CALCINERS 31

Stratification: the hidden

menace to performance
The operating performance of calciners is affected by several factors, but flow
stratification presents a particular challenge for the cement plant. To successfully address
flow stratification and find low-cost solutions requires a combination of fundamental
process knowledge and problem-solving experience.
n by Tom Lowes, OPECS, UK, Joana Bretz and Mariana Pinheiro, Cinar, Brazil, Bernd Klarner,
PM Technologies, Austria, and Shan Raza, Cinar, UK

S ince their initial installation in the 1970s

in Japan, calciners have developed to
become a key part of every new cement
Figure 1: residence time for burn-out of 50mm SRF and 90µm petcoke at 900˚C

plant installation. While the largest calciner

is installed in a 12,500tpd kiln system, in
general calciners today are often part of
Residence time (s)

5000tpd kiln configurations and include a

five-stage preheater (PH).
With early models including oil firing
and <2s residence time (RT), modern
newly-built and existing calciners are
required to:
• operate to burn 100 per cent of high-
sulphur petcoke (up to seven per cent
sulphur)
• use 100 per cent SRF in the fuel mix
with 80 per cent <50mm and a calorific
value (CV) of 3000kcal/kg
• have a CO <500ppm
• keep NOx emissions < 500mg/Nm3 at
10 per cent O2.
To meet these operating requirements
new plants are designed for RTs of up to
8s. However, for a six-stage PH installation,
this is a big blot on the landscape, which
can lead to problems obtaining building
permits for some cement producers.
A key factor that negatively affects
calciner performance is flow stratification.
This article examines the occurrence of
flow stratification and how it causes issues
in the most common calciner types. In
addition, it will discuss the method to
assess the performance of an existing
calciner and find solutions in terms of:
• poor burn-out driving SO3 cycles
• stratification producing high LOI
and CO, as well as increasing PH
temperatures and fuel consumption (in
kcal/kg)
• low NOx emissions from reburn of kiln
gases and staging of the calciner fuel.
Oxygen (%)
Furthermore, it will introduce a new
calciner developed by PM-Technologies
with the help of Cinar. This calciner can
burn 100 per cent SRF or tyre-derived fuel
with a gas RT of only 0.7s, leading to a
significant reduction in capital cost.
Flow stratification
Flow stratification, which occurs to a
greater or less extent in all calciners, is
defined in terms of this article as a lack of
or poor mixing efficiency between gases
(combustion products, pure air, volatiles
from solid fuels) and particles (meal and
solid fuels).
Severe flow stratification leads to
insufficient local micro-mixing. Therefore,
before being quenched by the meal, the
fuel volatiles are not evolved into the
required local O2 and temperature for
a sufficiently-long period to avoid CO.
As a result, the meal is not adequately
dispersed and mixed with the combustion
gases to ensure the expected calcination
for the calciner fuel input.
The general statement that the three
Ts – temperature, turbulence and time
– are required for good combustion,
has two essential items missing: oxygen
and mixing. While all calciners are in the
Reynolds Turbulent regime, this does not
guarantee the mixing required to achieve
good combustion, and even good overall
mixing is inadequate without sufficient
local O2. It is essential to consider what
happens on the microscale inside a
calciner and not just look at it as a ‘black
box’.
So instead of the three Ts, the design
needs to embody TOM – temperature,
oxygen and mixing – where the mixing is
driven by jet mixing, like in a kiln burner.
Figure 1 shows the RT needed for the
complete burn-out of 50mm SRF and 90µm
petcoke at 900˚C as a function of O2: after
3s the petcoke is burnt out at two per cent
O2 and the SRF at three per cent O2.
This needs to be compared to the data
from MI-CFD simulations of the four main
calciner types.

