Noise Analysis of fceo-stabilized Lasers

Version 2.0

Basic Formulas in Noise Analysis:

Given an ergodic random process n(t):

The variance of the random process can be calculated from the time series or the
probability density:
T
1
n (t ) = lim ∫ n 2 (t ) dt
2

T →∞ 2T −T
∞

n (t ) = E{n(t ) } = ∫n
2 2 2
f ( n) dn
−∞

Where E{X} denotes the expected value of the random variable X. The power spectral
density S nn ( jω) is the fourier transform of the Autocorrelation function

Rnn (τ ) = E{n(t +τ )n(t )}

∞
S xx ( jω) = ∫R
−∞
nn (τ )e − jωτ dτ

The power spectral density integrated over the entire spectrum yields the variance of the
process, which is also the average power of the signal.

∞
1
2π −∫∞
n 2 (t ) = S xx ( jω)dω = average power

For the following it is important to understand how power spectral densities of quantities
are changed when the signal propagates through a linear time invariant system (LTI-
system). Let the input signal be x(t) and the output signal be y(t). The system is described
either by its impulse response h(t) or frequency response H ( jω) , which are Fourier
transforms of each other
∞
H ( jω) = ∫ h(t )e
− jωt
dt
−∞
Then from the simple input-output relationship of LTI-systems
X ( s ) H ( s ) Y (s )

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we obtain
R yy (τ ) = R xx (τ ) * h(τ ) * h( −τ )

or in the frequency domain we obtain for the spectra

2
S yy ( jω) = H ( jω) * S xx ( jω) .

Simple feedback analysis

X + FF Y

FB

with Black’s formula

Y ( s) = F ( s) X ( s)

FF ( s )
F ( s) =
1 − FF ( s ) FB ( s )

Easy to remember: The transfer function of a feedback loop is the forward gain devided
by 1- minus the loop gain. The important property to realize is, that if the forward gain is
large, FF ( s ) FB ( s ) >> 1 , the loop transfer function
1
F ( s) = −
FB ( s )
independent of the forward gain (eventually even nonlinear, temperature sensitive,
……)!!!!

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System block diagram
The fceo-stabilized laser can be represented by the following block diagram.

Phase Detector

Θi ΔΘ
+
SPD (jω)
+
-Θo HCA (jω) HAOM (jω) HLF (jω)

+ Laser Cavity
+ AODM Loop Filter

SCA (jω) SPP (jω)

P

Pump Laser

Figure 1: Block Diagram

When the PLL is in the locked state, the phase output of the mixer is either small or in the
case of a digital phase detector already linearized. Therefore, we can apply right from the
beginning linear system theory.

Mathematic model of the system without noise present:

Regarding the system as shown above, we obtain the following transfer functions
between the input and output quantities:

1. Phase Detector: ∆θ = H PD ( jω)(θi −θo )

for the moment we want to consider a frequency independent phase detector with

H PD ( jω ) = KPD ,
where, KPD is the phase detector coefficient, e.g. for the digital phase detector AD 9901
we have 3.2 V/(2pi rad),

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2. Lowpass filter needs to be determined for optimum phase stabilization and rejection of
noise:

HLF ( jω)

3. Acousto Optic Modulator:

HAOM ( jω) = KAOM

where, KAOM is the deflection coefficient of the acousto-optic modulator and describes
how an input voltage into the driver of the modulator changes the pump power P by ∆P
proportional to the input voltage. The laser dynamics, which is dependent on the change
pump power ∆P will transform the pump energy change into an intracavity pulse energy
change ∆E . An intracavity pulse energy change of ∆E causes a shift in the carrier-
envelope frequency fceo according too.

frδAo 2 K
∆f ceo =− ∆E = − CAV ∆E
2πEcav 2π
and therefore to a phase change in the carrier-envelope output signal by
1 frδAo 2
K
HCAV ( jω) = − = − CAV
jω Ecav jω

where, δ is the SPM-coefficient, fr is the repetition rate of the laser, A0 is the pulse
amplitude, and Ecav is the total energy in the laser cavity.

These transfer functions constitute the basic feedback model.

Using black’s formula, we obtain for the phase transfer function

1
F 0( jω) =
1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

where F0(jω) is the total closed-loop system function. So for a given input Θi(jω), the out
put ΔΘ(jω) will be:

1
∆Θ( jω) = ×Θi ( jω)
1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

To understand the basic dynamics of the PLL, lets look what happens if there is no input
signal, i.e.:
(1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω) )∆Θ( jω) = 0
assuming a frequency independent loop filter, i.e. HLF ( jω) = K LF

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  1 

1 + jω K LF KAOM KCAV ∆Θ( jω) = 0

 
or
( jω + K LF KAOM KCAV ) ∆ Θ( jω) = 0
which means in the time domain
d
∆ (Θt ) = − K L F KA O MKC AV ⋅ ∆ (Θt )
dt
This indicates that initial phase deviations decay and the loop is stable, so that the PLL
will eventually lock the θo to θ i and hence lock the frequency fceo to phase coherent to the
frequency of the input signal coming from a synthesizer.

