

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FC Fuel cell

FCVT FreedomCAR Vehicle Technologies (US Department of Energy)

Foot/’ Foot (dimension) 1’ = 12”; 1’ = 0.3048m; 1’ times 3.28 = 1m

g Gram; 1g = 0.035oz; 1g times 28.35 = 1oz

GSM Global System for Mobile Communications (cell phones)

h Hour (time)

HEV Hybrid electric vehicle

hp Horsepower (power) 1hp = 745.7 watts

Hz Hertz (electrical frequency)

I Current (electrical)

i.e. Id est. Latin: That is

IATA International Air Transport Association

IC Integrated circuit (chip)

IC Internal combustion (engine)

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

IEC International Electrochemical Commission

Inch/“ Inch; 1” = 25.4mm; 1” = 0.0254 meter; 1” times 39.3 = 1m

IPF Interfacial protective film

IPP IEC aircraft battery rating (0.3/15s power discharge)

IPR Aircraft battery rating according to IEC (15s power discharge)

IS Intrinsic safety (used on batteries)

J Joule, 1J = 1A at 1V for 1s = 1 watt/s; 1J = 0.238 calorie/s

kg Kilogram; 1kg = 0.45 pound; 1kg times 2.2 = 1 pound

kJ Kilo-Joule; 1kJ = 0.277Wh

km Kilometer; 1km = 0.621 miles; 1km times 1.60 = 1 mile

kN Kilo-Newton (law of motion) 1N = 1kg m/s2

kPa Kilo-Pascal (pressure); 1kPa = 0.01 bar; 1kPa = 0.145psi

kW Kilowatt (electrical energy); 1kWh = 3.6MJ; 1MJ = 860kcal = 238cal/s

kWh Kilowatt-hour (electrical power)

L Inductance (electrical coil)

lb Pound (weight, from Roman libra) 1 lb times 0.45 = 1kg

LCD Liquid crystal display

LCO Lithium cobalt oxide

LED Light emitting diode

LFP Lithium-iron-phosphate

LFPT Low frequency pulse train (method to test a battery)

LiCoO2 Lithium-ion-cobalt-oxide

LiFePO4 Lithium-iron-phosphate-oxide

Li-ion Lithium-ion battery (short form)

LiMn2O4 Lithium-ion-manganese-oxide

LiNiCoAlO2 Lithium-ion-nickel-cobalt-aluminum-oxide

LiNiMnCoO2 Lithium-on-nickel-manganese-cobalt-oxide

Li5Ti5O13 Lithium-titanate-oxide

L/km Liter per kilometer

LMO Lithium-manganese-oxide

LTO Lithium-titanate

m Meter (dimension) 1m = 3.28 feet; 1m times 0.30 = 1 foot

mAh Milliampere-hours

MCFC Molten carbonate fuel cell

Microfarad [µF] Capacitor rating, one-millionth 10-6 of a farad)

Min Minute (time)

mm Millimeter (dimension) 1mm = 0.039”; 1mm times 25.4 = 1”

Mn Manganese (chemical element used in batteries)

mpa Mega-Pascall unit of pressure

Mpg Miles per gallon

ms Millisecond

MW Megawatt (power)

N Newton (law of motion) 1N = 1kg m/s2 (force required to accelerate 1kg at
1m/s)

NaS Sodium-sulfur (battery)

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NCA Lithium-ion battery with nickel, cobalt, aluminum cathode

NCV Net calorific value (1 food calorie = 1.16 watt-hour)

NDV Negative delta V (full-charge detection)

NG Natural gas, consumption measured in joules (1,000 joules = 0.277Wh)

NiCd Nickel-cadmium (battery)

NiFe Nickel-iron (battery)

NiH Nickel-hydrogen battery

NiMH Nickel-metal-hydride (battery)

NiZn Nickel-zinc (battery)

NMC Lithium-ion with nickel, manganese, cobalt cathode

NRC National Research Council

NTC Negative temperature coefficient

OCV Open circuit voltage

OEM Original equipment manufacturer

Oz Ounce; 1 oz = 28 grams; 1 oz times 0.035 = 1 gram

PAFC Phosphoric acid fuel cell

PC Personal computer

PEM Proton exchange membrane (fuel cell), also PEMFC

PEMFC Proton exchange membrane fuel cell, also PEM

pf Pico-farad (capacitor rating, one-trillionth 10-12 of a farad)

pf Power factor (ratio of real power to the apparent power on AC)

PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

PRBA Portable Rechargeable Battery Association

psi Pound per square inch (pressure) 1psi = 0.145kPa; 1psi times 6.89 = 1kPa

PTC Positive temperature coefficient

PTC Over-voltage protection (batteries, motors, speakers)

QA Quality assurance

Qi Standard on inductive charging by Wireless Power Consortium (WPC)

Q-Mag™ Quantum magnetic battery analysis (Cadex trademark)

R Resistor (electrical)

RBRC Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation

RC Remote control (hobbyist)

RC Reserve capacity of starter battery. RC divided by 2 plus 16 = Ah

RD Research and development

RPM Revolution per minute

s Second (time)

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers, founded early in 1900 by US auto
manufacturers

SBS Smart Battery System

SEI Solid electrolyte interphase (Li-ion)

SG Specific gravity (acid density of electrolyte)

SLA Sealed lead acid (battery)

SLI Starter-light-ignition (battery), also knows as starter battery

SMBus System Management Bus (smart battery)

SoC State-of-charge

SoF State-of-function

SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell

SoH State-of-health

UL United Laboratories (product safety testing and certification)

UPS Uninterruptible power supply

USB Universal Serial Bus (data)

V Voltage (electrical)

VA Volt-ampere (similar to watt with true current flow in a reactive load)

VAC Voltage with alternating current (grid)

VL Voltage limiting (as in charging a battery)

VRLA Valve regulated lead acid (battery)

W Watt (electrical energy; voltage times current = watts)

Wh Watt-hour (electrical power; watts times h = Wh); 1Wh = 860 cal/h =
0.238cal/s

Wh/kg Watt-hour per kilogram (measurement of specific energy)

Wh/km Watt-hour per kilometer
Wh/l Watt-hour per litter (measured in energy density)

Wi-Fi Wireless fidelity (network)

W/kg Watt per kilogram (measurement of specific power)

WPC Wireless Power Consortium

WW World War

Z Impedance (reactance-based resistance, frequency dependent)

ZEBRA Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project (battery)

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The battery is a mystical black box

with a mind of its own. Understanding the

endurance and limitation of this marvelous

power source will develop

confidence and trust.

About the Author

Isidor Buchmann is the founder and CEO of Cadex Electronics Inc. He also created
www.BatteryUniversity.com. Fascinated with electronics during his school years, Isidor
built a broadcast radio that ran with no power — it required only an antenna and a ground
wire (no battery needed). During his apprenticeship, he invented a fuel-powered engine
based on continuous combustion. Felix Wankel, the inventor of the Wankel Rotary Engine,
reviewed the drawings and theory of operation and replied that while the design was
indeed unique and original, manufacturing would be too expensive for commercialization.

After graduation, Isidor left the farm in Switzerland where he grew up and immigrated
to Canada to pursue a career in electronics. When the anticipated job opportunities did not
materialize as expected, he pooled his savings and started a company. In a small room at
his house he worked on product developments long into the night while raising a large
family.

Isidor envisioned the business model while working at General Electric. NiCd batteries
caused many failures, and while repairing two-way radios he discovered a way to
rejuvenate them. He developed a battery analyzer that featured the proprietary
“recondition” program. To prevent a conflict of interest, Isidor quit his job at GE to devote
his full time to the company. The early 1980s were challenging but with perseverance,
Cadex eventually flourished.

Isidor knew early on that manufacturing battery analyzers to reverse “memory” had a
limited market, and in 2000 Cadex he began researching battery rapid testing. The
development secured several key patents and established a leading position for Cadex in
the field of battery analysis.

Realizing the growing importance of batteries and the need for practical hands-on
battery knowledge, Isidor began writing articles that appeared in over 200 trade
magazines. He earned
a writer’s award and many articles were translated for global publication. As founder of
Cadex, he had the opportunity to present his papers at conferences around the world.
Isidor’s first book entitled Batteries in a Portable World: A Handbook on Rechargeable
Batteries for Non-Engineers was published in 1997; the larger second larger edition was
released in 2001. When associates asked him to update the information, Isidor obliged
with the third edition.

Isidor wanted to share his battery knowledge and he condensed Batteries in a Portable
World for web use. Today, www.BatteryUniversity.com is an important teaching tool for
engineers, academia, media and ordinary battery users. Available since January 2003 and
continuously being updated, the website addresses battery chemistries, advises on the best
choice of batteries for an application, and suggests ways to make them last longer. Isidor is
the father of five grown children and lives in the Vancouver suburb of Burnaby.