FEBRUARY 2018 INTERNATIONAL CEMENT REVIEW

 34 CALCINERS

Figure 2: main inline calciner models Main calciner types

Figure 2 shows calciners produced by the
three main European plant manufacturers
where B, with a separate combustion
chamber, can be produced by the
manufacturer of A or C.
These four calciner models, with similar
sizes, have been modelled with Cinar
Ltd’s MI-CFD under the same operational
conditions: burning seven per cent-sulphur
petcoke at three per cent at 90µm, 50mm
SRF at 20 per cent thermal substitution
rate (TSR) and three per cent O2 at the
calciner exit.
Figure 3 shows the internal oxygen
concentration profile and the paths of the
petcoke particles in black lines. For all four
A. B. C. D. models, the effect of flow stratification
delaying petcoke combustion is observed.
Petcoke particles that cannot find local
Figure 3: oxygen concentration profile and petcoke particles trajectories inside calciners oxygen flow along their paths, with some
reaching the calciner exit without complete
burn-out.
In calciner type A, the high O2
stratification is easily seen as well as the
twisting route of the petcoke particles
which does not spread into gaseous flow.
This is a typical case where the issue is
not the calciner size, but how its volume is
being used by the particles.
In calciner B the gas flow from the
separate combustion chamber does not
mix with the gas riser flow up to the level
of half the vertical distance in the calciner
neck. On some plants with CC calciners this
mixing only is effective late up the calciner
neck, sometimes very close to the calciner
exit. There are cases where this type of
A. B. C. D. calciner, when operated with 2-3 per cent
O2 at exit and having all fuel injected at the
CC burner, becomes a high-NOx producer in
Figure 4: gas residence time (RT), petcoke and SRF burn-out (BO) the calciner as well as overall, as reburn of
the kiln gases is not possible.
In calciner C, special attention needs
to be paid to the angle of the top tertiary
air inlet and to the tertiary air distribution
between its three inlets. Although not
immediately apparent in Figure 3, these
calciner types can slope at an angle
soon after the tertiary air ducts. In these
cases, unless good mixing of the fuels,
O2 and meal has been achieved by then,
the mixing afterwards is very slow as is
evidenced by the high O2 mid-way up the
calciner.
In calciner D, the mixing between the
kiln riser duct gases and the tertiary air
A. B. C. D.
is often ineffective and good mixing only
occurs after the top bend. Therefore, to
guarantee the efficiency of this calciner
type, special care is needed to position

