3 Heating and Cooling of Electrical Machines MODES OF HEAT DISSIPATION 3:1, Heat Dissipation, The process of energy transfe and clectro-mechanical energy conversion in the case of rotating electrical machines. involves currents in the conductors, and fluxes in the ferromagnetic parts. Thus there are [*R losss in windings end core losses in the ferromagnetic cores. In addition losses occur in tank walls, end plates and covers on account of leakage flux. ‘The losses appear as heat and therefore the temperature of every affected part of the machine rises above the ambient medium which is normally the surrounding air. The heated parts of an electrical machine dissipate heat into their surroundings by conduction, and convection assisted by radiation from the outer surfaces. the case of transformers 311, Conduction, This mode of dissipation of heat is important in the case of solid parts of machine like copper, iron and insulation, Consider two points in an clectric circuit having potentials 7, and V;, the current flowing between them is, (i-¥;) ee where Bis the electrical resistar.ce of the conducting medium between them. Similarly we can write the equation for heat flow by conduction between two surfaces separated by a heat conducting medium, as : Oem (3'1) where Qem=heat dissipated by couduction, W 6,, G=temperatures of two bounding surfaces, Re=thermal resistance of the conducting medium, thermal ohm (or in °C/W.) ‘Thermal Resistance, The thermal ohm is defined as the thermal resistance which causes a drop of 1°C per watt of heat flow. Eqn. 3'1 permits heat conduction problems to be solved by methods of calculation similar to those used in electric circuits. The thermal resistance, like electrical resistance, can be written as anf : Ryn tt (82) t . =" +3) pe=thermal resistivity of material, Q (thermal) mor °C—m/W; y=thermal conductivity, W/*C—m ; falength of medium, m ; ‘Searea of surface separated by the medium, m*% ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN Eqn. 31 can be written as : Game SP) w ol3'4) Heat dissipated per unit surface area by conduction is : gone fats W/m! 3°5) The temperature difference across the conducting medium o=t—0, =Qem Re 2+(8'6) ~am(#) 23-7)" Considering Eqn. 37, we find that a material having a large value of thermal resistivity will dissipate less amount of heat or alternatively for the dissipation of same heat the temperature rise will be larger. Table 3°1 gives the values of thermal resistivities of different materials, Table 31, Thermal Resistivities Thermal | Thermal Material Resistivity Material Resistivity (ohm metre) | (chm meirey Air (Still) 20 Asbestos 4 Cotton Cloth: 4 Empire cloth Micanite 8 Mica 3 Compressed paper 8 Sheet steel Paper 1s fs Tamnina- on ‘Transformer coil 625 across: lamina 0-05 to 01 Pressboard 6 ras oor Varnished cloth 5 Aluminium 0-005 Mica tape 16 to 66 ‘Copper: | 0:0026 "From: Table 3°1, we have p=20 for air and 7°5 for paper. Air has a greater thermal resistivity than paper and thus the presence of air pockets in the insulation of a frechine would have disastrous effects on heat dissipation, resulting in large temperature rises. Let us consider the case of a heated surface where the coolant (cooling medium) is a fluid and takes away the heat by conduction. Perfect contact between the heated surface and the coolant at the outer face is rare. Therefore, the temperature difference @ is mainly Sependent upon the fluid flow conditions i.e. whether the flow is stream line or turbulent and ‘spon the condition of the surface. There may be interfering oxide films, gas bubbles in Wtuids, anda. stagnant surface layer of fuid and therefore, the thermal conductivity of eolant is much smaller than that of metals. ‘The heat conducted across the interface dean 0e(Oy-~ ) Wiint (8'8) where 6 and # are the temperatures of surface and fluid respectively and pe has a val TP 5a 1500 for off and 10-30 for = ueHEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES a _ Example 3:1. 4 copper bar 12 mm i diameter ie insulated with micanite tube which fils tightly around the bar and into the rotor alot of an induction motor. The micanite tube is 15 mm thick and its thermal resistivity is 8 Qm. Calculate the loss that will pase from ‘copper bar to iron if a temperature difference of 25°C ie maintained between them. The length of bar is 0°2 m. Solution, Consider Fig. 3'1. ion in the path of heat flow Seperiphery of micanite at mean radius x ngth =n(12-+15) x 10°? X02 =8°48 x 10-8 m*, From Eqn. 3°2, thermal resistance of micanite tube, pt 8X1'5x10-* Rem 84X10 =1415.0 ym Eqn. 3'1 heat dissi Fig. 31, Conduction from oo From Eqn. 3‘1 heat dissipated, 9,31 Cnducton rom epppet 8,— 25. eon EE = ag ITT W. Example 3:2. The thermal conducti of assembled armature laminations is 20 time: as great along the direction of laminations as in the di ‘ction across the laminations. Calcule the loas that will be conducted across the laminations atack 40 mm thick and 6000 mm* iin crosa section with a difference of 20°C. Given that a difference of 5°C will cause 25 W to be conducted through a cross section of 2500 mm? in area and 20 mm thick measured along the laminations, Solution. Given : Qem=25 W, #20 mm=20% 10°" m 8=2500 mm'=25 x10 mt, and —,=5°C. ‘This data refers to a direction along the laminations. From Eqn. 34, - (0-6) 2510-5 Oem EF RENE XTO® ‘Thermal resistivity along the direction of laminations p= 0025 Om. Hence thermal resistivity across the 1aminations==20 x 0'025=0'5 Q m. agi __ festivity across the laminations (sein given tha rato SoEin along the laminations “22 } Applying Eqn. 3°4, heat conducted across the laminations 5(0,—6)) Cen 600% 10-*x20 = ysxaxior ow | 342, Radiation, The heat dissipated by radiation from a surface depends {ts temperature and its other characteristics like colour, roughness etc.38 BLECTRICAL MACHINE DESION For the case of a very small spherical radiating surface inside a large and or black spherical shell, the heat radiated per unit surface is given by Stefan Boltzmaun law : Geaa=5°7X 10 e(Ty*—To!) W/m? +(8'9) absolute temperatures of the emmitting surface and the ambient medium respectively, K ; 6, G=temperatuics of the emitting surface and the ambient medium respectively, °C 5 e=co-efficient of emissivity 5 =I for perfect black bodies and is always less than unity for others. where 7, ourtt able 82 gives the covficient of emissivity.and absorption factor for different types of surfaces, Table 32, Emissivity and Absorption Factors Absorption factor o10 os o1s - om - “Sheet oss - Metal Fai nian oss os Lead Paints White 050 02s Grey 09s o75 Eqn. 39 can be written as: 57X10 e(T—TMT PAT Tob To + Te] }=[(273-+6,)—(273-+ 64) = 8,058 represents the temperature rise of the body, above the ambient medium The term (7,24+-7,'7, +7, To!