Mathematics in the Modern World

Avegale R. Caddarao

BSA 1-23

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

1. What is Mathematics and what is the history?

Definition

 Mathematics as defined by Live Science, is the science that deals with logic of shape,
quantity, and arrangement. Math is all around us, in everything we do. It said that this is
the building block for everything in our daily lives.
 Defined by google, mathematics is the abstract science of number, quantity, and space. It
may be applied in its own right that means pure mathematics or it may be applied to other
disciplines or what we call applied mathematics, for example to physics and engineering.

History

 The Early Egyptians

6000 BCE
The Early Egyptians Settled Along The Fertile Nile Valley
As Early As About 6000 BCE And They Began To Record The
Patterns Of Lunar Phases And The Seasons Both For Agricultural
And Religious Reasons

 Written Egyptian Numbers

2700 BCE
It is thought that the Egyptians introduced the
earliest fully-developed base 10 numeration system
at least as early as 2700 BCE (and probably much
early). Written numbers used a stroke for units, a
heel-bone symbol for tens, a coil of rope for
hundreds and a lotus plant for thousands, as well as
other hieroglyphic symbols for higher powers of ten
up to a million.
Mathematics in the Modern World

 Oldest Mathematical Text Ancient Egypt

2000 BCE - 1800 BCE
The Oldest Mathematical Text From
Ancient Egypt Discovered So Far , Though
, Is The Mascow Paprus , Which Dates
From The Egyptian Middle Kingdom
Around 2000-1800 BCE

 Babylonians have multiplication tables

1800 B.C.
Many of the mathematical tablets are
"problem texts:" they contain problems or
sets of problems, sometimes with solutions.
Many of the problems involve geometry; the
rest are almost always "word problems"
where the context is the calculation of the
area of an irregular field, the volume of a
ditch, the number of bricks to build a
ramp,and etc

 Early Chinese Mathematics

1600 BC
Simple mathematics on Oracle bone
script date back to the Shang Dynasty
(1600–1050 BC). One of the oldest
surviving mathematical works is the Yi
Jing, which greatly influenced written
literature during the Zhou Dynasty (1050–
256 BC). For mathematics, the book included a sophisticated use of hexagrams. Leibniz
pointed out, the I Ching contained elements of binary numbers.

 Indian Mathematics
1000 bce
Mantras from the early Vedic period (before 1000 BCE) invoke powers of ten
from a hundred all the way up to a trillion, and provide evidence of the use of arithmetic
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, squares, cubes and
roots.
Mathematics in the Modern World

 (GREEK) Classical Mathematics

624 bc - 548 bc
Historians traditionally place the beginning of Greek mathematics proper to the
age of Thales of Miletus (ca. 624–548 BC). Little is known about the life and work of
Thales, so little indeed that his date of birth and death are estimated from the eclipse of
585 BC, which probably occurred while he was in his prime. Despite this, it is generally
agreed that Thales is the first of the seven wise men of Greece. The two earliest
mathematical theorems, Thales' theorem and Intercept theorem are attributed to Thales.

 (GREEK) Classical Mathematics

548 bce
Thales is also thought to be the earliest known man in history to whom specific
mathematical discoveries have been attributed. Although it is not known whether or not
Thales was the one who introduced into mathematics the logical structure that is so
ubiquitous today, it is known that within two hundred years of Thales the Greeks had
introduced logical structure and the idea of proof into mathematics.

 (GREEK) Hellenistic
547 bc
Most of the mathematical texts written in Greek have been found in Greece,
Egypt, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Sicily.

 Babylonian Mathematics
539 BC
Babylonian mathematics (also known as Assyro-Babylonian mathematics) was
any mathematics developed or practiced by the people of Mesopotamia, from the days of
the early Sumerians to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC. Babylonian mathematical texts are
plentiful and well edited.

 (GREEK) hellenistic mathematics

450 bce
By the hellenistic period, theb greeks had
presided over one of the most dramatic and
important revolutions in mathematical thought of
time . the ancient greek numeral system , known as
attic or herodianic numerals, was fully developed by
about 450 bce , and in regular use possibly as early
as the 7th century bce
Mathematics in the Modern World

 Chinese Mathematics
263 CE
Among the greatest
mathematicians of ancient China
was Liu Hui, who produced a
detailed commentary on the “Nine
Chapters” in 263 CE, was one of the first mathematicians known to leave roots
unevaluated, giving more exact results instead of approximations.

