REFERENCE MATERIALS

Two Entries from

an Encyclopedia
of Logic

BACKGROUND
Logic is the study of argument—specifically how sound and faulty AUDIO
arguments are constructed. Logic is a key part of many disciplines,
including math, philosophy, computer science, and linguistics, or the ANNOTATE
study of language. As it relates to language, faulty logic often includes
logical fallacies. Bandwagon appeals and circular reasoning are two
such fallacies.
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Bandwagon Appeal, or argumentum ad populum

(“argument to the people”)
Mark context clues or indicate
1 Bandwagon appeal is a form of
another strategy you used that
logical fallacy in which people are helped you determine meaning.
persuaded to agree with an idea fallacy (FAL uh see) n.
simply because it is popular. The MEANING:
term originated during the
nineteenth century when parades
were a major form of entertainment. As part of the festivities,
bands would often play while being carried on horse-drawn
wagons. Resourceful politicians realized they could use
bandwagons’ popularity to their advantage. They would literally
“hop on the bandwagon” to wave and shout to the crowd.

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 The concept of the bandwagon appeal dates back to 19th century
circus parades that featured horse-drawn bandwagons like this
one. Politicians would literally "jump on the bandwagon" to
parade before a crowd and gain popularity.

2 Bandwagon appeals draw on people’s fears of being left out or

of standing alone. This creates a dynamic that feeds on itself. As
more people accept an idea, the more others are convinced that it
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is right or superior. This can happen even if the supporting
evidence is weak. In addition, people may try to associate
themselves with a popular idea or trend just to increase their own
popularity.
3 Bandwagon appeals are still common in politics, advertising,
fashion, polling, sports, and opinion writing.
4 • Advertising: In a World War II Navy recruiting poster, a little
girl looks longingly at a framed photo of her mother in a Navy
auxiliary uniform and thinks, “Wish I could join, too!”
5 • Sports: An unpopular team that hasn’t been to the playoffs in
decades surprises everyone by winning the championship. Sales
of that team’s merchandise increase dramatically.

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 Circular Reasoning, or circulus in probando
(“circle in proving”)
6 Circular reasoning (see also circular
logic) is a type of logical fallacy, or
Mark context clues or indicate
PREMISE another strategy you used that
helped you determine meaning.

error in reasoning, that occurs when a reasoning (REE zuh nihng) n.

MEANING:
conclusion is used as evidence to
justify itself. This fallacy is circular
because it leads the reader or listener
around and around, with no
CO
beginning or end. The conclusion is NCLUSION
just a restatement of the premise, or This graphic captures the
basis of the argument. essence of the fallacy: A
7 Circular reasoning may trick the circular argument doubles
listener or reader into agreement back on itself.
because its circularity discourages
challenges to the premise and evidence. Sometimes, the evidence
becomes so complicated that the listener or reader doesn’t
remember the premise and doesn’t realize that the argument loops
back on itself.
8 Examples of circular reasoning can be found in literature,
advertising, and politics:
9 • Literature: A famous example of circular reasoning occurs in
Catch-22, a novel by Joseph Heller that takes place during World
War II at an air base in Italy. The men are sent on bombing
missions that are extremely dangerous. The more missions the
men undertake, the more likely they are to be shot down. This
passage describes “Catch-22,” which involves a way the men can
get out of going on a mission:

There was only one catch and that was Catch-22, which
specified that a concern for one's own safety in the face of
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dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a

rational mind. Orr was crazy and could be grounded. Mark context clues or indicate
another strategy you used that
All he had to do was ask; and as soon as he did, he would helped you determine meaning.
no longer be crazy and would have to fly more missions. rational (RASH uh nuhl) adj.
Orr would be crazy to fly more missions and sane if he MEANING:
didn't, but if he was sane he had to fly them. If he flew
them he was crazy and didn't have to; but if he didn't
want to he was sane and had to. Yossarian was moved
very deeply by the absolute simplicity of this clause of
Catch-22 and let out a respectful whistle.
“That's some catch, that catch-22,” he observed.
“It’s the best there is,” Doc Daneeka agreed.

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 10 • Literature: (from Alice in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll):

“In that direction,” the Cat said, “lives a Hatter and in

that direction lives a March Hare…. They’re both mad.”
“But I don’t want to go among mad people,” Alice
remarked.
“Oh, you can't help that,” said the Cat: “we’re all mad
here. I’m mad. You’re mad.”
“How do you know I’m mad?” said Alice.
“You must be,” said the Cat, “or you wouldn’t
have come here.”
Alice didn’t think that proved it at all.

11 • Advertising: Nature’s Idyll soap is made from the best

ingredients because our customers demand only the best…
12 • Political Messaging: You are throwing your vote away if you
vote for Mike Boscobel. Vote for the only candidate who matters—
Olivia Cesario!!

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