About Cadex

Isidor Buchmann, founder and CEO of Cadex Electronics Inc., established the company in
1980 when he recognized high failure rates of nickel-cadmium batteries and developed a
battery analyzer that would exercise and rejuvenate these rechargeable batteries. He ran
his business from a small room in his residence under the name Buchmann Enterprises
Inc. After receiving the registered Cadex trademark, he changed the company name to
Cadex Electronics Inc. in 1985. Cadex is derived from “CADmium-EXerciser.”

The first battery analyzer introduced in 1981 failed to achieve the anticipated market
acceptance, and only a few of the Cadex 450 were sold. The setback did not discourage
Isidor, and he started to develop a modular battery analyzer that could adapt to different
battery types. The Cadex 550 battery analyzer sold reasonably well and became the
workhorse for two-way radio batteries serving the public safety, railroad and oil industries.
In 1983, the company moved from Buchmann’s home to a rented office and made a small
profit.

In 1986, a company commissioned Cadex to develop and manufacture an intelligent
fast-charger for the “End-of-Train Unit.” The device clamps to the last car of a freight
train and substitutes for the caboose by providing vital operating information such as
brake pressure and “car-in-motion” data. The project was a success and the design served
as the foundation for several new Cadex products. These advances were in part made
possible with research funds received from the Science Council of British Columbia and
the National Research Council of Canada (NRC).

The charger design led to the development of a fully programmable battery analyzer,
and in 1991 the Cadex C4000 served a pivotal role in capturing the cell phone market. In
1995, the flagship Cadex C7000 Series, featuring intelligent battery adapters, established a
new standard to which competitors’ products were compared. Double-digit revenue
growth continued, and Cadex products were soon sold in over 100 countries.

As Cadex grew, the company needed to relocate to larger premises. Doubling the plant
size with each move made the new location look empty and too large at first. Items that
had been within arm’s reach now needed long-distance running to retrieve. Eventually,
employees and equipment would fill in the space and the hum of activity replaced the
echoing sound of an empty manufacturing plant. Isidor felt proud walking down the long
corridors with offices to the left and right, filled with dedicated staff serving customers
and taking orders. During this period of rapidly growing in the 1990s, Cadex received
contracts from a U.S. defense organization and a leading medical company to supply
battery chargers and analyzers for military and medical applications.

 After a few more years of rapid growth, Cadex was in a financial position to build its
own headquarters, and the company acquired one of the most scenic parcels of land in a
new industrial park in Richmond, BC. Architects drew up plans and Isidor spent several
months optimizing the floor layout and enhancing the appearance. The building includes a
large two-storey glass octagon that serves as entrance lobby and accommodates reception
and meeting rooms. A broad staircase leading to the second floor conveys an atmosphere
of grandeur and space. Balconies facing the mighty Fraser River, on which the building is
located, allow the staff to watch the swans frolicking in the waters and the ducks grazing
on the riverbanks.

Cadex headquarters in Richmond, BC, Canada. With the wonders of nature at its door, Cadex offers its staff a
tranquil alternative to the noise and hustle of crowded city streets.

Courtesy of Cadex

Isidor and his team at Cadex welcome your questions about batteries and will take your
suggestions for future editions of this book. We can be reached at answers@cadex.com.

A Crash Course on Batteries — in Plain English

Manufacturers of electronic devices base the performance on a perfect battery, a condition
that only exists when the battery is new. By reading Batteries in a Portable World, you will
acquire a better understanding of the strengths and limitations of the battery, learn about
different battery types and discover what conditions are best for a battery. The book is
easy and entertaining to read and makes minimal use of technical jargon. It addresses the
busy professional who needs a crash course on batteries; the engineer who searches for a
battery to launch a new product; the student who seeks answers for an academic project;
and the everyday battery user who wants to optimize battery life.

Isidor Buchmann is the founder and CEO of Cadex Electronics Inc., a company that manufactures innovative battery
test and diagnostic equipment. Active in wireless communications, Isidor has studied the behavior of batteries in
practical and everyday use, wrote many articles, delivered numerous technical papers, published books, and created
www.BatteryUniversity.com.

Readers of Batteries in a Portable World are invited to visit www.BatteryUniversity.com,
an online community dedicated to learning more about batteries. Sign up at BatteryU™
and tell us about your experience with batteries. You may contact the author directly at
answers@cadex.com.

www.BatteryUniversity.com

Cadex Electronics Inc.

$29.95US Third Edition