 European Middle Ages

301 - 1500
When Chinese, Islamic, and
Indian mathematicians had been in
ascendancy, and Europe fell in Dark
Ages, almost all mathematics and
intellectual endeavor stagnated.
From the 4th to the 12th
century, studies of geometry, arithmetic, and translations was limited to Boethius
translations of some words of ancient Greek masters.

 India Mathematics
400 CE - 1600 CE
In the classical period of Indian
mathematics (400 CE to 1600 CE),
important contributions were made by
scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta,
Mahāvīra, Bhaskara II, Madhava of
Sangamagrama and Nilakantha
Somayaji.
The decimal number system in worldwide use today was first recorded in Indian
mathematics.

 Islamic Middle Ages

632 - 1258
The Islamic Empire made significant contributions to math, since the 8th century.
Over time, Muslim artists discovered all different types of symmetry that can be
done on a 2D surface.
Mathematics in the Modern World

 Renaissance 16th Century

1501 - 1600
An important person in the early 16th century
was an Italian Franciscan friar named Luca Pacioli.
Later, multiplication, division, decimal, and
inequality symbols were getting more recognized.

 Renaissance 17th Century

1601 - 1700
The invention of the logarithm in the early 17th
century was made by John Nopier.
French Mathematician, Girard Desargues, is
considered a founder of field of protective.

 19th Century Math

1801 - 1900
Jean-Robert Argand posted a paper on how
complex numbers can be shown on geometric
diagrams.
George Peacock is usual credited with the
invention of symbolic algebra.

 Modern Abstract Math

1801 - 1900
Abstract math is a branch of math concerned with the general algebraic structure
of various sets.
Mathematics in the Modern World

A definitive treatise, Modern Algebra, was written by Bartel van der Waerden,
and it impacted all branches of math

 20th Century Math

1901 - 2000
In the early 20th Century, there was the beginnings of the rise of the field of
mathematical logic.
Hilbert was responsible for several theorems and some entirely new mathematical
concepts.

 21st Century Math

2001 - Present
Here in the present, we learn from our history to then discover new branches of
math.
Our math will evolve more in time, as in more formulas and answers.

2. Patterns and numbers of Math

 Prime Numbers

A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 whose only factors are 1 and
itself.

 Composite Numbers
A composite number is a positive integer which is not prime.

 Odd Numbers
Odd numbers are whole numbers that cannot be divided exactly into pairs.

 Even Numbers
Even numbers always end with a digit of 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.

 Arithmetic Sequence
A sequence is group of numbers that follow a pattern based on a specific rule. An
arithmetic sequence involves a sequence of numbers to which the same amount has been
added or subtracted. The amount that is added or subtracted is known as the common
difference. For example, in the sequence “1, 4, 7, 10, 13…” each number has been added
Mathematics in the Modern World

to 3 in order to derive the succeeding number. The common difference for this sequence
is 3.

 Geometric Sequence
A geometric sequence is a list of numbers that are multiplied (or divided) by the
same amount. The amount by which the numbers are multiplied is known as the common
ratio. For example, in the sequence “2, 4, 8, 16, 32...” each number is multiplied by 2.
The number 2 is the common ratio for this geometric sequence.

 Figurate Number
A figurate number is a number that can be shown by taking points, or dots, and
arranging them into a regular shape, such as a triangle or a pentagon. They are sometimes
called polygonal numbers because they are arranged to form various polygons, or 2-
dimensional shapes with three sides or more.
o Triangular Numbers
The numbers in a sequence are referred to as terms. The terms of a triangular
sequence are related to the number of dots needed to create a triangle. You would
begin forming a triangle with three dots; one on top and two on bottom. The next row
would have three dots, making a total of six dots. The next row in the triangle would
have four dots, making a total of 10 dots. The following row would have five dots, for
a total of 15 dots. Therefore, a triangular sequence begins: “1, 3, 6, 10, 15…”)

o Rectangular & Square Numbers

Rectangular numbers are just like triangular numbers, except that they can be
represented as rectangles. A rectangle has four sides, and the opposite sides are equal
and parallel. For example, 8, 12, and 15 are all rectangular numbers, but 5, 7, and 23
are not.