The system with noise sources:

Phase detector noise:

Consider the noise is added into the system from the phase detector as shown in figure 2,
where SPD(jω) is the spectral density of the phase noise resulted from the noise from the
phase detector, and S’PD(jω) is the power spectral density of the effective closed-loop
phase noise at the output node, where ΔΘ(jω) is calculated.

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 HLF (jω) HAOM (jω) HCA (jω)
S’PD (jω)
SPD (jω)
+ Loop Filter AODM Laser Cavity

Figure 2

The contribution of the noise of the phase detector is described by the system function:

HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

F ( jω) =
1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

and the power spectral density of the effective closed-loop noise S’PD(jω) can be
expressed as:

HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

S ' PD ( jω) = × SPD ( jω)
1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

Since we can measure the power spectral density of the noise SPD(jω) from the phase
detector, we are able to calculate S’PD(jω) using the transfer functions.

Pump power fluctuation:

Consider the noise due to the power fluctuation of the pump laser is added into the
system after the AOM node as shown in figure 3. SPP(jω) is the power spectral density of
the pump noise, S’PP(jω) is its contribution to the remaining phase noise ΔΘ(jω).

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 HCA (jω)
S’PP (jω)
SPP (jω)
+ Laser Cavity

HAOM (jω) HLF (jω)

AODM Loop Filter

Figure 3

If the measured power spectral density of the pump power noise is NP (jω), the equivalent
spectral density of the phase noise SPP(jω) will be :

SPP ( jω) = KAO ×τ × NP ( jω)

where KAO is the deflection coefficient of the AODM and τ is a time constant within
which a change in pump power results the change in f ceo .

The total closed-loop system function is:

HCAV ( jω)
F ( jω) =
1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

and the power spectral density of the effective closed-loop noise S’PP(jω) can be
expressed as:

HCAV ( jω)
S ' PP ( jω) = × SPP ( jω)
1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

Hence, we will be able to calculate the closed-loop effective phase noise spectral density
contributed by the pump power fluctuation.

Cavity length fluctuation:

Consider the noise due to the fluctuation of the length of the pulse laser cavity is added
into the system after the laser cavity node as shown in figure 4. SCA(jω) is the power
spectral density of the phase noise resulted by the fluctuation of the length of the pulse

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laser. S’CA(jω) is the power spectral density of the effective closed-loop phase noise at
the output node, where ΔΘ(jω) is calculated.
.

S’CA (jω)
SCA (jω)
+

HCA (jω) HAOM (jω) HLF (jω)

Laser Cavity AODM Loop Filter

Figure 4

Provided we know the probability density of the fluctuation of the cavity length of the
pump laser as NL (jω), then SCA (jω) will be:

1 Vg NL ( jω)
SCA ( jω) = ×ωrep mo (1 − )
jω Vp L

where, ωrep is the angular repetition frequency of operating point, Vg is the group
velocity and Vp is the phase velocity, L is the average length of the pulse laser cavity.

The total closed-loop system function is:

1
F ( jω) =
1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

and the power spectral density of the effective closed-loop phase noise S’CA(jω) can be
expressed as:

1
S ' CA ( jω) = ×SCA ( jω)
1 − HLF ( jω) HAOM ( jω) HCAV ( jω)

Hence, we will be able to calculate the closed-loop effective phase noise spectral density
in the system contributed by the pulse laser cavity fluctuation.

Closed-Loop SNR calculations

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 1.1 Signal Power

π
The hold range of the PLL is ± , where hold range is defined as the frequency
2
range in which a PLL is able to maintain lock statically. This is the maximum phase
difference for the PLL system to achieve eventual locking state. Hence when PLL is in
hold range, we have:

2 π
∆Θ( jω) < ( )2
2

To calculate the SNR of the closed-loop system, we assume that the signal power takes
π 2
form of its maximum ( ) . However, a more accurate approach to this value can be
2
assessed provided that the total closed-loop system transfer function is known.

We will now demonstrate this. Consider a standard LPLL circuit as shown below
in figure 5.

