Chapter 1

Introduction

Reading fluency is one of the basic reading skills. Oral reading

fluency has an undeniably crucial role in reading achievement.

Experimental studies conducted recently verify that oral reading fluency

plays a key role for successful liTracy (Chard, Vaughn, and Tyler, 2002,

Kuhn, and Stahl 2003; National Reading Panel [NRP], 2000 Rasinki and

Hoffman, 2003). According to Adams (1990), oral reading fluency is one

of the characteristics feautures of best readers. Fluency has an effect on

many components of reading such as word recognition and

comprehension and it is evaluated as one of five important components of

reading in NRP report. Therefore, it appears to be an interesting subject

for researchers and practitioners (National Institute of Child Health and

Human Development [NICHD], 2000; Pikulski and Chard, 2005)

According to Caitlin Raspilika and Kelly D. Cummings, PHD,

NCSP, oral reading fluency is the ability to read connected text quickly,

accurately, and with expression. In doing so, there is no noticeable

cognitive effort that is associated with decoding the words on the page.

Oral reading fluency is one of several critical components required for

successful reading comprehension. Students who read automaticity and

have appropriate speed, accuracy, and proper expression are more likely
to comprehend material because they are able to focus on the meaning of

the text.

As cited in the study of Yugiseon entitled “Diagnosis of Korean

EFL High School Students Reading Fluency: Using InformAl Reading
Inventory and their L2 Reading Experiences”, the study involved 68
eleventh grade high schools students in Gyeonggi province. In the oral
reading fluency (ORF) measure, the participants were asked to read aloud
the graded text imported directly from IRI (Burns and Roe, 2011), and
answer seven to nine questions pertaining to the passage. The detailed
analysis of the
 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Fluency is defined as, reading words with no noticeable cognitive or mental

effort. It is having mastered word recognition skills to the point of over learning.

Fundamental skills are so automatic that they do not require conscious

attention. Fluency is also a significant indicator of reading comprehension. When

children can read fluently, it means that instead of using brain power for decoding, they

can turn their attention to the meaning of the text (Rippel, 2016)

"Reading" is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting

meaning from them. When we read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols (letters,

punctuation marks and spaces) and we use our brain to convert them into words,

sentences and paragraphs that communicate something to us. Reading can be silent (in

our head) or aloud (so that other people can hear). Reading is a receptive skill - through

it we receive information. But the complex process of reading also requires the skill of

speaking, so that we can pronounce the words that we read. In this sense, reading is also

a productive skill in that we are both receiving information and transmitting it (even if

only to ourselves) (Setiawan, 2017). According to Harmer (2007) reading is useful for

language acquisition. Provided that students more or less understand what they read,

the more they read, the better they get at it.

Oral reading fluency is the ability to read connected text quickly, accurately,

and with expression. In doing so, there is no noticeable cognitive effort that is

associated with decoding the words on the page. Oral reading fluency is one of several

critical components required for successful reading comprehension. Students who read
with automaticity and have appropriate speed, accuracy, and proper expression are

more likely to comprehend material because they are able to focus on the meaning of

the text. (Rasplica C. & Cummings K., Ph.D. NCSP, 2013).

According to Beth Winston (), oral reading fluency describes the ease with

which a person can read a passage of text aloud. This is a particularly

important benchmark for children who are developing their reading skills, or

for students learning English as a second language. There are several ways to

measure oral reading fluency. There are also recognized teaching practices to

address fluency problems.

The study of Jeon, Eun Hee (2012) entitled Oral Reading Fluency in Second

Language Reading investigated the role of oral reading fluency in second language

reading. Two hundred and fifty-five high school students in South Korea were assessed

on three oral reading fluency (ORF) variables and six other reading predictors. The

relationship between ORF and other reading predictors was examined through an

exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Next, the contribution of ORF to silent reading

comprehension was investigated through multiple regression analyses (MRA) with

ORF variables as predictors of reading comprehension. EFA identified two factors

(fluency and comprehension) and showed that passage reading fluency cross with both

factors. MRA results indicated that the three ORF variables collectively explained

21.2% of the variance in silent reading comprehension. Oral passage reading fluency

alone explained 20.9% of the variance in silent reading comprehension. After

controlling for pseudoword reading and word reading fluency, oral passage reading

fluency still accounted for an additional 12.4% of the remaining reading variance.
 A student’s level of verbal reading proficiency has a 30-year evidence base as

one of the most common, reliable, and efficient indicators of student reading

comprehension (Reschly, Busch, Betts, Deno, & Long, 2009; Wayman, Wallace,

Wiley, Tichá, & Espin, 2007). When used as a predictor of higher stakes reading

comprehension tasks, and assessment of oral reading fluency performs as well as or

better than many other comprehensive tests of reading (see Baker et al., 2008). Because

reading fluency tasks are designed to be brief, reliable, and repeatable, they serve well

as tools for universal screening for early intervention across Grades 1 – 6 (Reschly et

al., 2009). Reading fluency tasks are also used for monitoring the progress of individual

students who are at risk for later detrimental reading outcomes.

