MODULE 1

RESEARCH MOETHODOLOGY
 MEANING OF RESEARCH -
1. Search for knowledge
2. Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on specific topic
3. Art of scientific investigation
4. A careful investigation or enquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge
5. Systemized effort to gain new knowledge

Research comprises of defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis, suggesting

solutions, collecting, organising and evaluating data, making deductions and research
conclusions and carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit formulating
hypothesis.

 Research is -
1. The search for knowledge
2. Objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem
3. The systematic approach concerning generalizations and the formulation of the theory is
research.
4. Research refers to systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating
a hypothesis, collecting the facts or a data, analysing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions other in the form of solutions towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH -
Following are the various objectives of conducting research.

1. To discover answers to questions to application of scientific procedures

2. To find out truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
3. To gain familiarity with phenomenon auto new insights that is exploratory or
formulative research
4. to portray the characteristics of particular individual situation or group that is descriptive
research
5. to determine the frequency with which something occurs or with some which it is
associated with something else that is diagnostic research
6. To test a hypothesis of causal relationship between causal variables that is hypothesis
testing research.

In this way exploratory or formulative research, descriptive research, diagnostic research

and hypothesis testing research are the types based on the objectives of research.
 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH -
1. Desire to get research degree along with its consequences benefits
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving unsolved problems
3. Desire to get intellectual Joy of doing some creative work
4. Desire to be of service to society
5. Desire to get respectability

Government directives, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand
causal relationship and social thinking awakening are various motivations in research.

 TYPES OF RESEARCH -
The basic types of research are as follows –

1. Descriptive versus Analytical

 Descriptive research includes service and fact finding enquiries of different kinds. the
purpose of descriptive research is description of state of affairs as it exists at present.
Researcher has no control over the variables he can report only what has happened or
what is happening . Most ex Post facto research projects are of this type.
 In analytical research the research has to use facts or information already available and
analyse these to make critical evaluation of the material.

2. Applied versus Fundamental

 Applied research aims at finding a solution for immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial or business organisation.
 Fundamental research is concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory.
 Gathering knowledge for knowledge is pure or basic research
 Research concerning natural phenomena related to pure mathematics or study of human
behaviour are fundamental research.
 Research aimed at certain conclusion facing a concrete social or business problem is
applied research.

3. Quantitative versus Qualitative

 Quantitative research is based on measurement of quantity or amount.

 Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena that is phenomenon

relating to or involving quality for kind. It is important in behavioral science where aim is
to discover underlying motives of human behaviour.

4. Conceptual versus Empirical

 Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea or theory used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop new concepts or interpret existing one.
  Empirical research relies on experience observation alone without due regard to system
and theory and is a database research coming up with conclusion which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiments. It is experimental type of research where in
researcher must prepare a working hypothesis or gas a probable result hidden works on
fact to prove or disprove his hypothesis by sitting experimental designs. Experimenters
control over the variable under the study and his manipulation is important.

5. OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. One time research is confined to single time period

2. Longitudinal research is carried on over several time periods
3. Field setting research depends upon the environment in which it is carried out
4. Laboratory research is performed in laboratory
5. Clinical or diagnostic research consists of case study method or indirect approach to
reach the basic causal relationship including very small samples with deep probing data
gathering devices.
6. Exploratory research - conditions with development of hypothesis rather than their
testing
7. Formalized research - it studies on those which substance real structure and with
specific hypothesis to be tested
8. Historical research - it utilizes historical sources like document and remains to study
events or ideas of past including philosophy of person and group at any remote point of
time.
9. Conclusion oriented research - here researcher is free to pick up a problem redesign the
enquiry as a process and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes
10. Decision oriented research -it is always for the need of a decision maker and is not free
to embark upon research according to his own inclination.
11. Operation research- it is the decision oriented research including scientific method of
providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding
operations under control.

RESEARCH APPROACHES

Following are the two types of approaches to research

1. Quantitative approach
2. Qualitative approach

1. Quantitative approach
 Involves the generation of data in quantitative for which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
Following are the sub types of quantitative approach

À. Inferential
 The purpose of inferential approach is to form a database from which two in four
characteristics or relationship of population.
 It is a survey research where sample population is studied to determine its characteristics
and then inferences are made.