INTERNATIONAL CEMENT REVIEW FEBRUARY 2018


Table 1: Case 1 – one week’s hot meal and clinker data
Compound Hot meal Clinker
SO3 2.55 0.90
Na2O 0.67 0.45
K2O 4.89 1.12
Cl 1.97 0.05
SF 10.08
MR 0.58
fuel and alternative fuels injection in the
correct locations. This step is often more
important than determining the size of the
calciner.
Flow stratification delays not only
combustion but also meal calcination. It
is important to emphasise that while it
may lead to the need for large calciners
when aiming for good burn-out levels,
increasing gas RTs does not necessarily
mean an increase in fuel/meal particle
RT within the calciner. As a solution to
calciner performance issues, extending
the calciner’s length at the cold end is
not an optimal solution. A better and less
expensive way to improve performance
is to make the heart of the calciner work
better.
Figure 4 compares the gas RTs for the
four calciner models showing the burn-out
of petcoke and SRF at 3s, and at calciner
exit, all in the same conditions shown in
Figure 3.
The effect of flow stratification in terms
of combustion efficiency is shown by the
inability of the 3s RT to achieve complete
petcoke burn-out in any of the four calciner
models. However, at a TSR of 20 per cent
SRF and following some optimisation on
its injection location via MI-CFD modelling,
a good level of burn-out is possible with
gas RTs of >6s.
As both methods are complementary
to each other, a process evaluation in
addition to MI-CFD modelling is essential
to ensure that the calciner is operating at
its maximum efficiency, irrespective of the
output of the calciner model.
Calciner performance
assessment
Examining data can help to assess calciner
performance and find ways to improve this
at low cost.
Even calciners with the RTs >6s
previously simulated have issues in terms
of increased SO3 cycle/build-up as well as
CALCINERS 35
increased CO and loss either reducing conditions in the flame
of output once they aim and/or the hot meal.
VF
for TSRs of more than 50 Two quick checks are needed to
per cent. In these cases a establish the SO3 cycles drivers:
combination of process • hot meal carbon via a Leco or visual
2.84 knowledge and MI-CFD inspection or counting
1.50 modelling is required to • insoluble alkalis in the clinker.
find a suitable solution. For this plant, the maximum insoluble
4.35
There are many alkali level for these data is 0.49 and a
41.65 calciners in operation ORC3A of 6.18 and both were found to be
with RTs much lower than in this range. Hence, the kiln burner is not
0 6s, some even lower than the main driver of SO3 cycles. However,
3s, which run into issues the hot meal carbon (HMC) was above the
with 100 per cent petcoke recommended maximum of 0.1, at 0.2 per
and SRF at a much earlier stage. Below cent, as well as whole tyres being put on
is a process methodology that has been the feedshelf. This results in the SF being
successfully used by the authors. above the recommended maximum level
of 8. Figure 5, which compares hot meal
Poor fuel burn-out driving SO3 cycles chlorine (HMCl) and SO3, shows the extent
Firstly, find the magnitude of the issue by of this issue.
comparing the expected and actual SO3 in The recommended short-term solution
the clinker. If this is more than 0.2 per cent is to reduce stratification in the calciner
below the predicted daily value, there are by installing JAMS (Jet Air Mixing System)
not only build-up issues, but also potential sleeves – optimised via MI-CFD – on the
ring issues. calciner burners and run at one per cent
Secondly, look at the sulphur trioxide more kiln and calciner O2. In the longer
volatisation factor (VFSO3), sticky factor (SF)1 term, and with the aim of increasing
and Cl vs SO3 (Table 1). petcoke and AFR use, it is recommend to
Table 1 shows a week’s data of a current install a Cl by-pass.
investigation – Case 1: a 5500tpd calciner The importance of unburnt carbon
with 3.5s RT, which is currently running at in the hot meal from the tyres on the
a 50/50 petcoke-coal mix and 35 per cent feedshelf driving the excess SO3 over alkalis
TSR. The plant management wants to in the form of CaSO4 in the after-calcination
change the fuel mix to a 50 per cent TSR zone cannot be stressed enough. Figure
and no longer use coal but is experiencing 6 shows that, based on plant data, the
both build-up and CO issues. higher VFSO3 values are estimates from
The balance of SO3 in to out is at an whole tyres on the feedshelf of calciner
acceptable level. However, it should be kilns at a TSR of 10 per cent. As a guideline,
noted that the VF SO3 is close to 3 and the at 100 per cent petcoke the burn-out needs
clinker molar ratio (MR) is <<1, while the to reach 99 per cent to have a HMC <0.1 per
clinker MR should be at 1.5. This indicates cent.
Figure 5: Case 1 – hot meal Cl vs SO3
The conventional limit is shown by the red line above which there
are severe build-up issues. It has been found that on plants with
many blasters, focussed shift cleaning and good kiln control, good
operation is possible up to the crimson line. At least 50% of the
data lies above this line. A drop of Cl input or increased bypass is
needed to get below the crimson line. To move from 3% to 1%
HMCl is a drop in Cl input of 400mg Cl/kg clinker, or 3.5% more
bypass
Cl in hot meal (%)
SO3 in hot meal (%)
FEBRUARY 2018 INTERNATIONAL CEMENT REVIEW
 36 CALCINERS

Figure 6: VF SO3 vs unburnt carbon in hot meal In addition, it should be noted that VFSO3
values of >10 have been found in PH plants
without riser or feedshelf firing, when
there is a low-momentum burner and/or
flame impingement in the burning zone. In
these circumstances there is no mistaking
the very brown clinker. Green clinker can
even be found from unburnt petcoke
VF SO3 (HMSO3/ClkSO3)

impingement.