 Square Numbers
In a square number sequence, the terms are the squares of their position in the
sequence. A square sequence would begin with “1, 4, 9, 16, 25…”

 Cube Numbers
In a cube number sequence, the terms are the cubes of their position in the
sequence. Therefore, a cube sequence starts with “1, 8, 27, 64, 125…”

 Fibonacci Numbers
In a Fibonacci number sequence, the terms are found by adding the two previous
terms. The Fibonacci sequence begins thusly, “0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13…” The Fibonacci
sequence is named for Leonardo Fibonacci, born in 1170 in Pisa, Italy. Fibonacci
Mathematics in the Modern World

introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europeans with the publication of his book “Liber
Abaci” in 1202. He also introduced the Fibonacci sequence, which was already known to
Indian mathematicians. The sequence is important, because it appears in many places in
nature, including: plant leafing patterns, spiral galaxy patterns, and the chambered
nautilus’ measurements.

MATH PATTERNS IN NATURE

 Fractals
A fractal is a detailed pattern that looks similar at any
scale and repeats itself over time. A fractal's pattern gets more
complex as you observe it at larger scales.

 Spirals
A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a
series of circular shapes that revolve around it. Examples of spirals are
pine cones, pineapples, hurricanes.

 Voronoi
A Voronoi pattern provides clues to nature’s tendency to
favor efficiency: the nearest neighbor, shortest path, and tightest
fit. Each cell in a Voronoi pattern has a seed point. Everything
inside a cell is closer to it than to any other seed. The lines
between cells are always halfway between neighboring seeds.

 Symmetry
Mathematically, symmetry means that one shape
becomes exactly like another when you move it in some
way: turn, flip or slide. For two objects to be symmetrical,
they must be the same size and shape, with one object
having a different orientation from the first. There can
also be symmetry in one object, such as a face.

 Tesselation
Tessellation is tiling that uses shapes to cover a surface with
no gaps or overlaps. Picture a kitchen floor with tiles and you are
looking at a tessellation.
Mathematics in the Modern World

 Spot and Stripes

Scientists have discovered that the stripes exhibited on
animals like zebras and tigers can be defined by mathematical
predictability.

 Waves and Dunes

Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they
move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium –
air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by. Wind
waves are sea surface waves that create the characteristic
chaotic pattern of any large body of water, though their
statistical behavior can be predicted with wind wave
models.

 Chaos, Flow, Meanders

In mathematics, a dynamical system is chaotic if it is (highly) sensitive to initial
conditions (the so-called "butterfly effect“ , which requires the mathematical properties
of topological mixing and dense periodic orbits.

 Bubbles and Foams

A soap bubble forms a sphere, a surface with minimal area — the smallest
possible surface area for the volume enclosed. Two bubbles together form a more
complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces are joined
by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the larger one.

3. Mathematicians and their contributions

 Thales
o Thales, a Greek mathematician and
philosopher lived in Pre-Socratic times
around 620-625 BC. He is commonly known
as Thales of Miletus as he belonged to
Miletus in Asian region.
o Early developments in geometry, including
work on similar and right triangles.
Mathematics in the Modern World

 Pythagoras
o Pythagoras of Samos (c. 570 - 490 B.C.) was an
early Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher and
mathematician from the Greek island of Samos.
o As a mathematician, he is known as the "father
of numbers" or as the first pure mathematician,
and is best known for his Pythagorean Theorem
on the relation between the sides of a right
triangle, the concept of square numbers and
square roots, and the discovery of the golden
ratio.
o Expansion of geometry, rigorous approach building from first principles, square
and triangular numbers, Pythagoras’ theorem.

 Hippasus
o Philosopher, early follower of Pythagoras, coupled by Aristotle with Heraclitus in
identifying fire as the first element in the universe. Some traditions say that he
was drowned after revealing a mathematical secret of the Pythagorean
brotherhood.
o Discovered potential existence of irrational numbers while trying to calculate the
value of √2.

