PART 2 - Design

Frequency Response Design Approach

Introduction

 In frequency response approach, transient-response performance is

specified in an indirect manner, i.e., in terms of the PM, GM, MP , ωg ,
ωp , ωr , ωb and static error constants.

 The CL poles and zeros can be determined after the open loop has
been designed using FR methods.

 The transient-response characteristics must be checked to see

whether the designed system satisfies the requirements in the time
domain.
 Frequency Response Design Approach
 A common approach in Bode diagram is that the open-loop gain is
first adjusted the so that the steady-state accuracy requirement is
met.

 Then the magnitude and phase curves of the uncompensated open

loop is plotted.

 If the specifications on the PM and GM are not satisfied, then a

suitable compensator that will reshape the open-loop transfer
function is determined.

 Finally, if there are any other requirements to be met, we try to

satisfy them, unless some of them are mutually contradictory
 Frequency Response Design Approach
Information Obtainable from Open-Loop Frequency Response

 The low frequency region ( far below ωg ) of the locus indicates the
steady-state behavior of the closed-loop system.

 The medium-frequency region ( near ωg ) of the locus indicates

relative stability.

 The high-frequency region ( far above ωg ) indicates the complexity of

the system.
 Frequency Response Design Approach
Requirements on Open-Loop Frequency Response
 Design process is essentially a compromise between steady-state
accuracy and relative stability, by reshaping the open loop frequency
response curve. So,

1. The gain in the low-frequency region should be large enough.

2. The slope in the Bode diagram near the gain crossover frequency
should be –20 dB/decade, and should extend over a sufficiently
wide frequency band to assure a proper phase margin.

3. For the high-frequency region, the gain should be attenuated as

rapidly as possible to minimize the effects of noise.
 Frequency Response Design Approach
 Design Examples of generally desirable and undesirable open-loop
and closed-loop frequency-response curves are shown in the figure
below.

Large Phase Margin High Bandwidth

 Frequency Response Design Approach
Basic Characteristics of Lead, Lag, and Lag–Lead Compensation
 Lead Compensator:
1. Improves the transient response of the system
2. It may accentuate (increase) the effect of high frequency noise
3. Has small change in steady state error.

 Lag Compensator:
1. Improves the steady-state accuracy of the system.
2. Increases the transient-response time.
3. Suppresses the effects of high frequency noise signals.

 Lag Compensator:
1. Combines the characteristics of both of the above compensators.
 Lead Compensator
The characteristics of lead compensator is examined first. Consider Gc(s)
as:

where the minimum value of α is usually taken to be 0.05 (i.e., maximum

phase lead can be produced is 65°).

The figure below is the Nyquist plot

of GC(jω) given by

GC(jω) =

Where Kc = 1
 Lead Compensator
From the figure, the maximum phase lead angle is φm which occurs at
ω = ωm where ,

For Kc = 1 and α = 0.1, the bode plot of GC(jω) is shown below.

Corner frequencies are ω = 1/T and ω = 1/αT = 1/10T .

From the plot, ωm is

The geometric mean
of the two corner
frequencies, i.e.,
 Lead Compensator
Lead Compensation Techniques Based on the FR Approach
Lead compensator is to reshape the frequency-response curve to
provide sufficient phase-lead angle.

Consider the system shown in figure. If specifications are given on PM,

GM and Kv and so on, then the following procedures may be applied:

1. Assume the following lead compensator

Then
 Lead Compensator
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is

where
Determine gain K to satisfy the requirement on the given static error
constant Kv

2. Draw a Bode diagram of G1(jω), and evaluate the phase margin.

3. Determine the necessary phase-lead angle φm to be added to the

system. (Add an additional 5° to 12° to the phase-lead angle
required, because the addition of the lead compensator shifts the ωg
frequency to the right and decreases the PM).
 Lead Compensator
1 α
4. Determine the attenuation factor α using eq. sin  m 
1 α

Determine the frequency where G1 ( j )  20 log(1 /  )

Select this frequency as the new ωg . This frequency corresponds to

and φm occurs at this frequency.

