Calculus

is a branch of mathematics that involves the study of rates of change. But the universe is moving and changing
no object is always at rest Mostly use in physics, engineering, economics, statistics, and medicine. 2 types of
calculus: Differential calculus =determines the rate of change of a quantity, Integral calculus =finds the quantity
where the rate of change is known.
originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of infinitesimals", is the mathematical study of
continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of
generalizations of arithmetic operations.
It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus. Differential calculus concerns
instantaneous rates of change and the slopes of curves. Integral calculus concerns accumulation of
quantities and the areas under and between curves. These two branches are related to each other by
the fundamental theorem of calculus. Both branches make use of the fundamental notions
of convergence of infinite sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit.[1]
Infinitesimal calculus was developed independently in the late 17th century by Isaac
Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.[2][3] Today, calculus has widespread uses
in science, engineering, and economics.[4]
In mathematics education, calculus denotes courses of elementary mathematical analysis, which are mainly
devoted to the study of functions and limits. The word calculus (plural calculi) is a Latin word, meaning originally
"small pebble" (this meaning is kept in medicine). Because such pebbles were used for calculation, the meaning of the
word has evolved and today usually means a method of computation. It is therefore used for naming specific methods of
calculation and related theories, such as propositional calculus, Ricci calculus, calculus of variations, lambda
calculus, and process calculus.

LIMIT is the value that a function (or sequence) "approaches" as the input (or index) "approaches"
some value.[1] Limits are essential to calculus (and mathematical analysis in general) and are used to
define continuity, derivatives, and integrals.
The concept of a limit of a sequence is further generalized to the concept of a limit of a topological net, and is
closely related to limit and direct limit in category theory.
In formulas, a limit of a function is usually written as

and is read as "the limit of f of x as x approaches c equals L". The fact that a function f approaches the
limit L as x approaches c is sometimes denoted by a right arrow (→), as in

Contents
Limit of a function

Whenever a point x is within a distance δ of c, the value f(x) is within a distance ε of L.

For all x > S, the value f(x) is within a distance ε of L.
Suppose f is a real-valued function and c is a real number. Intuitively speaking, the expression

means that f(x) can be made to be as close to L as desired by making x sufficiently close to c. In that case, the
above equation can be read as "the limit of f of x, as x approaches c, is L".
Augustin-Louis Cauchy in 1821,[2] followed by Karl Weierstrass, formalized the definition of the limit of a
function which became known as the (ε, δ)-definition of limit. The definition uses ε (the lowercase Greek
letter epsilon) to represent any small positive number, so that "f(x) becomes arbitrarily close to L" means
that f(x) eventually lies in the interval (L − ε, L + ε), which can also be written using the absolute value sign
as |f(x) − L| < ε.[2] The phrase "as x approaches c" then indicates that we refer to values of x whose distance
from c is less than some positive number δ (the lower case Greek letter delta)—that is, values of x within
either (c − δ, c) or (c, c + δ), which can be expressed with 0 < |x − c| < δ. The first inequality means that the
distance between x and c is greater than 0 and that x ≠ c, while the second indicates that x is within
distance δ of c.[2]
The above definition of a limit is true even if f(c) ≠ L. Indeed, the function f need not even be defined at c.
For example, if

then f(1) is not defined (see indeterminate forms), yet as x moves arbitrarily close to 1, f(x) correspondingly
approaches 2:
f(0.9) f(0.99) f(0.999) f(1.0) f(1.001) f(1.01) f(1.1)
1.900 1.990 1.999 undefined 2.001 2.010 2.100
Thus, f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to the limit of 2 just by making x sufficiently close to 1.

In other words,

This can also be calculated algebraically, as for all real numbers x ≠ 1.

Now since x + 1 is continuous in x at 1, we can now plug in 1 for x, thus .

In addition to limits at finite values, functions can also have limits at infinity. For example, consider

f(100) = 1.9900
f(1000) = 1.9990
f(10000) = 1.99990
As x becomes extremely large, the value of f(x) approaches 2, and the value of f(x) can be made as close to 2
as one could wish just by picking x sufficiently large. So in this case, the limit of f(x) as x approaches infinity is
2. In mathematical notation,

Limit of a sequence
Main article: Limit of a sequence
Consider the following sequence: 1.79, 1.799, 1.7999,... It can be observed that the numbers are
"approaching" 1.8, the limit of the sequence.
Formally, suppose a1, a2, ... is a sequence of real numbers. It can be stated that the real number L is
the limit of this sequence, namely:
which is read as
"The limit of an as n approaches infinity equals L"
to mean
For every real number ε > 0, there exists a natural number N such that for all n > N, we have |an − L| < ε.
Intuitively, this means that eventually all elements of the sequence get arbitrarily close to the limit, since
the absolute value |an − L| is the distance between an and L. Not every sequence has a limit; if it does, it is
called convergent, and if it does not, it is divergent. One can show that a convergent sequence has only one
limit.
The limit of a sequence and the limit of a function are closely related. On the one hand, the limit
as n approaches infinity of a sequence {an} is simply the limit at infinity of a function a(n) defined on the natural
numbers {n}. On the other hand, if X is the domain of a function f(x) and if the limit as n approaches infinity
of f(xn) is L for every arbitrary sequence of points {xn} in {X – {x0} } which converges to x0, then the limit of the
function f(x) as x approaches x0 is L.[3] One such sequence would be {x0 + 1/n}.
Limit as "standard part"
In non-standard analysis (which involves a hyperreal enlargement of the number system), the limit of a

sequence can be expressed as the standard part of the value of the natural extension of the
sequence at an infinite hypernatural index n=H. Thus,