According to Linda E. Balsiger, MS, CCC-SLP (2011) reading fluency is

composed of 3 main components: speed, accuracy, and prosody. Let's take a look at

each of these:

Speed - Fluent readers read at an appropriate rate of speed for their age or grade level

(usually measured in words per minute or wpm). They visually scan 3+ words ahead

when reading aloud, and maintain a smooth visual tracking line to line.

Accuracy - Fluent readers have highly automatic word recognition, and the skills to

sound out unfamiliar words; diffluent readers make frequent mistakes, have poor word

recognition, and skip words, substitute similar-appearing words, and struggle with

unfamiliar words.

Prosody - Fluent readers use prosody (pitch, stress, and timing) to convey meaning

when they read aloud; diffluent readers typically use less expression, read word by word
instead of in phrases or chunks, and fail to use intonation or pauses to "mark"

punctuation (e.g. periods, commas, and question marks).

According to Maíra Anelli Martins and Simone Aparecida Capellini (2019)

“the reader with no difficulties progresses through the development of the automaticity

by recognizing the words, and on being exposed to reading, increases together with the

speed, the decoding and recognition of letters to words of low frequency, which makes

the reading progressively faster, accurate and fluent.”

However, non-fluent readers suffer in at least one of these aspects of reading: they make

many mistakes, they read slowly, or they don't read with appropriate expression and

phrasing.

The United States is facing a literacy crisis. According to ProLiteracy, more than 36

million adults in the United States cannot read, write, or do basic math above a third

grade level. The One World Literacy Foundation has found that two thirds of students

who cannot read proficiently by the end of 4th grade will end up in jail or on welfare.

Moreover, there are many students who struggle with oral reading, reading

comprehension, and fluency. But how can we understand the difference between

a difficulty vs. disability, and what can be done to help students who struggle in these

different ways?

While some students may have difficulties with reading, that doesn’t necessarily mean

they have a diagnosable disability. A student may need extra help, remediation, or more
time to learn reading skills. But it’s conceivable that, with proper support, the student

will be able to catch up and eventually achieve mastery. (Bates, 2018).

Purpose of Oral Reading Fluency

Screening and progress monitoring. When ORF is used to screen students, the driving

questions are, first: “How does this student’s performance compare to his/her peers?”

and then: “Is this student at-risk of reading failure?”

They are good candidates for further diagnostic assessments to help teachers

determine their skill strengths or weaknesses, and plan appropriately targeted

instruction and intervention (Hasbrouck, 2010. Educators as Physicians: Using RTI

Data for Effective Decision-Making. Austin, TX: Gibson Hasbrouck & Associates.

As cited in the article of Erine Jones (2016) there are six components that is

important in reading fluency.

1. Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear that a spoken word is made up of a series of

discrete sounds. This is not just important in English, but phonemic awareness is critical

for any language that has an alphabetic writing system. Phonemic awareness is an

important component of a good literacy program for a few reasons:

 Teaching phonemic awareness allows for greater printed word recognition.

 Teaching phonemic awareness teaches children to identify, understand, and

manipulate sounds in spoken words.

 Teaching phonemic awareness helps teachers recognize if students will have trouble

with reading and spelling.

According to the National Reading Panel, the amount of phonemic awareness that a

child has been exposed to before the start of school is a strong factor in how well that

child will read by the end of first grade.

Phonemic awareness is also the precursor to phonics instruction. Phonemic awareness

is a necessary component for phonics instruction to be effective because the students

need to connect the units of the written word to the sounds in the spoken word.

Phonemic awareness is also a vital component in a child’s success in learning how to

read. The NRP suggests that including phonemic awareness is a necessary component

in the process of teaching children how to read. The NRP states that those who promote

the use of phonemic awareness as a component in literacy programs may finally prevent

the massive rehashing that English instruction goes through every five to ten years.

2. Phonics Instruction

Phonics instruction is teaching children that specific sounds belong to specific letters

and letter patterns. Phonics instructions helps children recognize and associate the

sounds of the letters and letter patterns in the words they read. Phonics instruction is a

vital part of a literacy program for these reasons:

Phonics instruction helps children decode words by recognizing the sounds that

accompany letters and letter patterns.

 Phonics instruction increases fluency by helping children read more accurately and

with ease.