5. Determine the corner frequencies of the lead compensator as
follows:
Zero of the lead compensator ω = 1/T
Pole of the lead compensator ω = 1/αT
6. Using K and α to obtain Kc = K/α

7. Check GM and modify pole-zero location if GM is not satisfactory.

 Lead Compensator
Example
Consider the system of open-loop transfer function

Specifications:
Kv = 20 s-1, PM = 50 and GM = 10 dB.

Using lead compensator

Obtain K by

With K = 10, the compensated system will satisfy the steady-state

requirement
 Lead Compensator
Bode diagram is plotted for

From the Bode plot, PM = 17° and GM = ∞

So the steady state requirement is satisfied,
but the with poor transient response.

So an addition of phase lead angle of 33° is

needed to achieve PM of 50° without any
change in K.

Adding lead compensator will cause the

ωg to move to the right causing more
phase lag.
 Lead Compensator
So, φm is set to 38° (i.e., 33°+5° to compensate for the shift in the ωg ).

Hence,
1 α 1 α
sin m   sin 38  α = 0.24
1 α 1 α
Next the corner frequencies 1/T and 1/αT shall be determined.
Maximum phase angle φm occurs at   1 . Therefore,
T

And
corresponds to ω = 9 rad/sec
The new gain crossover frequency ωc = 9 rad/sec corresponding to 1  T
So,   1 9 and
T
 Lead Compensator
The lead compensator is given by

Thus, the transfer function of the compensator becomes

The compensated system has the following open-loop transfer function:

Lead Compensator
 Lead Compensator
Comments:
Considering the Bode plot of the compensated system, the following point
can be observed

 Bandwidth is approximately equals to gain crossover frequency. The

gain crossover frequency increased from 6.3 to 9.0 rad/sec, i.e.,
bandwidth has increased.

 GM and PM are approximately equal to ∞ and 55° respectively.

 The slope line of Bode plot near the gain crossover frequency (0-dB
line) , has changed from –40 dB/decade to –20 dB/decade.
 Lead Compensator
The closed-loop transfer functions of the uncompensated and
compensated systems are given, respectively, by:

The CL poles of compensated system are:

 Lead Compensator
The MATLAB coding for step and ramp inputs are given below
Lead Compensator
 Lead Compensator
The MATLAB coding is given below
Lead Compensator
 Lag Compensator
The characteristics of lag compensator is examined first. Consider Gc(s)
as:

The figures below show the Nyquist

and Bode plots of the lag compensator,
where Kc=1 and β =10. The lag
The compensator is a low-pass filter.
 Lag Compensator
Lag Compensation Techniques Based on the FR Approach
The main function of a lag compensator is to provide attenuation in the
high frequency range to give a system sufficient phase margin.

Consider the system shown in figure. If specifications are given on PM,

GM and Kv and so on, then the following procedures may be applied:

1. Assume the following lead compensator

Then
 Lag Compensator
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is

where
Determine gain K to satisfy the requirement on the given static
velocity error constant.

2. Plot Bode diagram for G1(jω) and check the PM and GM. If specs are
not satisfied, find from the Bode plot the frequency point
corresponds to the given PM. This frequency is the new gain
crossover frequency.

3. Choose the corner frequency ω = 1/T 1 octave to 1 decade below the

new gain crossover frequency.
 Lag Compensator

4. From Bode diagram of G1(jω) locate the frequency point where

G1 ( j )  180  PM  where PM   PM  (5 to 12 )

5. Determine the attenuation necessary (-20 log β) to bring the Bode

curve down to 0 dB at the new gain crossover frequency ωg new .

Determine the other corner frequency (pole of compensator) from

ω = 1/(βT).

5. Determine the value of Kc = K/β .

 Lag Compensator
Example
Consider the system with open-loop transfer function is given by

It is desired to compensate the system so that the static velocity error

constant Kv is 5 sec–1, the PM is at least 40°, and the GM is at least 10 dB.

The lag compensator is of the form

and

Define
 Lag Compensator

The first step in the design is to adjust the gain K to meet the required
static velocity error constant. Thus,

Next plot the Bode diagram of

Lag Compensator
 Lag Compensator

From this plot, the PM = –20° , which means that the gain-adjusted but
uncompensated system is unstable.

The frequency corresponding to PM = 40 is ω = 0.7. So the new gain

crossover frequency ωg must be chosen near this value (1 octave or 1
decade). So, we choose a value of 0.1 i.e., corner freq. 1/T = 0.1.