Stratification producing high LOI and

Unburnt carbon in hot meal (%)
Figure 7: Case 2 – calciner exit CO and PH exit temperature vs time
Calciner CO
Average values:
PH exit temperature – 377˚C
Calciner exit CO – 5000ppm
CO and raised PH temperatures and
fuel consumption
When the fuel volatiles do not mix
well with local micro-mixed O2 and a
temperature of at least 1000˚C is reached,
then CO is produced ex calciner and only
loses about 20 per cent of its quantity (in
ppm) by further combustion up the PH
tower. This combustion up the PH tower
raises the exit temperature and increases
fuel consumption (in kcals/kg) in addition
to the final CO emissions.
Figure 7 shows Case 2, a five-stage
PH calciner that is running with a fuel
PH exit temperature demand of 795kcal/kg, which is 70kcal/
kg greater than a normal well-run five-
stage calciner PH system. The average PH
exit temperature is 377˚C and calciner
exit average CO is 5000ppm. These two
PH exit temperature (˚C)

factors combined account for the poor

Calciner exit CO (ppm)

performance of the plant against the

benchmark.
Table 2 shows the simulation of
a benchmark five-stage PH calciner
temperatures and LOI compared to the
plant data. It should also be noted that the
ex-calciner LOI of the plant is lower than
simulated. This shows that the heat in the
calciner is not being transferred well to the
meal and goes up the PH, increasing the
Time exit temperature.
On detailed scrutiny is was found that
the SRF feed was above the splash boxes
and introduced via a double flap valve with
Table 2: Case 2 – calciner and preheater simulation the calciner operating at less than one per
cent O2. While any one of these factors will
Simulation Plant data
produce CO, in combination these three
factors have serious consequences. Figure
No of stages 5 5
8 shows the calciner CO vs O2 where simply
running at below two per cent O2 would go
Parameters Efficiency Temperature LOI Temperature LOI
(˚C) (˚C) a long way to reduce fuel consumption.
The low calciner O2 can be attributed
C1 0.9 314 35.1 378
to the plant being operated at maximum
C2 0.8 487 34.5 568 capacity. Therefore, a more complex
C3 0.8 653 33.0 708 solution is required to reduce the PH tower
C4 0.8 809 27.2 809 pressure by overcoming the severe build-
C5 0.7 896 1.2 889 4.4 up issues that are occurring driven by the
poor burn-out. As a result, modifications to
Fuel consumption the SRF feeding system and its location as
728 775
(kcal/kg)
well as modifying the calciner burners to