-+T,2) varies relatively little within conventional temperature limits for electrical machines and so Eqn. 3°9 can be written as : qrat=5°7 X10" eK T,~2a) =25°7x 10 eK(9,—80) W/m? where KemlTye+ Ty Pot TT + Te). ‘The value of ‘e' for cast iron or steel surface, varnished insulation cte. is between 0'90 t0.0'97, Assuming a value of 0°83 for safety, we have : grea=5°7X 10" X0°83 Ke(8,—6,) =4'8X 10 Ke(,—04)=Aroa(8,—O0) : Neat. Witt (311) (3°10)HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES % where Aeat=4'8X 10" Ke ~mollified specified eat dissipation or emissivity measured in W/m* at a temperature rise of 1°. Its valuedepends upon the temperature 6, and 6 and hence is not constant. Table 3°3 gives the value of Area with respect to temperature rises and temperatures of ambient medium. Table 3:3, Specific Heat Dissipation (Radiation) in W/m*—°C Temperature of ambient medium 05°C Temperature rise oC - - 2 5 508 2 sa 0 60s 80 730° “Phe total heat dissipated by radiation is ax S—Arae ON watt 13-12) sand transformers radiation dors not accompanied by convection. ‘Therefore jormally occur by itself fhe following expression In electrical and in almost every case it i may be couveniently used, qree=29 67 W/m? (13) Examining Table 3°2, we find that the valuc_of co-ctheient of emissivity for dull metallic point is 0°9 while for polished metal it is "15. This means that the specific heat dissipation (W/m*—°C) due to radiation for surfaces painted with dull metallic paints is large, Hence all the electrical machines are painted with dull metallic paints (usually grey in colour) in order to have a large heat dissipation due to radiation. This keeps the tempera- ture rise of the machines to a low value. ‘Some electrical apparatus, particularly transformers are used for outdoor duty. The may absorb radiant heat from the sun by’ Hasolation, “The earth's outer atmosphere Teceives about 1'3 kW/m? and under favourable climatic and air conditions, about two third of this energy may reach the earth’s surface. In case the absorption factor of a surface is high, {approaching unity) it may absorb large energy by insolac‘on thereby its temperature rises byafew degrees. However, if the absorption factor is small, the sun's radiation is re-emitted. Example 3:3, A heat radiating body can be assumed to be spherical aurface with enissivity=0°8. The temperature of the body is 60°C and that of the walle of the ac laa ‘which i ts placed, is 20°C. Find the heat radiated from the body im walt per aquare metre. Solution, We have 8, Ty=273-4+60=333 K =273-+-20=293 K. Using Eqn. 3°9, Heat radiated | qream5‘7X 10-* X0°6 (333-2934) =224'6 Wit,0 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN Example 3:4. A 2607, 1EW, single clement resistor ia made from 0'2 mm thick nickel chrome aig: The, tempiratre vise of rip ie otto exceed 300°C over the ambient temperature of 80°C. Calewlate the length and width of the strip. Assunie, emiasivity=0'9 radiating efficiency =0'75, resistivity of nickel chrome 1X 10* Om. Solution, Temperature of strip 6=300+30=330°C, ‘Temperature of ambient medium @,=30°C. Absolute temperature of strip 7,=330+273=603 K, Absolute temperature of ambient medium Tym 304+273—303 K. Coefficient of emissivity =0°9. Fifective co-efficient of emissivity, e=0°75 X0'9=0'675, From Eqn. 3°9, heat dissipated by radiation qream5°7X 10% 0 (Tyt— Ty!) =5°7 x 10-*x0°675 (603'—-303") = 4760 W/m". i m= Voltage? .(250)" Resistance of strip Tooo “6252 Let, telength of strip, m; w=width of strip, m ; and t=xthickness of strip, m. ‘Area of cross section of strip=wX tw 0'2 x 10" 0°20 107! m*, Resistance of strip R= 2 wpe TIxIOFw wy Heat conducted through the strip, Qe=PR loss between 0 and strip ara 2 ‘Thermal resistance of the strip edt gl ode (8°88) (8°94) (ji) Consider that the overhang is considerably hot and therefore the heat produced in the embedded portion of the conductor is to be conducted through the slot insulation to the iron core. We have now to compute the temperature difference between ‘copper and the surrounding iron. Referring to Fig. 3° Let Wesswidth of the slot, m5 dyedepth of slot, m; tethickness of insulation, m ; pemthermal resistivity of insulation ; Om.Heat produced in the conductor garth. ‘Area to the path of heat flows 1{2de+ We). i immulation Beet Thermal resistance of innulation Be=—y7oqPt wy <. From Eqn. 3°6, temperature gradient across the insulation, L t Oo TREE Po ee (3°35) We atm (3°35) Putting Temas, we have : put : 8 On os oH, C (3°36) Heating of Tarbo-alcernator-Rotors, The temperature difference between the conductors in a slot and its iron walls en falta Caer We) We can neglect the term Ws for the case of strip copper laid flat in the rotor slots . of turbo-alternators because the heat will not travel down the layers of insulation, °O, (See Eqn. 3'35) <. For turbo-alternator rotors, (837) Example 39, Caleulote th, umpeaiure diferene betwen he cane af the embedded portion of a conductor ond the overhang. ‘The length of the machine ia O'S m andthe Surent density i the “nducor iad Alm. The thermal reiiiy of WT a0b6 tim Aavume! that he total hect prodused ta conduct along” the Tengh onducors ond the eecrical reilly of oonducior ta 0-021 10-* Om. Solution, From Eqn. 3°34, vom 0-021 x 107*x(4x1098x0-0025 x 0 ss See A/jam'—4% 10° A/a Example 3:10, 4 6600 volt alternator’ has open lots cath containing 4 conduc- ‘tore. Bach conductor has a cross section 4X8 mm" and carries @ eurrent oj of 200 A. The insulation between the condectore ond the lot walle te 3 mm thick and has « thermal resilivily of 3 Om. ‘The length of elot portion of conductor is 0°8 m. Caleulate the temperature difference between the conductor and the alot walle if: (0) the voile fs tightly im the slots £ there t2 on air 0°6 mm thick benwcon the coils and the alot walle. I has thermal rete of 30. Tabs the verkaloiy of evn ee C4810" Om. elation, Total copper low in each slot \ x!HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 51 ‘The area presented to the path of heat flow is calculated at the centre of insulation thickness, 8=0°3 x [(8+-3)+2(4%6-+1°5)] x 10-*=18°6 x 107" mt, From Eqn. 3°7, temperature difference across the insulation 0 Gem. SE 91 x SABIE? 10-16 °C. Therefore 10°16°C is the temperature between the coil and the slot walls if the coils tightly fit into the slots. (Gi) The calculation of area presented to the path of heat flow through air is based upon the outer dimensions of the insulated coil. S=93 x [(B4+2X 3)+2(4 x 6+8)] x 10-%= 204 x 10-8 mt, ‘Thickness of air space =0°5 mm.=0°5X 10" m. ‘Thermal resistivity of air =23 Om. ‘Temperature difference across the air space 20x0'5 x10" 20°3x10-* ‘The insulation and the air space are in series in the path of heat flow. Hence, total temperature difference be.ween the conductor and the slot wall=10°16-+10'34=20'5°C. ‘This shows that even a small air space between the coil and the slot walls may result in serious rise in temperature of the conductors. . Example 3:11. The inner dimensions of the former of feld coil of a d.c. generator are 150X250 mm. The former is 25mm thick. Calculate the heat conducted across the former from winding to core if there ia an air epace I'0 mm. wide between the former and the pole core. The thermal conductivity of former and air ie 0°166 and 0-05 WimC respectively. The winding height ia 200 mm and the temperature rise is 40°C. Solution. Area of path of heat flow S==2 (150+ 250) X200 mm*=0°16 m’. From Eqn. 3°3, thermal tesistance of former =21x, w= 10°34°C. t 25x 10-8 = G5 ~TieexoTe ~7% O- 10x 107% ‘Thermal resistance of air space ope s og =0'125 O. The former and the air space offer thermal resistance to the heat flow from winding to pole core and their thermal resistances are in series. Total thermal resistance to heat flow Re=0°094+0'125.=0°219 Q. Heat conducted Qem= iM moe m182°6 W. COOLING OF ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINES 36, Cooling and Agsociated Terminology. Indian Standards Specification ‘TS €362 —1971 “Designation of Methods of Cooliny of Rotating Electrical Machines” defines terms connected with cooling of Rotating trical, chines. Some of the commonly used terms are explained below + 1, Cooling. A process by'means of which heat resulting from losses occuring in a machine is givensap ts primary coolant by incresing its temperature, ‘The heated .52 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN primary coolant may be replaced by new coolant at lower temperature or may be cooled by a secondary coolant in some form of heat exchanger. 