 Zeno of Elea
o Born c. 495 BCE—died c. 430 BCE.
o Greek philosopher and mathematician, whom Aristotle called the inventor of
dialectic.
o Describes a series of paradoxes concerning infinity and infinitesimals.
o Zeno made use of three premises: first, that any unit has magnitude; second, that it
is infinitely divisible; and third, that it is indivisible. Yet he incorporated
arguments for each: for the first premise, he argued that that which, added to or
subtracted from something else, does not increase or decrease the second unit is
nothing; for the second, that a unit, being one, is homogeneous and that therefore,
if divisible, it cannot be divisible at one point rather than another; for the third,
that a unit, if divisible, is divisible either into extended minima, which contradicts
the second premise or, because of the first premise, into nothing.
Mathematics in the Modern World

 Hippocrates of Chios
o Greek geometer who compiled the first known work on the
elements of geometry nearly a century before Euclid.
Although the work is no longer extant, Euclid may have
used it as a model for his Elements.
o First systematic compilation of geometrical knowledge,
Lune of Hippocrates.

 Democritus
o Though he is typically viewed as one of Greece’s many pre-Socratic natural
philosopher, many historians have argued that he is more rightly classified as a
scientist, at least when compared to his contemporaries.
o Democritus is renowned for being a pioneer of mathematics and geometry. He
was among the first Greek philosophers to observe that a cone or pyramid has
one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism with the same base
and height. While none of his works on the
subject survived the Middle Ages, his
mathematical proofs are derived from other
works with contain extensive citations to
titles like On Numbers, On Geometrics, On
Tangencies, On Mapping, and On Irrationals.
 Plato
o Plato was born in 428 B.C to Ariston, a descendent from early kings of Athens,
and Perictione, a distant relative of the 6th century lawmaker Solon.
o Plato's many contributions to modern mathematics include the founding of the
Academy of Athens, method of philosophical problem solving, and his Theory of
Forms.
o Plato the mathematician is perhaps best
known for his identification of 5 regular
symmetrical 3-dimensional shapes, which he
maintained were the basis for the whole
universe, and which have become known as
the Platonic Solids: the tetrahedron
(constructed of 4 regular triangles, and which
for Plato represented fire), the octahedron
(composed of 8 triangles, representing air),
the icosahedron (composed of 20 triangles, and representing water), the cube
(composed of 6 squares, and representing earth), and the dodecahedron (made up
of 12 pentagons, which Plato obscurely described as “the god used for arranging
the constellations on the whole heaven”).
Mathematics in the Modern World

 Eudoxus of Cnidus
o Eudoxus was born sometime around 400 B.C., in Cnidus, in southwest Asia
Minor, which is now Turkey. His father was Aeschines.
o A Greek astronomer who made important contributions to the field of geometry.
He is thought to have contributed to the theory of proportion that can be applied
to irrational numbers, and he influenced astronomy with his theories on planetary
motion.
o Method for rigorously proving statements about areas and volumes by successive
approximations.
 Aristotle
o Contemporary mathematics serves as a model for his philosophy of science and
provides some important techniques, e.g., as used in his logic.

 Euclid
o Euclid was an ancient Greek mathematician from Alexandria who is best known
for his major work, Elements.
o Definitive statement of classical (Euclidean) geometry, use of axioms and
postulates, many formulas, proofs and theorems including Euclid’s Theorem on
infinitude of primes.

 Ptolemy
o Claudius Ptolemaeus, (born c. 100 CE—died c. 170 CE).
o Ptolemy’s table of the lengths of chords in a circle is the
earliest surviving table of a trigonometric function. He
also applied fundamental theorems in spherical
trigonometry (apparently discovered half a century earlier
by Menelaus of Alexandria) to the solution of many basic
astronomical problems.

 Archimedes
o Greek mathematician who flourished in Sicily. He is generally considered to be
the greatest mathematician of ancient times. Most of the facts about his life come
from a biography about the Roman soldier Marcellus written by the Roman
biographer Plutarch.
o Archimedes performed numerous geometric proofs using the rigid geometric
formalism outlined by Euclid, excelling especially at computing areas and
volumes using the method of exhaustion. Eric Weisstein's World of Math He was
especially proud of his discovery for finding the volume of a sphere, Eric
Mathematics in the Modern World

Weisstein's World of Math showing that it is two thirds the volume of the smallest
cylinder Eric Weisstein's World of Math that can contain it.