Adding 12° to PM as allowance to account for lag compensator. So,

PM’ = 52°. So we find ωg at which the phase of the system is
180 + PM’ = -180 + 52 = -128
This occurs at frequency ω = 0.5 rad/sec, and this is considered as the
new gain crossover frequency ω’g .
 Lag Compensator

Pulling down the magnitude of G1(jω) to 1 dB at ω’g = 0.5 by -20 dB, so

the attenuation is given by

So the corner frequency is given by

Thus, the transfer function of the lag compensator is

and
 Lag Compensator
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system is

The magnitude and phase-angle curves of Gc(jω)G(jω) are also shown in

Figure shown next. Observe that
 The phase margin of the compensated system is about 40°
 The gain margin is about 11 dB
 The static velocity error constant is 5 sec–1
 The new gain crossover frequency is decreased from approximately 1
to 0.5 rad/sec. (Bandwidth reduced).
 The addition of the lag compensator stabilizes the system
 Note that the zero and poles of the designed closed-loop system are
as follows:
Lag Compensator
 Lag Compensator
The closed-loop transfer functions and responses of the compensated
and uncompensated systems are
 Lag – Lead Compensator
The characteristics of the lag–lead compensator is considered first.
Consider the lag–lead compensator given by

We frequently chose γ = β. (This is not necessary. We can, of course,

choose γ ≠ β ). The polar plot of the lag–lead compensator with Kc = 1
and γ = β becomes as shown in Figure below.

For 0 < ω < ω1 , the compensator acts as a

lag compensator, while for ω1 < ω < ∞ it
acts as a lead compensator.
 Lag – Lead Compensator
At frequency ω1 the phase angle is zero. It is given by

The Bode diagram of a lag–lead compensator when Kc = 1 , γ = β = 10,

and T2 = 10T1 .

Notice that the magnitude

curve has the value 0 dB at
the low- and high-frequency
regions.
 Lag – Lead Compensator
Lag – Lead Compensation Techniques Based on the FR Approach
The design of a lag–lead compensator based on the combination of the
design techniques of lead compensation and lag compensation.

Assume that the lag–lead compensator is of the following form

The phase-lead adds phase-lead angle and increases the PM at the ωg .

The phase-lag provides attenuation near and above ωg and so allows an

increase of gain at the low-frequency range to improve the steady-state
performance.
 Lag – Lead Compensator
Example
The design procedure is presented through an example. Consider the
unity-feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is

Specifications:- PM = 50° , GM = 10 dB, and Kv = 10 s-1

1. Assume Kc = 1 (because K is adjustable parameter), then
and

hence, K = 20.
20
2. Plot the Bode plot of G( s)  and determine PM. For
this uncompensated system, s( s  1)(s  2)
PM = -32° , so the system is unstable. ( See the Bode plot)
 Lag – Lead Compensator

3. Choose the new ωg at which phase

angle of G(s) = -180°.
For this example, ωg = 1.5 = ωg .
So, at this frequency, we need
the lead compensator to
contribute with and angle of 50°.

4. Choose 1/T2 to be one decade

below new ωg = 1.5 rad/sec. So,
the corner frequency
ω = 1/T2 = 0.15.
 Lag – Lead Compensator
5. The maximum phase-lead angle
is given by

where α = 1/β. If β = 10, then

φm = 54.9° > PM. So,
ω = 1/ βT2 = 0.015. The lag portion of the compensator is given by

6. For the lead portion of Gc(s), at ωg = 1.5 , the log magnitude of

G(j1.5) = 13 dB (See Bode plot). So the plot must be brought down by
-13 dB so the plot of Gc(s)G(s) passes through ωg = 1.5 .

7. Draw a line of slope of 20 dB/decade, passing through point (-13 dB,

1.5 rad/s). The intersection of this line with 0 dB and -20 dB will give
the zero and pole of lead portion of Gc(s). (z=0.7 and p = 7)
 Lag – Lead Compensator
Thus, the corner frequencies for the lead portion are ω = 0.7 rad/sec
and ω = 7 rad/sec. Thus, the transfer function of the lead portion of
the lag–lead compensator becomes
Lag – Lead Compensator
Lag – Lead Compensator