ICR FEBRUARY 2018

 38
Figure 8: calciner exit CO vs O2
Calciner CO (ppm)
Figure 9: Case 3 – stack NOx vs kiln back end (KBE) NOx
Stack NOx = 0.35*KBE NOx + 155
Stack NOx (mg/Nm3 at 10% O2)
Figure 10: low-RT calciner
INTERNATIONAL CEMENT REVIEW FEBRUARY 2018
CALCINERS
reduce stratification will be needed to be
able to lower the fuel consumption at the
same calciner O2.
Reburn of kiln gases and staging of
the calciner fuel
NOx emissions from calciner kilns fired
on coal without any special NOx-reducing
Average calciner O2 – 0.9%
provisions built into the design are
Stay >2% O2 , and eliminate CO issues and between 800-1200mg/Nm3 at 10 per cent
reduce fuel consumption (kcals/l) O2. When coal is replaced by 100 per cent
petcoke, depending on the calciner, the
NOx will range between 1000-1600mg/Nm3
at 10 per cent O2.
To reduce the NOx, kiln gases first need
to be reburnt with the calciner fuel and
then fuel N in the calciner fuel needs to
Calciner SO2 (%) be staged to minimise NOx generation
and achieve <500mg/Nm3.2 For coal, a hot
reburn of 0.15s is needed, followed by 0.5s
RT for the gases to allow the hydrocyanide
(HCN) to go to N2 before the tertiary air
is mixed in. For SRF, which due to its
structure produces ketenyl (HCCO) radicals
which are 35 times more effective than
methylidyne (CH) radicals in the reburn
reactions, plant data has shown that a hot
reburn stage is not needed. With only 0.5s
RT with SRF up to 100 per cent reburn of
the kiln gases is possible.
The way to assess the current level of
reburn and staging of a plant is to look at
the stack NOx vs Kiln Back End (KBE) NOx –
as shown in Figure 9.
For a 35/65 split of kiln/calciner fuel,
KBE NOx without any reburn will be diluted
to 39 per cent when expressed as mg NO2
KBE NOx (ppm) and 10 per cent O2. Total reburn will show
no impact of KBE NOx on stack NOx. Figure
9 shows this plant for Case 3 which has
a type B calciner. The figure shows little
reburn as stated earlier in the paper with a
slope of 0.35. However, the NOx generated
in the calciner is only 155 at the stack,
which is contrary to the earlier statement
in which the combustion chambers
produce high NOx. Approximately 750
would be expected from the volatile fuel
nitrogen (N) of a 1.5 per cent N coal with
30 per cent volatiles. However, the plant
runs at an average of 8000ppm at the exit
calciner and 2.2 per cent O2 at the end of
the calciner riser. As the KBE O2 average is
seven per cent, this means the combustion
chamber is running under reducing
conditions and therefore, producing high
CO and low calciner NOx.
The high KBE O2 is due to a low-
momentum burner producing stratified
KBE O2 that does not burn out the HMC
from the calciner fuels. The plant aims
 40 CALCINERS
Figure 11: X5 calciner to be built in Egypt
Novel combustion chamber with 1s
RT for staged combustion and 10s
to move to higher-sulphur petcoke and
a higher AFR TSR. To achieve this the
calciner’s combustion chamber needs
to be optimised and the kiln burner’s
momentum increased by some 4N/MW.
Novel low-RT calciner
As the issue is associated with
increasingly-high PH tower and capital
costs to encompass bigger RT calciners,
the collaboration between Cinar and
PM-technologies to develop a small
calciner with ‘a big heart’ was a positive
step. The new, patented calciner can
achieve a 100 per cent TSR with coarse SRF.
The calciner is tilted to the side by some
15˚ which produces a cyclonic motion
of the SRF. This allows a TSR of 100 per
cent with up to 100*100 * 2.5mm SRF in a
calciner with only 0.7s gas RT, by spinning
the SRF inside the calciner until it is
sufficiently small to exit the cyclone.
Figure 10 shows the general layout of
the calciner, with fuel, meal and tertiary
air inlets, with a MI-CFD simulation of the
SRF flow and burn-out, which shows SRF
burn-out of 97 per cent and a 10s RT for the
INTERNATIONAL CEMENT REVIEW FEBRUARY 2018
RT for 100 * 100 * 2.5mm SRF
largest SRF particle.
This type is also available in an air-
through (AT) calciner and has potential
application to large PH kilns where calciner
TSRs of up to 35 per cent and up to 100mm
SRF could be achieved.
X5 inline calciner
The concept of recirculating fuel
particles was further developed to an
integrated approach for inline calciners.
In this concept coarse fuel particles
are recirculated in the customised hot
combustion zone. In addition, the calciner