Kd F(s)
+
Θi
Phase Detector Loop Filter
-
Ko/
Θo s

VCO

Figure 5

The system transfer function between Θi and Θo is:

Θo( s ) KoKdF ( s )
H ( s) = =
Θi ( s ) s + KoKdF ( s )

In the fceo locking system, the corresponding parameters are:

Kd = KPD

F ( s ) = HLF ( s )

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 KAO M × frδ Ao 2
Ko =
Ecav
In order to assess the system transfer function, we have to insert the loop filter
transfer function. In most LPLL designs a first-order low pass filter is used. Figure 6 lists
the versions that are most frequently encountered.

R1 R2
6a

C1 C2
R1 R2

- 6b

C2
R1 R2

- 6c

Figure 6a is a passive lag-lead filter having one pole and one zero, its transfer
function F(s) is given by:

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 1 + sτ 2
F (s) =
1 + s (τ 1 + τ 2)
Figure 6b shows an active lag-lead filter, its transfer function is very similar to the
passive but has an additional gain term Ka.

1 + sτ 2
F ( s ) = Ka
1 + sτ 1

Finally, figure 6c shows another active low pass filter, which is commonly
referred to as a “PI” filter. The PI filter has a pole at s=0 and therefore behaves like an
integrator. It has –theoretically- infinite gain at zero frequency, which –theoretically- can
be of great help in the locking process. Its transfer function is:

1 + sτ 2
F ( s) =
sτ 1

We will next insert the filter transfer functions into the system transfer functions
for three different cases:

1. For the passive lag filter:

τ
1+ 2
KoKd
H (s) = τ 1+ τ 2
2 1 + K o τ K2 dK o K d
s +s +
τ 1+ τ 2 τ 1+ τ 2
2. For the active lag filter:

1 + sτ 2
KaKoKd
H ( s) = τ1
1 + KaKoKd τ 2 KaKoKd
s +s
2
+
τ1 τ1

3. For the active PI filter:

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 1 + sτ 2
KoKd
H ( s) = τ1
KoKdτ 2 KoKd
s2 + s +
τ1 τ1+τ 2
In circuit and control theory it is common practice to write the denominator of the
transfer function in the normalized form as:
+ 2ξs + ω n
2 2
s
where ω n is the nature frequency and ξ is the damping factor. From above system
transfer functions, we have:

1. For the passive lag filter:

ξ = ω n (τ 2 +
KoKd 1
ω n
=
τ1 + τ 2
)
2 KoKd

2. For the active lag filter:

ξ = ω n (τ 2 +
KaKoKd 1
ω n
=
τ1
)
2 KaKoKd

3. For the active PI filter:

ξ = ω nτ 2
KoKd
ω n
=
τ1 2

Now, let’s introduce the concept “lock range”. This is the frequency range within
which a PLL locks within single-beat note between the reference frequency and output
frequency. Normally this is the operation range of the LPLL. Therefore, this is the most
appropriate number to be used to derive a more accurate ΔΘ(jω). Assuming high-gain
loops which is usually the case, and that the lock range is always much greater than the
corner frequencies 1/τ 1 and 1/τ 2, we obtain the lock range as:

∆ ω lockrange = 2ξ ω n

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(Please refer to chapter 2.6.2 in “Phase-Locked Loops” by Roland E. Best for the
derivation). This result is valid for all three types of loop filters. The lock range for other
types of filters can be calculated with the same method. If we know the filter we are
using, we can obtain ∆ ω lockrange = 2ξ ω n according to previous analysis and
parameter definitions.

In order to find out the phase difference Δθ when the system is under the lock
range, let’s analyze the following scenario: Ideally in a noise free PLL system, after the
settling time, there won’t be any phase error. In reality, when the PLL is in the operation
range (lock range), the noise in the system will randomly unlock the PLL and create a
difference in phase and frequency. However, since the system is still within operation
range, the PLL will lock within a single-beat note. So the maximum phase difference
under this condition is generated by the maximum frequency difference ω LockRange
multiplied by the system response time.

∆θ max = |ω ×τ system | 2
2
LockRange

so, if we can measure the time delay that the system takes to respond to an input, we can
obtain the phase signal power when the system is in operation range.

This approach is more accurate, however it might be extremely complicated for

engineering purposes. If we are more interested in determining which noise source is
2 π
more dominant, the original approximation of ∆Θ( jω) < ( ) 2 is good enough.
2

5.2 SNL expression

Next, we will sum all the phase noises in the system:

N ' PD ( jω) 2 + N ' PUMP ( jω) 2 + N ' CA ( jω) 2

Mathematically, we can calculate each value by the integrating the effective closed-loop
phase noise spectral density over the entire spectrum. Finally we can calculate the SNR in
our system as:

∆θ max
2

SNR =
N ' PD ( jω) 2 + N ' PUMP ( jω) 2 + N ' CA ( jω) 2

A SNR of greater than 6dB is preferred in the PLL system to have stable operation.

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