2, Primary Coolant, A medium (liquid or gas) which, by being at a lower tem- perature than a part of a machine and in contact with it, removes heat from that part. 3, Secondary Coolant. A medium (liquid or gas) which, being at a lower temperature than the primary coolant, removes the heat from the primary coolant in a heat exchanger. 4. Heat Exchanger, A component intended to transfer heat from one coolant to another while keeping the two eoolants separate (i.¢. air cooled heat exchanger, water cooled heat exchanger, double wall, ribbed tubes, etc.) 5, Inner Cooled (Direct Cooled) Winding. A winding which has either Lollow conductors or tubes which form an integral part of the winding, through which the coolant flows. 6, Open Circuit Cooling. A method of cooling in which the coolant is drawn from medium surrounding the machine, passes through the machine and then returns to the surrounding medium. 7, Closed Circuit Cooling System, A method of cooling in which a primary coolant is circulated in a closed circuit through the machine, and if necessary through a heat exchanger. Heat is transferred from the primary coolant to the secondary coolant cither through the structural parts or in the heat exchanger. 8 Dependent Circulating Circuit Component, A separate component in the coolant circulating circuit which is dependent for its operation on the operation of the main machine. 9. Independent Circulating Circuit Component. A scparate component in the coolant circulating circuit which is independent of the operation of the main machine. 10, Integral Circulating Circuit Component, A component in the coolant circulating circuit which forms part of the machine, and which can be replaced only by partially dismantling the main machine. 11, Machine Mounted Circulating Circuit Component. A component in the coolant eirculating’circuit which is mounted on machine, and forms part of it, but which can be replaced without disturbing the main machine. 12,’ Separately Mounted Circulating Circult Component, A component in the coolant circulating circuit which is associated with a machine, but which is not’ mounted on or integral with it. ° 37, Methods of Cooling. The faccor which determines the size of a machine for a given duty is the temperature ‘rise which occurs as a result of the various losses in the machine. Maximum allowable values of temperature rise in various parts of a machine have been standardized by Interfational Electro-technical Commission. It is possible that, as new insulating materials suitable for withstanding higher temperatures are developed, these values will be revised upwards ; but for the immediate future, the greatest gains of output from a given size of machine are likely to arise from improvements in the cooling techniques. . Small electrical machings in the fractional horse power range may be cooled by natural means. In this methed to external devices are used and the cooling is done by natural radiaticn and convection assisted by random air currents set up by rotor where the frames are open. But all modem electricil machines are characterized by large losses per unit area of surfaces of the machine, which dissipate heat into the ambisnt medium and hence artificial cooling methods are necessary in order to avoid excessive temperature rises during machine53 In most cases the covling of electrical rrachines is done by air streams and this cooling is called “Ventilation”. In high speed machines such_as_turbo-alternators, hydrogen is used for cooling. There are m chines in which water is used for cooling. 38. Cooling System, According to IS : 4722-1968 “Specification for Rotating Electrical Machines” the cooling systems are classified into three types dopending upon the origin of cooling. _ 1, Natural Cooling. ‘Tlic machine, is cooled by natural air currents set up either by rotating parts or due to temperature differences. ‘The machine thus is ccoled without the ‘use of a fan by the movement of air and radiation. 2, Self Cooling. Tiw machine is cooled by cooling air driven by a fan mounted on the rotor or one driven by it. 3, Separate Cooling. The machine is cooled cither by a fan not driven by its shaft, or it is cooled by a conling medium other than air put into motion by means not belonging to the machine. é The cooling of machines according to the manner of cooling is of following types + 1, Open Circuit Venti The heat is given up dircetly to the cooling air through the machine which is being continuously replaced. 2, Surface Ventilation. ‘he heat is given up by tie cooling medium from the exe ternal surface of a totally «closed machine. 3, Closed Circuit Ventilation, The heat is transferred to the cooling medium through in intermediate cooling medium circulating in a closed circuit through the machine and ii cool 4, Liquid Cooling. Parts of the machine carry water or another kind of liquid flowing through them, or they are immersed into a liquid. ~, Inner Cooling of Windings, This is of two types : (4) Inner Gas Cooling. Onc or all windings are cooled by a gas, for instance hydrogen, flowing internally through the conductors or coil. i) Inner Liquid Cooling. One or all windings are cooled by a liquid, for instance water, flowing internally through the conductors or coils. 9, Enclosures for Rotating Electrical Machines. The problem of ventilation in rotating clectrical machines is closely linked with the types of enclosures used. The various types of enclosures® used are : 1, Open Machine, One in which there is no restriction to ventilation other than that necessitated by good mechanical construction, 2, Open Pedestal Machine (OP). An open machine which has pedestat bearing supported independently of the machine frame. 3, Open End.Bracket Machine (EB). An open machine having-end brackets of which the bearings form an integral part. : 4, Protected Machine (P).’ A machine in which the internal rotating parts and live parts are protected mechanically from accidental or inadvertent contact, while ventilation is not materially impeded. 5, Screen-Protected Machine (SP). A protected machine in which the venti. lating openings are not less than 64°5 mm* in area. Such protection may be provided by “FE-I968 “Specitcation for Rotating Electrical Machine”. All types of enclonures, other than thow areiveria 2,3 seo noch. that internal rotating and live paris are protected against sondentel or inadvertent comtact HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES:54 . BLECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN screens of wire m*sh, expanded metal, perforated metal or other suitable covers. The use ‘of openings smaller than 64°5 mm? is not recognized, as such openings are liable to become closed in service. 6, Drip-Proof Machine (DP). A protected machine in which the opening for ventilation are so protected as to exclude vertically falling water or dirt. 7. Splash.Proof Machine (SPLP). A protected machine in which the ventilating openings are so constructed that drops of liquid or solid particles falling on or reaching any part of them machine at any angle between the vertically downward dircetion and 100° from that direction cannot enter the machin», whether the machine is ru:ning or at rest, by splashing, or otherwise, either directly or by striking and running along a surface. 8. Hose.Proof Machine (HSP). A protected machine so enclosed as to exclude water whether the machine is running or at rest, when washed by a hose having a 9°5 mm diameter nozzle with a maximum pressure of 3°5 kg/em* for a period not exceeding 30 seconds, from a minimum distance of 1°8 metres. 