B. Experimental
 Much greater control over research environment.
 some variables are manipulated to observer effect on other variables

Ç. Simulation
 Construction of an artificial environment within which really want information and data
can be generated.
 It permits observation of dynamic behaviour of system under control condition.
 Given the values of initial conditions parameters and exogenous variables a simulation is
run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.

2. Qualitative approach
 It is concerned with subject to assessment of attitudes opinions and behaviours. I
 t depends on researches in sight and impressions.
 Results are generated in non quantity for in the phone which are not subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
 Increased amount of research make progress possible. Inculcate scientific and inductive
thinking.
 It promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation.

a. Research finds its significance in following areas.

 The role of research in applied economics related to business or to the economy has
greatly increased in modern Times. Research as aid to economic policy has added
importance for government.
 Research provides basis for all government policies in economic system. For example
budgets availability of river news cos et cetera. It helps to device alternative policies and
help to examine consequence of alternatives.
 Research has special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business industries.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.
b. Research significance can be understood with following points -
1. For students who are writing a Masters or PhD thesis research main mean a careerism or
a way to attain a high position in the social structure.
2. For professionals in research methodology research may mean a source of livelihood.
3. Two philosophers and thinkers it is the outlet for new ideas and insights.
4. Two literary men and women research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work.
5. To analysts and intellectual research may mean the generalizations of new theories.

 RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY

 There is a difference between research method and research methodology.
 Research methods are all those methods or techniques that are used for conduction of
research.
 Research methods or techniques refer to the methods the researchers used in performing
research operation.
 All those methods which are used by researcher during the course of studying his
research problem are termed as research methods.

Following are the three types of research

 First group includes methods which are concerned with collection of data. These
methods are used where data is already available and is not sufficiently to arrive at
required solution.
 The second group consists of statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between data and unknowns.
 Third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of result.

 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.

 It is understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
Research methodology has many dimensions and research method constituted a part of the
research methodology.

Thus scope of research methodology is wider than that of research method.

When we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also
consider the logic behind the method we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that
research results are capable of being evaluated either by researcher himself or by others.
 RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 Research is an enquiry into the nature of the reason for and the consequences of any
particular set of circumstances whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled
or recorded just as they occur.
 The scientific method is one and same in all branches of Science and that method is
method of all logically trained mines the unity of all sciences consists alone in its method
not its material.
 Scientific method attempts to achieve ideal by experimentation observation logical
arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying
proportions.
 In this method logic is important. It helps in in formulating prepositions explicitly and
accurately so that the possible alternatives become clear. Logic develop the consequences
search alternatives and when they are compared with observable phenomena it becomes
possible for research on the scientist to state the alternative in most harmony with
observed facts.

Scientific method is based on following postulates as below -

 It relies on empirical evidence.
 It utilizes relevant concepts.
 It is committed to only objective considerations.
 it presupposes ethical neutrality that is it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects.
 It results into probabilistic predictions.
 Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use in
testing the conclusions through replication.
 It aims at formulating scientific theories.

Thus the scientific method encourages a rigorous impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the
demands of logic and objective procedure.
Scientific methods implies on objective logical and systematic method that is a method
 that is free from personal bias or prejudice,
 to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomena capable of being verified,
 where in researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning,
 where in the investigation process in an orderly manner and
 that implies internal consistency.

 RESEARCH PROCESS

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps.
Research process consists of number of closely related activities which overlap continuously
then following is strictly prescribing the sequence. These steps are not mutually exclusive nor are
they separate and distinct.

1. Formulate the research problem

2. Extensive literature survey
3. Developing the hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of the data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalization and interpretation
11. Preparation of report and presentation of the result
12. Formal write up of conclusions reached.
 MODULE 2
RESEARCH DESIGN
 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Once the research problem is defined the preparation of design of the research project is
perform it is defined as research design.

Research design deals with what, where, when, how much and by what means an enquiry or
research study will be conducted, constitute a research design.

 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH DESIGN –

Research design is defined as follows:

Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to research purpose with economy in procedure.

 Research design is conceptual structure which constitutes a blueprint of collection

measurement and analysis of data.
 It is the outline of what researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implication to final analysis of data.

It asks following questions -

1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is?
5. Where can be the required data be found?
6. What period of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of Data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analysed?
10. In what time will the report be prepared?

 CONSTITUTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

The research design constitutes following –
 Sampling design that is a method of selecting items to be observed for given study.
 Observational design that is conditions under which the observation are to be made.
 Statistical design that is how many items are to be observed and how information and
data gathered are to be analysed.
 Operational design that is technique by which the procedures specified in the sampling
statistical and observational designs can be carried.
 FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

1. It is a plan that specify sources and types of information related to the research problem
2. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the
data
3. It also includes the time and cost budget since more studies are done under this two
constraints

A clear statement of research problem, procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information, population to be studied and methods to be used in processing and analysing data
are required for specifying the research design.

 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN:

1 It facilitates the smooth sailing of research operations making research as efficient as possible
with maximal information and minimal expenditure of effort time and money.

2. Research design gives advance planning of methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant
data and the technique to be used in analysis.

3. Research design has bearing on the reliability of the result.

4. Research design is the blueprint of the research project if not designed properly it may lead to
misleading results and waste of various types of resources.

5. It helps researcher to organise his ideas with looking for floors and inadequacies.

6. Without research design it is difficult to critic and comprehensive review for proposed study.

 FEATURES OF GOOD DESIGN

 It is characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical etc.

 It minimizes bias and maximize reliability of data collected and analysed
 It gives maximal information and provides opportunity for considering many different
aspects of problem.

A good research design involves the consideration of means of obtaining information,

availability of skills of the researchers and his staff, the objective of problem to be studied, the
nature of the problem to be studied, and the availability of the time and money for research
work.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Dependent and independent variable –

 A concept which can take different quantitative values is called as variable.

 Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are
called continuous variable.
 Variables which can be expressed in integer values they are not continuous variables they are
discrete variables.
 If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable then it is termed as
dependent variable.
 The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as independent variable.

2. Extraneous variable –

Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of study but may affect the
dependent variable of the study are termed as extraneous variable.
Experimental error is defined as the effect of extraneous variable on the dependent
variable of the study.

3. Control :
Control is defined as designing the study with minimising the effect of extraneous
independent variables so as to minimise the influence and effect of it.
 Control restraints experimental conditions.

4. Confounded relationship -
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable the
relationship between dependent and independent variable is said to be confounded by extraneous
variables.

5. Research hypothesis
Research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable.

Research hypothesis contains at least one Independent and one dependent variable.

The question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem
and the nature of the problem study. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of
research problems.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:

There are three basic principles for experimental design given by Professor Fisher
1. Principle of replication
2. Principle of randomisation
3. Principle of local control

1. Principle of Replication-
 According to this principle of replication the experiment should be repeated more than
once. Each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one.
 By doing this statistical accuracy of experiments is increased.
 Results obtained by using this principle are more reliable in comparison to the
conclusions drawn without applying the principle of replication.
 Replication does not present any difficulty conceptually but computationally it does. for
example if an experiment requiring two way analysis of variance is replicated then it will
require three way analysis of variance since replication itself may be a source of variation
in the data.
 Replication is introduced in order to increase precision of a study and to increase the
accuracy with which main effects and interactions can be estimated.
 Example of rice plantation by dividing two varieties into two parts of a paddy field.

2. Principle of Randomization -
 Principle of randomisation provides protection during conduct of experiment against the
effect of extraneous factors by randomisation.
 This principle indicates that the design or plan of the experiment should be such a way
that variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under general heading of
chance.
 Through the application of principle of randomization, we can better estimate the
experimental.
 For example in case of two varieties of rice instant of planting the two varieties in in half
part each of the paddy field and getting results due to difference in in soil fertility in
different parts we go for dividing the paddy field into number of departs and plant the
variety in half of those random selected parts.

3. Principle of Local Control -

 It is important principle of experimental design
 In this principle the extraneous factor which is source of variability is made to very
deliberately for a wide range as necessary such that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from experimental error.
 The experiment should be planned in such a way that we can perform two-way analysis
of variance in which total variability of the data is divided in three components attributed
to treatments, the extraneous factor and the experimental error.
For example –
 Divide the total field into parts.
 First divided the field into several homogenous parts known as blocks and then each such
block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments.
 Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of block.
 Divide in the field into several homogenous part is known as blocking.
 Blocks are the levels at which we hold extraneous factor fixed so that we can measure the
contribution to the total variability of the data by means of two way analysis of variance.
Thus by using the principle of local control we eliminate the variability due to external
factors from experimental error.