top chamber is designed as a horizontal
cyclone swirl chamber in the style of the
previously-mentioned low-RT calciner.
The X5 inline calciner is currently being
installed in an Egyptian cement plant to
accommodate up to 100 per cent SRF, air-
staged combustion, with optimised mixing
designed by MI-CFD for opposed tertiary
air inlets. The calciner swirl chamber
design at the calciner top is based on the
concept in Figure 10 to ensure that the
larger SRF does not leave the chamber
until it has achieved good burn-out and
©Copyright Tradeship Publications Ltd 2018
therefore final burn-out and HMCl <0.1
per cent. It should also be noted that
the longer RT for the larger SRF particles
will drive more of fuel N off under sub-
stoichiometric conditions and produce a
lower NOx than the more conventional air-
staged calciner.
Conclusions
All calciners are different and complex
with even those built by the same
supplier having subtle differences. To
meet the challenges of operating the
calciner at maximum output, 100 per
cent petcoke and SRF TSRs, low NOxand
fuel consumption, a fundamental process
knowledge combined with real plant
problem-solving experience is needed
to recognise and overcome stratification
issues.
MI-CFD and process knowledge and
experience is an unbeatable combination
in this task for low-cost solutions to the
issues which normally involve, in order of
application:
• setting and maintaining clinker SO3,
SF, VF SO3, KBE and calciner O2 targets
• significantly reducing stratification
by designing and installing a novel
JAMS system3 – either as sleeves to the
calciner burner or as injectors in the
regions of the tertiary air inlets, or for
type D calciners, at the convergence of
the tertiary air duct and kiln riser duct
(KRD)
• improving the kiln burner’s
momentum to twice the burning zone
thermal load in terms of N/MW
• improving and relocating the feeding
system of alternative fuels, such as SRF,
to keep the STIFF at the required level
• modifying the design of splash boxes
or their location to make better usage
of the heat released in combustion
process
• helping in the design of novel calciners
that maximise the use of TOM. n
REFERENCES
1
LOWES, T AND BRETZ DE SOUZA, J (2017)
‘Preventing build-ups and rings’ in: ICR, July,
p78-83.
2
LOWES, T AND BRETZ, J (2016) ‘Keeping NOx
under control’ in: ICR, July, p64-69.
3
NANCE, G, ABBAS, T, LOWES, T AND BRETZ
DE SOUZA, J (2011) ‘Optimum Calciner Design
for Lower CO and NOx’ in: Proceedings of 53rd
Cement Industry Technical Conference, IEEE-IAS/
PCA, 22-26 May, St Louis (MI), USA.
 301988-2018
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inflation of 1.7
per Metso business reorgan
between Ferguso progress. April grew well and The
isation
n’s Tobler business marked the complet New structure
owns 39.2 per and Switzerland-bas ion of the merger to drive growth
cent of the combine ed Walter Meier. 4
three more business d business. Since Ferguson now Cemex supplies key
es – Aircovent the year end, the projects
Tackaberry, both in The Netherla group has acquired Airport and Constit
in Canada. nds, and Plomber ution Square
ium Pierrefonds 4
and CASE appoints new
CRH and Summit VP for EMEA
enter potential bidd
4
AfriSam scoops SARMA
A NEW BID for
Ash Grove Cement
CRH plc and Summit Company has ing war Poraver expands
awards 4
Materials. CRH led to a potentia
l bidding war between German sales team
US cement manufac had agreed to
acquire Ash Grove
4
turer, for US$3.5b Cement
2017. However, n with the deal
a new bid of US$3.8b expected to complet , a leading
submitted and n from US cement e at the end of Building Bulletin
is now under consider maker Summit is published monthly
Cement is currentl ation by the Ash Material International by:
y the Grove board. Kansas- s has been Old King’s Head Cement Review
eight cement plants, leading privately-owned cement based Ash Grove Court,

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extraction sites.
two import termina
ls, 52 ready-m
producer in the
USA and operate Dorking, Surrey, 15 High Street,
In 2016 the compan ixed batching s RH4 1AR, UK.
y registered a plants and 45 Tel: +44 (0) 1306
7.4Mt of cement. pretax aggregate 740363/383
CRH is its largest profit of US$215m Fax: +44 (0) 1306
customer. and shipped Email: info@Ce 740660
ICR BUILDING BULLETI mNet.com
N n OCTOBER www.CemNet.co
2017 m

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