9. Pipe-Ventilated or Duct-Ventilated Machine, A machine in which there is a continuous supply or fresh ventilating air, the frame being so arranged that the ventilating air may be conveyed to and/or from’ the machine through pipes or ‘ducts attached ‘to the enclosing case. (a) A pipe-ventilated or duct-ventilated machine may be one of the following three types : (é) With provision for inlet duet only. (ii) With provision for inlet and outlet ducts. (iis) With provision for outlet duct only, (6) A pipe-ventilated or duct-ventilated machine may be cooled by one of the following means = (i) Self-ventilation (PV) Forced-draught with air supplied by external pressure (PVFD) (sii) Induced draught with airdrawn through the machine by external means (PVID). 10, Totally Enclosed Machine (TE). A machine so constructed that the enclosed air has no connection with the external air but is not necessarily ‘air-tight’. 11, Totally Enclosed Fan.Copled Machine (TEFC). A totally enclose machine with cooling augmented by a fan, driven by the motos itself, blowing external air over the cooling surface and/or through the cooling passages, if any, incorporated in the machine. 12, Totally Enclosed Separately Air-Cooled Machine (TESAC). A totally- enclosed machine with conling augmented by a separately-driven fan blowing external air over the cooling surfaces and/or through the cooling passages, if any, incorporated in the machine. 13, Totally Enclosed Water or other Liquid-Cooled Machine (TEWO). A totally enclosed machine with cooling augmented by water-cooled or other liquid-cooled surfaces embodied in the machine itself, , 1 A Totally Enclosed Closed Air Circuit Machine, A totally enclosed machine having special provision for cooling the enclosed air by passing it through. its cooler, usually external to the machine, The cooler may be of any recuguised form using (§) Air (CACA) (i) Water (CACW) ) Other suitable cooling medium. (iHEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 55 15, Totally Enclosed Closed Gas Circuit Machine (CGGW). A totally enclosed machine cooled by gas other than air, the cooling gas being circulated through associated water-cooled gas coolers. 16, Weather.Proof Machine (WP). A machine so constructed that it can work without further protection from weather conditions specified by the purchaser. * 17. Watertight Machine (WT), A machine 10 constructed that it will withstand, without damage or sign of leakage, complete immersion in water to a depth of not less than 1 m, or subjection to an external water pressure of 0'l kg/cm* for a period of one hour. The test for watertightness shall be made with the machine stationary and the temperature of the machine shall not exceed the temperature of the water in which it is immersed. 18, Submersible Machine, A machine capable of working for an indefinitely long period when submerged under a specified head of water. 19, Flame Proof Machine (FLP). A machine which complies with the requirements of IS :2148—1962 “Specification for flame-proof enclosures of electrical apparatus”, 340, Induced and Forced Ventilation jon and separate ventilation may be subdivi''ed into two categories : i) Forced ventilation. AIR OUTLET (TET FY oy | =a mer ARMATURE fy Coe Fig. 38. Induced ventilation with internal fan, pin AR — ourte’ Coa ARMATURE :36 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN The ventilation of the machine is induced if the fan produces a decreased pressure of air inside the machine causing the air to be sucked into the machine under the external atmospheric pressure. The air is then pushed out by the fan into the atmosphere. Figs. 3.8 and 5°9 show the induced ventilation using respectively internal and external fans, The ventilation of machine is said to be forced if the fan sucks the air from the atmosphere and forces it into the machine, from where itis then pushed out to the atmosphere (Figs. 3°10 and 3°11). Induced self ventilation is most commonly used in machines of small and medium Power outputs. In this case the built in fan is mounted on the shaft within the end shield Te Tine a S 2 iim at, ‘ oumteT Fig. 3:10, Forced ventilation with internal fan, ‘on the driving end. In induced ventilation cold air enters the machine whereas with forced ventilation the temperatrure of the cooling air rises on account of losses in the fan, ‘Thus the amount of air required to cool the machine is higher with forced ventilation. However in the past few years quiet operation of electrical machines has become an important requirement. ‘The fan is one ofthe major sources of nele cially when the inside diameter of the end shield is nearly equal to the outside diameter of fan. Low noise AIR OUTLET Fle. 3-14, Fosced ventilation with external fan,HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES a7 level machines are designed with smaller specific loadi:.gs and consequently losses per unit dissipating surfuce are small. This permits the use of fans with smaller diameters. In such cases it is possible to use forced self ventilation (Fig. 3°10). In induction motors having radial ducts in the stator and rotor, forced self ventilation is adopied asa rule. There are electrical machines in which combination of radial and axial forced self ventilation is also used. _ 311. Radialand Axial Ventilation, The ventilating systems can be classified into three types depending upon how the air passes over the heated machine p.itts, as : (6) Ravtial, (ii) Axial, (ii) Combined Radial and Axial. 3111, Radial Ventilating System. ‘This system is most commonly employed because the move ment of rotor induces a natural centrifugal movement of air which may be augmented by provisions of fans if required. Fig. 3°12 (a) shows the radic! system for machines with smill core lengths. The end shields are shaped to guide air on the coverhang and then on to the back of the core. ‘This method is suitabl: far machines upto about 20 kW. | For larger machines, which have large core lengths, the core is subdivided in order to provide radial ventilating ducts as shown in Fig. 3'12(b). The air now passes radially through these ducts, the path of airin the ducts b.ing parallel to that over the overhang. The core is normally divided into stacks 40 10 80 mm thick, with ventilating Fig. 312. Radial systems of venti ducts of width 10 mm in between them. The use of 10 mm wide radial ventilating ducts has been a universal practice until recently. However, it has been found that with air flowing up the radial ducts only a layer 3 mm wide in contact with the core walls is effective in cooling and the middle 4mm wide band contributes very little to cooling of the core. Therefore some firms have started manufacturing machines with radial ventilating ducts of 65 mm width, The advantages of radial system are : (i) minimum energy losses for ventilation (ti) sufficiently: uniform temperature rise of machine in the axial direction. ‘The disadvantages are : (i) it makes the machine lengths larger as space for ventilating ducts has to be provided along the core length, (ii) the ventilating system sometimes becomes unstable in respect to quantity of cooling air flowing. ° In radial ventilation, a high rate of heat dissipation is possible in the air gap between stator and rotor on account of high air speeds accompanied by turbulence. 