 Eratosthenes
o Eratosthenes was born in Cyrene, Greece, which is now known as Libya, in North
Africa, in 276 B.C.E.. It is believed that he starved himself to death in 195 B.C.E.
o One of his major accomplishments in mathematics is his creation of a sieve that
determines prime numbers up to any given limit. This sieve, which is called, the
Sieve of Eratosthenes, is still important today in number research theory.

 Omar Khayyam
o Born on May 18, 1048 in the great trading city of Nishapur in northern Persia.
Today the city is in Iran. Omar’s father was Ebrahim Khayyami, a wealthy
physician. Omar’s mother’s name is not known.
o Khayyam was an astronomer, astrologer, physician, philosopher, and
mathematician: he made outstanding contributions in algebra. His poetry is better
known in the West than any other non-Western poet.
o Generalized Indian methods for extracting square and cube roots to include
fourth, fifth and higher roots, noted existence of different sorts of cubic equations.
o At the age of 22, in 1070, Khayyam published one of his greatest works: Treatise
on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra and Balancing. In it he showed that a
cubic equation can have more than one solution. He also showed how the
intersections of conic sections such as parabolas and circles can be utilized to
yield geometric solutions of cubic equations.

 Niels Henrik Abel

o Born August 5, 1802, island of Finnøy, near Stavanger, Norway—died April 6,
1829, Froland.
o Norwegian mathematician who accomplished an amazing amount of brilliant
work in his short lifetime.
o Abel’s first papers, published in 1823, were on functional equations and integrals;
he was the first person to formulate and solve an integral equation.
o Proved impossibility of solving quintic equations, group theory, abelian groups,
abelian categories, abelian variety.

 Pavel Sergeevich Aleksandrov

o Also spelled Pavel Sergeyevich Aleksándrov or Alexandroff, born April 25 [May
7, New Style], 1896, Bogorodsk, Russia—died November 16, 1982, Moscow,
Russian mathematician who made important contributions to topology.
Mathematics in the Modern World

o Aleksandrov had his first major mathematical success in 1915, proving a

fundamental theorem in set theory: Every non-denumerable Borel set contains a
perfect subset.

 Charles Babbage
o Born December 26, 1791, London, England—died October 18, 1871, London.
o English mathematician and inventor who is credited with having conceived the
first automatic digital computer.
o In 1812 Babbage helped found the Analytical Society, whose object was to
introduce developments from the European continent into English mathematics.
In 1816 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. He was
instrumental in founding the Royal Astronomical (1820) and Statistical (1834)
societies.
o The idea of mechanically calculating mathematical tables first came to Babbage
in 1812 or 1813. Later he made a small calculator that could perform certain
mathematical computations to eight decimals. Then in 1823 he obtained
government support for the design of a projected machine, the Difference Engine,
with a 20-decimal capacity. Its construction required the development of
mechanical engineering techniques, to which Babbage of necessity devoted
himself.

 Jakob Bernoulli
o Born January 6, 1655 [December 27, 1654, Old Style], Basel, Switzerland—died
August 16, 1705, Basel.
o First of the Bernoulli family of Swiss mathematicians.
o He introduced the first principles of the calculus of variation. Bernoulli numbers,
a concept that he developed, were named for him.
o Helped to consolidate infinitesimal calculus, developed a technique for solving
separable differential equations, added a theory of permutations and combinations
to probability theory, Bernoulli Numbers sequence, transcendental curves.

 Johann Benoulli
o Born August 6 [July 27, Old Style], 1667, Basel, Switzerland—died January 1,
1748, Basel.
o Major member of the Bernoulli family of Swiss mathematicians.
o He investigated the then new mathematical calculus, which he applied to the
measurement of curves, to differential equations, and to mechanical problems.
o Further developed infinitesimal calculus, including the “calculus of variation”,
functions for curve of fastest descent (brachistochrone) and catenary curve.
Mathematics in the Modern World

 Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel

o Born July 22, 1784, Minden, Brandenburg [now in Germany]—died March 17,
1846, Königsberg, Prussia [now Kaliningrad, Russia].
o German astronomer whose measurements of positions for about 50,000 stars and
rigorous methods of observation (and correction of observations) took astronomy
to a new level of precision.
o He was the first to measure accurately the parallax, and hence the distance, of a
star other than the Sun.

