Culture Name

Macanese

Alternative Names
Macao, Aomen, Haijing Ao

Orientation
Identification. Macau is a city in southern China's Guangdong province, and was until 20 December 1999
an overseas Portuguese territory, founded in 1557. It is now a special administrative region within the
People's Republic of China, which agreed to recognize the city's special social and economic system for a
period of fifty years.

Macau's status as an outpost of European settlement and commerce in China and its air of isolation gave
it a special historical identity. Its population, while politically dominated by the Portuguese and their
descendants, was always marked by an admixture of groups and by a steady influx of Chinese migrants.
Since the early nineteenth century the majority of the population was Chinese. Macau was located on
the old "silk route" and emerged as a major entrepôt (intermediary) trading center in Southeast Asia in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

The name Macau is derived from the Chinese A-ma-gao Bay of A-Ma. A-ma was the name of a Chinese
goddess, popular with the Chinese seafarers and fishermen who had a temple on the peninsula when
the Portuguese first anchored there in 1513.

As a creation of the Portuguese, Macau represents a peculiar blend of Oriental and Western influences.
This has given rise to a unique and hybrid urban culture, which gives the city an air of romance and
nostalgia. At present, it is a rich commercial and industrialized city. Macau also has a reputation, dating
from the 1920s and 1930s, as a place of smuggling, gambling, prostitution, and crime controlled by
Chinese "triads" (crime syndicates). Macau's gambling houses were (and are) famous across Asia and
still form a popular (Chinese) tourist destination.

Location and Geography. Macau is located on a small peninsula and lies at the western shore of the
great Pearl River Delta, opposite Hong Kong. Together with its two islands, Taipa and Coloane
(connected to the peninsula by large bridges), it measures only some 8.5 square miles (22 square
kilometers). Before inclusion into China in December 1999, Macau was separated from the mainland by
the Barrier Gate (Portas do Cêrco) frontier. The city has good air links, and ferry and hydrofoil service to
the neighboring islands, the mainland, and Hong Kong. A large international airport was opened in 1995.

There is no flora and fauna to speak of, as buildings have filled up most of the available space, and most
primeval forest was used for construction and industrial purposes. Some pine forest remains on
Coloane. In the late twentieth century significant land reclamation projects were carried out around the
peninsula, creating space for new housing and industries, thus doubling the surface area of the city. The
climate of Macau is subtropical and humid.

Demography. The city's population is about 465,000 (1999), with 95 percent ethnic Chinese. The
Portuguese comprise about 3 percent of the population, with the rest including other Europeans,
Indians, and various other groups, such as Filipinos. Immigration from China's mainland has always been
significant, fueled by the opportunities of Macau's international trade and dynamic urban economy
(especially in the twentieth century there was an exponential growth of immigration). At present,
population growth is about 1.8 percent annually. Fertility (1.27 children per woman) is low according to
Asian standards. Almost 50 percent of the ethnic Chinese population was born outside

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Macau, but about 90 percent of the Portuguese were born in Macau.

Linguistic Affiliation. Indigenous languages spoken are Chinese-Cantonese (Yue dialect and Min dialects,
about 96 percent of the population) and Portuguese (about 4 percent). Beijing-Chinese (Putonghua
dialect) is a second language and growing in influence (for example, it is used in education). English is
also expanding as a language in commerce and tourism. The old Macanese language (Patuá, or Makista)
was a typical Creole language, based on Portuguese but heavily influenced by various Chinese dialects
and by Malay. It has now virtually died out.

Symbolism. The coat of arms of Macau shows two angels around a shield with a crown, one holding a
cross and one holding a globe. Beneath is the motto; "City of the Name of God, there is none more
loyal," which refers to Macau's Catholic identity and bond with the Portuguese motherland. What the
status of this coat of arms will be under Chinese rule is unclear.

As unofficial emblems or symbols of the town one might see the casino as the emblem of "modernity"
(giving the city its main income), and the lone facade of Saint Paul's Cathedral as an apt symbol of
Macau's past. This façade, a typical Portuguese structure, is the only remnant of an impressive Catholic
church destroyed by fire in the eighteenth century. It may symbolize the near token presence of
Portuguese culture in a now predominantly Chinese city that owes the larger part of its wealth to the
Chinese fascination with gambling and to the efforts of Chinese businessmen and laborers.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. Although Portuguese sailors first anchored in 1513 and started using the
peninsula for provisioning, Macau as a town was founded in 1557. It was a fixed point on the trade route
to the Far East.

Macau always self-consciously maintained its bond with Portugal, even in times of war and turbulence.
Religious identity played a great part in this. The city was a foothold for the Jesuits in their efforts to
spread the gospel in Japan and China, though without much success. Beginning in the sixteenth century,
other groups such as British Protestants, Japanese, and Indians also settled in Macau in small numbers.

Macau thus emerged as a Portuguese colonial settlement with a European-Christian identity, but as a
result of its allowing Chinese immigration and settlement from early on, acquired a mixed character.
Due to its open, commercial character and its weak military position vis-a`-vis China, there was never
any exclusivist policy or national identity, though its political adherence was to Portugal.

Macau-Chinese relations were occasionally tense but never violent. Macau's historical status contrasts
with that of Hong Kong, which was forced by Britain from China in an unfair treaty and under the threat
of violence.
In 1887, Portugal by treaty received full sovereignty over Macau from China. This was reversed exactly
one century later by a new treaty, ceding Macau to China.