112, Axial Ventilating System, The axial ventilating system as employed in induction machines is shown in Figs. 3°13 (a) and (6). In this case axial ducts are provided. If the axial ducts are arranged on the rotor, it is known as simple axial system while if the axial ducts are provided on both stator and rotor, it is called a double axial system. This system of ventilation is suitable for machines of medium output and high speed. This is because in high speed machines, a solid rotor construction with restricted spider is used in order to avoid centrifugal stresses and this restricts the provision of radial ventilating ducts and hence axial ventilation has to be used. In order to increase the cooling: surface holes may be punched where.considerable heat dissipation occurs. This’ no Soubt “improves cooling ; but requires a large core diameter for the increased core depth,58 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN The disadvantages of axial ventilation are (i) non uniform heat transfer--it is clear from Fig. 3°13 that the. temperature of the end fiom which the air leaves is higher than that of the end where the jair enters. This is because the air gets hot in its passage from the entering end to the leaving end, (i) increased iron loss—the provision of axial ventilating AIR IN AIR OUT, eT any UHI yn FAN Te RADIAL oe buct —4 croececece| oF Fig. 313. Axial system of ventilation 314, Combined axial and radial vemtilat ducts behind the slots of the stator reduces the amount of iron giving rise to increased flux density in the stator core ; this increases the iron loss. However in a large number of cases this loss is more than compensated by improved cooling. 3-113 Combined Axial and Radial Ventilating $)stem, ‘[his method is usually employed for large motors and small turboalternators. ‘This is because on these machines the. area of axial ducts requited to carry sufficient quantity of cooling air becomes excessive ving rise to a large iron loss and therefore a mixed axial and radial system has to be used. Fig. 314 shows the mixed system of ventilation. The air is drawn into the machine from one end and is encouraged to pass through the ducts by baiiling the fan end of the rotor spider. ‘The rotor mounted fant forces out the air. 3:12, Cooling of Totally Enclosed Machines. ‘Totally enclosed machines are used in applications where the use of open and protected machines is inadmissible i.e. in cases ‘where the air contains objectionable impurities like explosive gases and acid fumes that may destroy the insulation. In a totally enclosed machine the inside of machine can have no air connection with the outside and all the heat developed inside should be dissipated into the surroundings from the external surface of the frame. If this heat is dissipated by natural radiation and convection the cooling is not very effective ard thus the rating of the machine is low. Hence the use of totally enclosed machines, except when they are absolutely necessary, is quite uneconomical as such machines are always heavier and more expensive than open or protected machines. Totally enclosed machines are of two types : Outer 1, Ventilated Frame Machines, In self Frame ventilated frame totally enclosed machines a fan is oh, mounted on the shaft outside the working parts of TTT cS mI dy + air out nthe machine. This fan blows air over the caracass through a space between the main housing and a thin cover plate. (Fig. 3°15). Fig. 316 shows STITT another arrangement, The fan pushes the. air A (i i along the surface of the machine which is provided f- —- ——-——- —-} "type of ventilation is effective for machines with i iJated f4 HI wer outputs upto 25 kW. In larger machines Fig 1S. Sed machine foutput power upto 200 kW) it is necessary to with ribs. The fan is enclosed by another cover in + order to secure required direction of air flow. ThisHEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES so provide in addition, circulation of air insidc the machine 10 improve heat dissipation. This is done by providing another fan inside the machine (Fig. 3°17) which may Fig. 3.16. Self ventilated frame-totally enclosed machine. circulate air in the inner portion, The advantage of using an internal fan is thatit avoids temperature gracisnts actoss the air gap. It sl ould be noted that the air inside acts as the primary coolant and the air outside (blown by the ovter fan) acts as secondary’coolant,” Outer frame Alrout Internat fan External STATORCORE: fan : Air in l a er woe ee ROTOR: AXIAL DUCT Fig, 3.17, Self ventilated totelly erclosed mech'nes. (with external fan) 2. Ventilated Radiator Machines. In such machines an iris. fan circulates air inside the machine. An ‘external fan sucks the hot air ficm inside and pushes it into the radiators (heat exchangers) provided on the frame of the machine as shown in Fig. 318.. ‘The hot air is cooled in the radiators by fans which are not an integral part of the machine and is then fed back to the machine. ‘This type of cooling allows totally enclosed induction machincs to be built upto 5 MW in a single unit. ‘At higher ratings the outside air may be cooled by water if there is a convenient source (of water). 313, Cooling Circuits, Both self and independent ventilation may be of two types, (i) open circuit ventilation, and (ii) closed circuit ventilation. In the open circuit ventilation cold air is drawn in and forced out after passing over the heated machine parts. Thus fresh air is continously drawn in and expelled. | In large Taschines which require large volumes of air, it is necessary to clean air with suitable filters Trorder to prevent clogging of cooling ducts’ with dust. Ttis also necessary to dry the air todiminate moisture. ‘The filters have to be frequently cleaned. The filters also increase reaistance to ait flow and thus additional fan power is required to calculate air. It is clear that if open circuit ventilation is used for the largest machines which require many tons of cooling air per hour the operating costs will be prohibitive. Also no filter Temeves all the dust from the ventilating air and therefore for these reasons, open circuit ventilation is not used for the largest size machines. ter to‘clly enclosed60 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN A complete micaus of securing clean cooling air is the closed circuit ventilation system, Iti same volume of air passes through a tlosed ciceuit. This circuit consists of various pay With a chamber “in the » foundations containing the fins, sir coolers, drying agents, cle. The hot air coming from semenarow enor ston Fig. 319. Closed ci frame is passed through ventilation of an air cooled turbo-alternator. water cooled air cooler where the air ir is then returned to the inlet optaings of the machine where 3°19 shows Closed circuit ventilation of an air cooled turbo-alternator. 314, Cooling of Turko.alternators. The problem of cooling of turbo-alternators is one of tie most complex problems in electiical engincering since being high speed machines their dimensions as compared with those of hydro-electric gencrators for instance, are much smaller. In fact the problems associated with cooling arise because turbo-alternators are characterized by long core lengths and small diameters. The varions methods for cooling turbo-alternators are described below. 315, Air cooled Turbo-alternators, ‘The cvoling of turbo-alternators by air is used for small units. The common noticn that the air cooled turbo-alternator is gettin, obsolete is not correct. In fact gas turbine generating units rated at 17°5 MW, 25 M' and 35 MW which are getting into prominence as emergency auxiliaries in large power stations are air cooled machines. Also therc are a number of 30 MW and 60 MW air_ cooled machines which- are yet in service. The various methods used for air cooling of turbo- alternators are : 1. One sided Axial Ventilation. Machines for power outputs upto 3 MW jit the use of one sided parallel axial ventilation. In this method the machine is supplied with air by propcller fan and the air enters the machine from one side and leaves from the other. ‘The disadvantage of one sided axial ventilation in long machines is the great difference in the temperature rise of the winding-along the length of the machine. 