 Phonics instruction helps with reading comprehension. When a word is pronounced

correctly, it improves the understanding of the word.

 Phonics instruction helps children increase their everyday vocabulary. If children

feel comfortable in the correctness of the word that they are saying, they will use it

more often.
The NRP explains the goal of phonics instruction is to provide students with the

knowledge and ability to use the alphabet to make progress in learning to read, write,

and comprehend English.

3. Vocabulary

Vocabulary can be defined as the knowledge of words and their meanings. The purpose

of teaching vocabulary is for children to understand words and to use them to acquire

and convey meaning. Vocabulary is an important component of a literacy program

because the more words that a child knows and understands the more the child will

comprehend when reading. Vocabulary is an important component in a successful

literacy program because:

 Vocabulary knowledge increases comprehension, which is vital to a child’s ability

to do well in school.

 A greater vocabulary increases a child’s ability to read and write with fluency.

A few ways to increase a child’s reading vocabulary is to have them learn high

frequency words and have them read from a wide range of sources of both fiction and

non-fiction.

4. Fluency

Fluency is a child’s ability to effortlessly and correctly read, speak, and write English.

Fluency in reading should include consistent speed, accuracy, and the use of proper

expression. Fluency is achieved when a child is no longer focusing on how to read.

Helping children read fluently is very important to a successful literacy program.

Fluency is linked directly to comprehension, and once it is achieved, a student can start

focusing on the meaning of what they read. Fluency can be achieved by using a literacy

program that combines phonemic awareness, phonics instruction, and vocabulary. The
NRP suggests that there is a commonality in fluency research, stating that fluency

develops through lots of reading practice.

5. Comprehension

Comprehension refers to a child’s understanding of what they are reading. This not only

includes reading, but also what is written. Having students attain comprehension of

what they are reading and writing is very important. Comprehension is an important

component of an effective literacy program for a few reasons:

 Comprehension is important to success in academic and personal learning.

 Comprehension is important to becoming a productive member of society.

 Comprehension is important in obtaining and maintaining a job and being successful

in life.

The NRP explains that reading comprehension is not only important for academic

learning, but for learning in all other areas of a person’s life.

6. Writing

Writing is the process of students generating text, whether on paper or on a screen.

Some studies suggest that reading and writing are interconnected although they have

been taught separately for years. Writing is an important part of a literacy program:

 For younger children, writing helps to reinforce phonemic awareness and phonics

instruction.

 For older children, writing can help children understand the kinds of styles of text

they read.

 Writing about what a child has read helps develop their reading comprehension

skills.

Local study
Oral fluency is indeed very significant. When learners are frequently exposed to

read-alouds, they learn context, pacing, inflection, pronunciation, the sheer beauty

of language. They learn to visualize the story and begin to appreciate the power

behind language used and expressed purposefully, cogently, and correctly. Fluency

expands vocabulary development, context awareness, and recognition of audience,

tone, purpose. (Punsalan, 2006).

The reader’s oral fluency and over-all reading proficiency level can be independent,

instructional, or frustration. The University of Utah Reading Clinic (2015) describes

frustration level, the lowest level, as that which requires extensive assistance from

an educator. It is when the passage is too difficult for a learner to read, and little or

no learning will take place. The instructional level is one at which the text can be

read by the learner, but with some teacher guidance and instruction to aid content

comprehension. This is the level where readers have adequate background

knowledge for a topic, and can access text quickly and with no or few errors. This

is the most important level where learning rightly transpires. The independent level

is one at which a learner can read the passage comfortably and easily and without

any teacher assistance or guidance at all.

In a recent study of fluency among high school students in an urban school district,

it was found that fluency was strongly associated with students’ performance on the

high school graduation test and that over half of the students assessed could be

considered disfluent (Rasinski, Padak, McKeon, Krug-Wilfong, Friedauer, & Heim,

2005). Fluency is therefore an issue not only for younger students but older students

as well especially among students from less advantaged backgrounds (Rasinski,

2006).
Adult supervision in terms of assisting a child how to read is termed as scaffolding (Palmer,

Zhang, Taylor, & Leclere, 2010). Aside from facilitating reading through scaffolding, there

are also instances when the child refuses to demonstrate reading because they feel anxiety

(Pichette, 2009). A connection between fear and learning is much more than one

reflective practitioner’s observation, however. Contemporary neuroscience helps to

explain how it happens. We know that the major networks of the brain are

interconnected so, when a child reads, the recognition network identifies letters and

words while the strategic network simultaneously focuses on understanding the text

and monitors progress toward that goal. At the same time, the affective network—

that seat of emotions known as the limbic system—activates such things as interest,

motivation, anxiety, and so forth (Hinton et al. 2008).