 Leonardo of Pisa (Fibonacci)

o The 13th Century Italian Leonardo of Pisa, better known by his nickname
Fibonacci, was perhaps the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle
Ages.
o Little is known of his life except that he was the son of a customs offical and, as a
child, he travelled around North Africa with his father, where he learned about
Arabic mathematics.
o In particular, in 1202, he wrote a hugely influential book called “Liber Abaci”
("Book of Calculation"), in which he promoted the use of the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system.
o He discovered the sequence - the first recursive number sequence known in
Europe

 Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī

o Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Ṭūsī in full.
o Born Feb. 18, 1201, Ṭūs, Khorāsān [now Iran]—died June 26, 1274, Baghdad,
Iraq.
o Developed field of spherical trigonometry, formulated law of sines for plane
triangles.

 Luca Pacioli
o He was born to Bartolomeo Pacioli in Sansepulcro, Tuscany in 1445. He was not
raised by his parents but the Befolci family in a small town named as
Sansepolcro.
o Luca Pacioli was an Italian mathematician and is famously known as The Father
of Accounting and Bookkeeping due to his tremendous contributions in the field
of accounting.
o Influential book on arithmetic, geometry and book-keeping, also introduced
standard symbols for plus and minus.
Mathematics in the Modern World

 John Napier
o Born 1550, Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh, Scot.—died April 4, 1617,
Merchiston Castle.
o Scottish mathematician and theological writer who originated the concept of
logarithms as a mathematical device to aid in calculations.
o Invention of natural logarithms, popularized the use of the decimal point, Napier’s
Bones tool for lattice multiplication.

 René Descartes
o Born March 31, 1596, La Haye, Touraine, France—died February 11, 1650,
Stockholm, Sweden.
o French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher.
o Development of Cartesian coordinates and analytic geometry (synthesis of
geometry and algebra), also credited with the first use of superscripts for powers
or exponents.

 Pierre de Fermat
o Frenchman of the 17th Century
o Effectively invented modern number theory virtually single-handedly, despite
being a small-town amateur mathematician.
o Stimulated and inspired by the “Arithmetica” of the Hellenistic mathematician
Diophantus, he went on to discover several new patterns in numbers which had
defeated mathematicians for centuries, and throughout his life he devised a wide
range of conjectures and theorems. He is also given credit for early developments
that led to modern calculus, and for early progress in probability theory.
o Discovered many new numbers patterns and theorems (including Little Theorem,
Two-Square Thereom and Last Theorem), greatly extending knowlege of number
theory, also contributed to probability theory.

 John Wallis
o English mathematician born on 23rd October 1616 in Ashford, Kent.
o Contributed towards development of calculus, originated idea of number line,
introduced symbol ∞ for infinity, developed standard notation for powers.

 Blaise Pascal
o Lived in 17th-century France and made several contributions to the fields of
mathematics, physics, and philosophy.
o He is known for laying the foundation for today's probability theory, for his work
in barometric pressure, and for his theological writings.
Mathematics in the Modern World

o Pioneer (with Fermat) of probability theory, Pascal’s Triangle of binomial

coefficients.

 Sir Isaac Newton

o Born December 25, 1642 [January 4, 1643, New Style], Woolsthorpe,
Lincolnshire, England—died March 20 [March 31], 1727, London).
o English physicist and mathematician, who was the culminating figure of the
Scientific Revolution of the 17th century.
o Development of infinitesimal calculus (differentiation and integration), laid
ground work for almost all of classical mechanics, generalized binomial theorem,
infinite power series
Mathematics in the Modern World

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https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Napier
Mathematics in the Modern World

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Descartes

https://www.storyofmathematics.com/17th_fermat.html

https://study.com/academy/lesson/blaise-pascal-contributions-inventions-facts.html