2, Two sided Axial Ventilation, In this method the air is forced through the machine from both the sides. The two sided system of ventilation has the advantage that the end windings on both sides of machine have the same temperature rise, This method can be used for machines of rating upto 12 MW. 1 outlets in the mack cooled. ‘The cool it is recirculated.HEATING AND COOLING OF ELCCTRICAL MACHINES 61 3. Multiple Inlet System. The above methods of axial ventilation cannot be used for turhoshurnstors having long core lengths because there is a difficulty in supplying the central parts of the core with requisite volume of cool air. This is. beea 1 long gore the air gets bot b: fore it reaches the central portions. ‘Thus in larger machines multiple inlet system is =dapted In pr madtiple inlet system the compartments, these being used alter Fig. chambers the is divided into a number of yas inlet and. outlet chambers as shown in inlet chambers the air is dirccted radially inwards while in the outlet Fis directed radially outwards. Air is forced under prescurr into the stator STATOR CASING-AIR INLET AIR OUTLET CHAMBER. Fig. 3-20, Multiple inlet system. casing where it enters the inlet chamber A from where it flows radially inwards into the stator ducts. Part of this air passes through the axial ducts, the remainder flowing along the air gap. It then passes radially outwards in the adjacent sections of the core to the outlet chambers as at ‘B*, ‘The air is drawn from the outlet chambers and is sent to the coolers where it is cooled and is recirculated. This method can be used for machines of rating upto 60 MW. 3:16, Hydrogen Cooling and Hydrogen Cooled Turbo.alternators. When the problem of increasing generator rating was tackled it became clear that the ait cooled machines did not provide the necessary scope for progress. Building of air cooled turbo-alternators above 50 MW rating presented serious ventilation difficulties, not only in circulating the - requisite quantity of air through the machine but also because the high fan power required to circulate the air. An idea of the quantitics involved can be had from the data ofa 60 MW machine which has a total loss of 1000 kW and requires about 150 tons of air per hour and a fan power of about 100 kW. Thus the air circulating fan power required for this duty is high and on this score alone the air cooled generator can be ruled ‘out when it becomes necessary to increase generator ratings. Evidently to push up generator ratings an alternative cooling medium had to be found. That medium was lydrogen. - ‘The utilization of hydrogen for the cooling of electrial machines gives the following '62 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN 316-1 Advantages of Hydrogen Cooling 1, Increased Efficiency. An increase in efficiency results from reduction in the ventilation losses (like windage) which are a major portion of the total losses ina. high “speed machine. This is because the density of hydrogen is only 0°07 times the density “of air and therefore the power required to circulate hydrogen should be about 1/14 of the power required for an quvalemt quantity of air. In practice the power required is about 1/10 of that for air when hydrogen is 98%, Calculations show that in 50 MW ‘and 100 MW turbo-alternators with hydrogen cooling the efficiency is raised by approximately 0°8 per cent at full load attaining values of 99°0 to 99°2 per cent. 2, Increase im Rating, Hydrogen has a heat transfer co-efficient 1°5 times and its thermal conductivity is 7 times that of air. Consequently when hydrogen is used as a coolant, the heat is more readily taken up from the machine parts and given out. Therefore heat gencrated is more effectively removed and the active materials canbe loaded more than is possible with air cooling. The high value of thermal conductivity of hydrogen, the temperature gradients across the film barrier between cooled surface and coolant and also across the coolant are reduced. On account of the above two factors, an increased output can be taken from a given frame size if hydrogen cooling is used. If conventional hydrogen cooling at 105 kN/m* (a little above atmospheric to avoid air leakage into hydrogen) is applied to a generator designed for air cooling, the overall advantage could be an increase in rating by 20-25 per cent. Ifthe gas pressure is raised. 10 300 kN/m (nearly three atmoshpere) the rating could be increased by about 35 per cent above the rating as an air cooled gancrator. This is because at higher pressures the co-efficient of heat transfer increases (for hydrogen it is 3°65 times that of air at a pressure of 300 kN/m*) and consequently the temperature gradient across film barrier reduces (see Fig. 3°25) allowing the machine rating to be increased. With conventional hydrogen cooling it is possible 10 increase the rating of a single unit to 200 MW. 3, Increase in Life, The life of a machine is mainly the life of winding insulation and air pockets in insulation can be sources of such high local temperatures that there is always the risk of insulation breakdown and fire. Tho thermal conductivity of hydrogen is nearly seven times that of of the same order as the winding insulation. When, therefore, there are pockets filled with hydrogen, heat conduction through them will be as good as through winding insulation and consequently high local temperature rises are not there. When airis used as a coolant the high voltage winding can fail due to destructive action of corona discharge. This is because air contains oxygen and nitrogen and durin corona discharge ozone, nitric acid and other chemical compounds are formed which att oragnic material in che insulation. On the other hand when hydrogen is used as coolant, sufficientoxygen to form ozone and destructive compounds in the event of corona discharge is not present. The danger from this source is, therefore, greatly reduced. Hence the use of hydrogen as a coolant greatly increases the life of machine, 4, Elimination of Fire Hazard, The outbreak of fire inside the machine is impossible as hydrogen does not support burning. §,.Smaller Size of Coolers. The size of coolers require to cool the gas are smaller in size when hydrogen is used as a coolant. 6, Leon Nolee, “The noise produced by a hydrogen cooled machina i leas as the sotor moves in a medium of smaller density. 316-2, Hydrogen Cooling System. Hi when mixed with air forms + explosive. mixture over a very wide range (4% to76%) of hydrogen in aly. ‘Therefore theHATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 6 frame of hydrogen cooled machines has to be made strong enough to withstand possible internal explosions without suffering serious damage. All joints in cooling circuits are made gas tight and oil film shaft seals arc used to prevent leakage of hydrogen. Fig, 3:21 shows two types of shaft seals, ‘The seals must accommodate axial expansion uf the rotor Hydrogen ‘de Hydrogen air side side! ‘Spring Oil feed Ol teed: (a), @) Fig. 321. Hydrogen shaft seals. 