.
Here the standard part function "st" rounds off each finite hyperreal number to the nearest real number (the
difference between them is infinitesimal). This formalizes the natural intuition that for "very large" values of the
index, the terms in the sequence are "very close" to the limit value of the sequence. Conversely, the standard

part of a hyperreal represented in the ultrapower construction by a Cauchy sequence , is simply the
limit of that sequence:

.
In this sense, taking the limit and taking the standard part are equivalent procedures.
Convergence and fixed point

A formal definition of convergence can be stated as follows. Suppose as goes from to is

a sequence that converges to , with for all . If positive constants and exist with

then as goes from to converges to of order , with asymptotic error

constant

Given a function with a fixed point , there is a nice checklist for checking the convergence of the

sequence .
1) First check that p is indeed a fixed point:

2) Check for linear convergence. Start by finding . If....

then there is linear convergence

series diverges
 then there is at least linear convergence and maybe something
better, the expression should be checked for quadratic
convergence
3) If it is found that there is something better than linear the expression should be checked for quadratic

convergence. Start by finding If....

then there is quadratic convergence provided that is

continuous

then there is something even better than quadratic convergence

then there is convergence that is better than linear but still not
does not exist quadratic
[4]
Computability of the limit
Limits can be difficult to compute. There exists limit expressions whose modulus of
convergence is undecidable. In recursion theory, the Limit lemma proves that it is possible to encode
undecidable problems using limits.[5]
In topology
In spaces without a metric
Limits of sequences can be defined in arbitrary topological spaces, even if the spaces are not metric spaces. In

an arbitrary topological space a point is called a limit of the sequence of points in if for

every open set containing there exists an index such that if then is contained in that
open set. In general topological spaces, unlike for the case of real numbers above, sequences can have more
than one limit.

Nets and filters

Sequences in topological spaces can be generalized to the concepts of nets, along with a corresponding
notion of a limit. A related notion, that of filters on topological spaces, also can have limits defined for them.

Continuous Function
At the basic level, teachers tend to describe continuous functions as those whose graphs can be traced without
lifting your pencil. While it is generally true that continuous functions have such graphs, this is not a very
precise or practical way to define continuity. Many graphs and functions are continuous, or connected, in some
places, and discontinuous, or broken, in other places. There are even functions containing too many variables
to be graphed by hand. Therefore, it's necessary to have a more precise definition of continuity, one that
doesn't rely on our ability to graph and trace a function.

Limits - A Quick Reminder

The definition of continuity in calculus relies heavily on the concept of limits. In case you are a little fuzzy on
limits: The limit of a function refers to the value of f(x) that the function approaches near a certain value of x.

The limit of a function as x approaches a real number a from the left is written like this:

The limit of a function as x approaches a real number a from the right is written like this:
If the left limit and the right limit exist (are not infinity) and are equal, then we say the limit of the function
as x approaches a exists and is equal to the one-sided limits. We write it like this:

Remember, the limit describes what the function does very close to a certain value of x. The function value at
the point x = a is written f(a).
What Is Continuity?
In calculus, a function is continuous at x = a if - and only if - all three of the following conditions are met:
The function is defined at x = a; that is, f(a) equals a real number
The limit of the function as x approaches a exists
The limit of the function as x approaches a is equal to the function value at x = a
There are three basic types of discontinuities:
Removable (point) discontinuity - the graph has a hole at a single x-value. Imagine you're walking down the
road, and someone has removed a manhole cover (Careful! Don't fall in!). This function will satisfy condition #2
(limit exists) but fail condition #3 (limit does not equal function value).
Infinite discontinuity - the function goes toward positive or negative infinity. Imagine a road getting closer and
closer to a river with no bridge to the other side
Jump discontinuity - the graph jumps from one place to another. Imagine a superhero going for a walk: he
reaches a dead end and, because he can, flies to another road.
Both infinite and jump discontinuities fail condition #2 (limit does not exist), but how they fail is different. Recall
for a limit to exist, the left and right limits must exist (be finite) and be equal. Infinite discontinuities have infinite
left and right limits. Jump discontinuities have finite left and right limits that are not equal.
Examples Using Graphs
Let's go through some examples using this graph to represent the function of f(x):

Example 1
Is f(x) continuous at x = 0?
To check for continuity at x = 0, we check the three conditions:
Is the function defined at x = 0? Yes, f(0) = 2
Does the limit of the function as x approaches 0 exist? Yes
Does the limit of the function as x approaches 0 equal the function value at x = 0? Yes
Since all three conditions are met, f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
Example 2
Is f(x) continuous at x = -4?

To check for continuity at x = -4, we check the same three conditions:

The function is defined; f(-4) = 2
The limit exists
The function value does not equal the limit; point discontinuity at x = 4
Example 3
Is f(x) continuous at x = -2?
Here are those conditions again:
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