3°21 (a) shows the thrust face seal, the seal_bearing is a small thrust bearing held by springs to collar machined on the rotor shaft. ‘The seal oil is shaft and the stator frame. Fi forced in a groove in the bearing face, In Fig. 3°21 (6) the seal rings are two short bearings fitting closely to the rotor shaft but held apart by a greater spring. Sealing il is forced into the space between the two bearing rings and passes in two axial directions along the shaft. A part of the oil flows towards the inner (gas) side and other Part to the air side. The oil that flows towards air mixes with air, while the oil that goes towards hydrogen is collected and degassed. The risks of explosion in the machine casing are reduced by maintaining the hydrogen above atmospheric pressure so that any Ieakage is from machine to atmosphere where the hydrogen can he quickly dissipated. Initially a pressure of 105 kN/m? (lite above atmosphere) was used but as advantages of higher pressures (like increase in rating) became apparent pressures in modern conventially cooled turbowalternators have been increased to 200—300 kN/m*. Fans mounted on the rotor circulate hydrogen through the ventilating ducts and internally arranged gas coolers. ‘The gas pressure is maintained by an automatic. regulating tn pea t TS er cain ras a Geen wyaregen Fig. 3°22. Hydrogen cooling circuit,64 ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN jucing valve controlling the supply from gas cylinders. When filling and emptying ing of machine, an explosive hydrogen air mixture must be avoided, so that air is first displaced by carbon dioxide gas before hydrogen gas is admitted. The process is reversed when emptyin; It is usual to provide a drier to take up water vapour entering through seals. The purity of hydrogen is checked by measuring its thermal conductivity. Fig. 5°22 shows the machine andl the auxiliary equipment required for hydrogen cooling. 317, Direct Cooling and Direct Cooled Turto-alternators. The terms conventional cooling and direct cooling are explained first. Conventional Cooling. Conventionally cooled machines dissipate their losses toa coolant which is entirely outside the coil insulation. The cooling methods described above are all conventional methods. Direct Cooling. Direct cooling is the process of dissipating the armature and field winding losses to a cooling medium circulating within the winding insulation wall. Machines cooled in this manner are alo called “supercharged”, “inner cooled” or “conductor cooled” by various manufactur. rs. In this method the coolant either is in direct contact with concuctor copper or is separated only by materials having negligible thermal resistance. S171, Advantages of Direct Cooling . 1. The attempt is always to increase the rating. One way of doing it is by increasing the hydrogen pressure in conventional cooling. Rotor copper heating is the most serious limitation to the output from a conventionally cooled generator and increasing the hy- drogen pressure beyond 300 kN/em? gauge showed little increase in machine capability, (see Fig. 3°31). It is therefore logical to adopt direct cooling of rotor conductors in order to increase the machine rating. 2. Fig. 3°23 shows the stator of a large turbo-alternator. It is provided with both axial as well as-radial ventilating ducts through which hydrogen (or air) is forced. Rotors of large turbo-alternaturs are alo. provided with comparable ducting as shown in Fig. 3°23. In this case hydrogen (or air) under pressure is forced through a venti- Fig. 3°24. Rotor slot of turbo-alternators,HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 65 lating duct provided below the bottom of .the rotor slot This srrangement is suitable upto ratings of about 100 MW but above this rating the temperature gradient across the conductor insulation becomes high necessitating the use of direct Gonling: ‘The components of the temperature rise in a conventionally hydrogen ecole turbo-alternator are shown in Fig. 3°25. Itcan be seen that a considerchle temperatim drop cxists between the i conductor and the covlant in a conventionally cooted machine. The temperature gradients in this drop are across the slot itulation, across the iron and across the heat transfer barrier between coolant and the coved. suface. Sinen with direct cooling the coolant comes in direci contact with the conductor, the temperature Gradients acros slot insulation, teeth and surface barrier are almost completely eliminated ——— Pressure kn/m? ———» Fig. $25, Components of temperature rite In & conventiahy " rig. 3°27. Stator slot ot direct $26, Components of teaperature rise ta a direct Fit © re hydrogen cooled Turbo-ltemnator. hydrogen cooled Turbo-alternator,66 LACTRICAL MACHINE DES with the result that winding temperatures are considerably brought down. Fig. 3°26 shor the components of temperature rise of direct cooled (hydrogen) turbo-alternator. Tt is th evidere that much higher output can be taken from the machine with direct cooling. 3172, Coolants used for Direct Cooling. The coolants normally used a hydrogen, water and oil. 1, Hydrogen. In direct cooled syste 1 using hydrogen, both stator and rotor co: ductors are made hollow. Hydrogen is pumped through they conductors from one end { ‘he other. Fig. 3°27 shows slot with solid: sub-conductors. about the central cooling tub E,7, 3°28 shows a rotor slot having hollow conductors. The rotor conductors consist \ rectanglar tubes which are ventilated by a cooling circuit separate from that of tl staior, The hydrogen gas is admitted to.the tubes through flexible insulating conne tions at the ends froma centrifugal impeller mounted on the out board end of ti) rotor shaft. The rotor slot tubs are electrically connected at the overhang by suitab shaped copper bars to form inlet and . outlet parts. The hollow conductors ai made of hei drawn silver bearing copper, with synthetic resin bonded glass-cloth lamina insulation. It is possible to build machines upto ratings of about 300 MW by emplo: ing direct hydrogen cooling. 2, Water. The transition from direct hydrogen cooled to direct water coole turbo-alternator stator wirdings was a logical step for two reasons. Firstly, asl ratings of turbo-alternators increase, more space has to be provided for the conducto. for the flow of requisite quantity of cooling gas. Secondly, mechanical limitation on rotor di: meter makes it necessary to increase the physical size of the machine by increasing its lengt! and to circulate hydrogen through very long conductor lengths requires high pressure head Water as a coolant has suppersede ! hydrogen not only because of its superior heat transfe capacity but also because the viscosity of pure water is very small and it is possible t maintain flow in small tubes without building up dangerously high pressure heads. Th advantages of water as coolant are : 1. The power requited to circulate a given coolant is a function of mass c coolant and the presturo head required. ‘The mass of water required to remove a give: heat losin greater than that of hydrogen, but Because ofits (water) low viscosity the pumps power required is amall. 2. There is no temperature difference between cooling w and the-conductor and therefore, in water cooled generators i possible to ue a higher value of specific electric loading than is Possible with hydrogen cooling. ‘With direct water cooling it is possible to have ratings of about 300 MW. Direct Cooling System, Turbo-altermators of the Nat possible ratings wo far contemplated are likely to we hydro- yen cooled stator cores and direct water cooled stator and rotor windings. The resistivity, and hence effectiveness of water as a coolant lepends upon its purity. The resistivity of water should not be less ban 2000 Om. fore plants must be installed to provide dis- Hlled water. Connection of water pipes, which are at earth potential, vith the high tension armature presents one of the main problems water cooling. The connectors must provide a high resistance sath between armature and water manifold. A plastic tubing nown as polytetraftuoroethylene is used for this purpose. Fig. $°29 shows the stator slot of a direct water cooled turbo- Iterna”'. Direct . water ‘cooling of rotor winding presentsBEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES or | ——~ Insulation packing ot bottom of slot Slot ners coated with ‘Semi conducting material Sbt side Main conductor insulation of ‘mica tape applied hall-lop, and impregnated asbest tape coated on the outside surface with semicondveting material Copper tube subit 3'2 kW ‘TEMPERATURE RISE—TIME CURVES 321, Theory of Solid Body Heating, The temperature of a machine rises;when it jis run under steary load conditions starting from cold conditions. The temperature at first increases. at a rate determined by power wasted. As the temperature rises, the active parts of the machine dissipate heat partly by conduction, partly by radiation, and in most cases, largely by means of air cooling. The higher the temperature rise, the greater would be the effect of these methods of cooling. ‘Therefore, as the temperature rises, its rate of increase falls off owing to better heat dissipating conditions. As shown later, the temperature-time curve is exponential in nature. ‘The temperature of any part of machine, not only depends on the heat produced in itself but also on heat produced in other parts, This is because there is always a heat flow from one part to another ; for example, the heat produced in the part of the winding embedded in the slot. ows partially through the insulation fo the laminations ~ partially to the end windings. ‘Thus the end windings have to transfer to the air, not Saly the heat produced in them but also a part of the heat produced in the slot portion of the winding. Electrical machines are tot homogeneous bodies. ‘Their parts are made up of different materials like copper, iron and insulation, ‘These materials have diferent thermal resistivities and due to this, it is rather difficult to calculate the temperature of a part of a machine. However, itis worthwhile taking theory of heating of homogeneous bodies ax the basis for the process of machine heating. The results obtained from such a theory are to a certain degree, to the differant parts of machine as a whole, ‘Area of each duct m'ct2mm*HEATING AND COOLING OF BLECTRICAL MACHINES 6 Let Q=power toss or heat developed, J/s, or Wi Gorweight of active pasts of machine, ke + Amspecific heat, J/kg~°C 5 ‘S=cooling surface, m* ; A=specific heat dissipation, W/m*—°G ; eml/A=cooling co-efficient, °C =18/W , @==temperature rise at any time ¢, °C. Gn==final steady temp: rature rise while heating, 6,=final steady temperature rise while cooling, =initial temperature rise over ambient m=dium, °C ‘Trsheating time constant, s 321-1, Heating, Considering the conditions at any time ¢ from start, heat “ehergy developed in the body «luring an infinitely small tin dt, ssheat energy developed per second x di=Qat 43°44) IE curing this period dt the temperature of the borly rises by 8. the heat energy stored in the body, =weight of body x specific heat x difference in umperature =Gh ds, . +n(3°49) If in the process of heating, ‘Le temperature of the surface rises by ® over the ambient medium, at the instont considered, the lieat cnergy dissipated by the badly into the ambient ‘medium due to radiation, conduction and convection, ‘=specific heat dissipation x surface x temperature rise X time =AXSXOXdI=S AO de. +=(3°46) ‘As the heat developed in the machine is equal to'the heat stored in the parts plus the heat dissipated, we have from Eqns. 3°44, and, Pi Q dma hd0+8A0 a8 A347) or) a= (3°48) “ Tm, (48) oh Gn Solving the differential equation 3°44, Gh Sa t= loge (% a ex 1349) where X is the constant of integration. ‘The value of K is found by applying the boundary condition, when #0, we have O=61, Putting this in Eqn. $°49, we have : om Bog (2 -Bu) x * roger (sa *)Me : : BLECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN Substituting this value of K in Eqn, 3°49, a _ 4) 4a Qa ' he (& ar? +H be On «) (8°50) ‘The machine reaches a final steady temperature rise @m when t=90. Under this cone dition there is no further temperature rise and the zates of heat production and dissipation are equal. This means @=0 or Ghdo=0 when the machine attains final steady temperature rise. From Eqn. 3°47, for 0=0m, Qit=8 Adm dt or Om=@Q/3A (351) =Q/9 (3°52) Putting ta= 9- in Eqn. 350, we have Gh, om ty 8 Eee +(8 53) ‘The term @h/SA has the dimensions of time and is called the heating time constant ™ Tr=Gh/SA (3°54) Putting this value on in Eqn. Oe: tT a loge = +06(3°55) ey or oe o Gm (1-4) +6404, (3°56) Ifthe machine starts from cold conditions, 0. (No temperature tise over the ambient medium) ‘ Ot (1—e-"Fa) ASST; tion 9°57 isthe equation of temperature rise wi ‘ time cus kcxponental in tature an show in Fig. 325.7% time The temperature rise Heatiag Time Constant, Condder Eqn. 8°57, a Ty, t Putting t=Tain the above expression, we have, le, Ome (1—e-1) = 0°632 Ou, 3 ‘Thus we can dein the heating dane asthe time taken by the machine to attain O°682 of its ot steady temperature rise. The heating time Aoahtat ef a schin ithe index of tise “aken Fig. $35. Heating curve, by the machine to attain ity final steady temperature rise,HEATING AND COOLING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 7 Considering the relationship Ta=Gh/SA we conclude that the time constant is inversely proportional to A (specific heat dissipation). has a large value for well ventilated machines and thus the value of their heating time constant is small. The value of heating time constant is large for poorly ventilated machines. Since the volume of machine and hence its weight increases in proportion to the third power, and the surface area in proportion to second power of its linear dimensions, the heating tim: constant of a machine increases as first power of linear dimensions. Because of this large sized machines have large heating time constants. The heating time constant of a well-ventilated induction motor of about 20 kW rating may be of the order of minutes while that of large or totally enclosed machines may reach several hours or even days. The heating time constant of conventional electrical machines is usually within the range of } to 3-4 how Final Steady Temperature Rise, Considering the expression fa=@/9A, it is clear, other things being equal, the final steady temperature rise is directly proportional to the losves. Itis also evident that the final steady temperature rise is inversely proportional to surface area and specific heat dissipation. Thus for the same loss, the machine would attain a higher temperature rise if its dissipating surface is small or, if its ventilation is poor. 3212, Cooling. ‘The equation for cooling can be derived by considering Eqn. 8 47. at cnen+9n0 dt ‘The solution of above equation on — Ih ga ] a tow axon HE “Phe value of K is obtained by putting boundary conditions, when t=0, 0-61, From this we have, == 2 BA 0: a logs [ Gn Ge & je = Th QS ] or Ko PF tog L g-fw Substituting this value of K and proceeding as in the case of heating, we get, by (170) 4.00 where 04=0/SA =O/8 and TGHBA so(8'61) Jue of A under cooling conditions is usually different from that under heating condivons tnd wo bi heating "hd cooling time constants of a machine may have different values. chine is shut d hheat is produced and so its final steady temperature Ie mchine i shut dowry Oo te eee conditions Ego, $62 thu reiuce: to rise when cooling is zero or ome tt (3°62) i ia. 3°€ curve is alio exponential n nature as above Sane Ege 302 is nea" which are shut down while qn. 13" Fig. $48, Eqn, 362 ‘is a) ; it applied to mithines allpwege “tial removal of load.