National Identity. Macau is a peculiar amalgam of Portuguese and Chinese culture. This is evident in its
rich and remarkable architecture, economic activities, and demography, as well as its political culture.
Imperial, and later communist, China never gave up its claims to Macau as ultimately a part of China, but
its relations toward Macau (and the Portuguese-Macanese attitude toward the Chinese) were marked
by pragmatism, laissez-faire, and cooperation, a policy that was in tune with Macau's exceptional
position as a hub of economic and commercial activity on the frontier of two worlds. The Chinese in
Macau never clamored for inclusion into China (indeed, many came to Macau from the mainland as
political and economic refugees) but did not protest when it became inevitable. They acquired,
however, a distinguishable identity as Macanese-Chinese visa`-vis the rest of China's people, though this
will inevitably fade after the handing over of Macau.

Ethnic Relations. Ethnic relations in Macau, though hierarchical and rooted in a colonial relationship,
developed into a largely harmonious and relaxed pattern. Major tensions did occur when China
interfered in the internal affairs of the city, as happened occasionally in the nineteenth century and in
1966, during the Cultural Revolution, when there were Chinese-inspired pro-communist riots.

Throughout its history, Macau always received people from many places, either forced (slaves from
Africa) or voluntary (Indians, Malay, Filipinos). It also was a hospitable place for refugees, as most
evident before and during World War II, when the Japanese offensives drove some 160,000 people
(mainly Chinese) to the city, and after 1949, when the communists took over in China.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

The old urban architecture of Macau is one of the most attractive features of the city. Macau was built
by the Portuguese, but the Mediterranean-European designs were always given an Oriental slant in
actual building, and the Chinese made their own contribution in the form of shrines, temples, and
Chinese gardens. The combination has charmed almost all visitors to the place; Macau's historical old
city, its churches, forts, statues, parks, monuments, and government palaces give the city a romantic

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character. But this unique architecture is now also under threat, because massive modernization,
population growth, and urban renewal have led to the demolishing and crowding out of many old
buildings and neighborhoods. Before and after the handover of Macau to China, several statues and
landmarks disappeared (some of them were even shipped to Portugal). Macau is one of the most
densely built-up urban areas in the world. Environmental pollution is a growing problem.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life. The Macanese cuisine is a much-praised mixture of Portuguese and Mediterranean
cooking with some Indian and African influence (as people from Portugal's African colonies also came to
Macau). Chinese influence was not pervasive. Macanese cuisine is popular among the Chinese
population, and also outside Macau's boundaries, such as in Hong Kong.
Basic Economy. Macau is a rich city, with per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of US$17,500. It was
built on entrepôt trade, gambling, and port services. These activities are still very important, despite the
fact that the city also has developed into a major industrial center. Of growing significance is Macau's
role as a center of financial services, both legal and illegal. Its status as a free port, its low taxes, the
absence of foreign exchange controls, its flexible corporate laws, and its long experience in commerce
and financial dealing make it an ideal place for uncontrolled, often criminal business schemes. Its
relaxed system of governance has traditionally condoned this. There is a large "informal" unregistered
sector.

Macau's economy has always been strongly dependent on ties with China and especially Hong Kong.
Macau imports virtually all its food items (and even its water) from the Chinese mainland. China in turn
derives great benefit from Macau, using it as a gateway to the capitalist world through which it imports
and launders huge sums of unregistered money. This aspect of Macau's economy makes it a growing
concern for global financial institutions and for the United States, which has identified Macau as a major
center of money laundering and financial crime. Organized crime groups have a significant, but not
clearly recorded, hold on Macau's economy. Corruption and bureaucratic red tape are a problem.

Land Tenure and Property. Most land is private property and owned by large business syndicates and
individuals. Land prices are high due to great scarcity. The Chinese were allowed to acquire property in
1793. Since the 1920s there have been ongoing efforts at land reclamation, financed by both the
government and private capital.

Commercial Activities. Macau's economy is based on commerce, import-export, tourism, and gambling
(the latter accounting for about 25 percent of GDP), and expanding industrial production. Gambling
brings in some 55 percent of the city government's revenue. Still, Macau has an aura of a city not only of
casinos but also of shady business deals and financial crime. There are strong indications that China uses
Macau as a major conduit of money laundering and unrecorded import-export transactions. Other
tourist-related activities are horse, dog, and car races (the Grand Prix of Macau).

Major Industries. After the decline of its port, Macau succeeded in quickly reorienting its economy
towards industrialization. Prominent industries include textiles, footwear, toys, incense, machinery,
enamel, firecrackers, wooden furniture, Chinese wines, and electronic goods. Small and medium-sized
businesses play a remarkably large role.

The tourism industry, centered around the twenty four-hour-a-day casinos, is of great importance, as
are prostitution and racketeering. Through these activities the city had already become notorious in the
late eighteenth century, with an upsurge in the 1920s and 1930s. Tourism declined somewhat in the late
twentieth century.

Trade. International trade was the mainstay of Macau as a free port, and has been important until
recently. Its first fortunes were made on the Europe-Japan trade route. Macau is a major importer of
goods from China (food, textiles, clothing, electronics, and cheap consumer goods). Some of these are
reexported.

Division of Labor. The Portuguese were active in the political administration, the higher civil service, and
the army and police; the Macanese were mainly in the professions, in trade, and in some businesses;
and the Chinese in business, casinos, fishing, crafts, manual labor, and other trade activities.
Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. Macau is largely a Chinese society, though significantly influenced by the specific
urban culture and its Portuguese elite. During colonial times, there was a basic stratification in three
groups: Portuguese (a small minority of "pure" Portuguese, often immigrants sent or appointed from
Portugal), Macanese (a Creole group, some claiming descent from the original Portuguese-Malay
unions), and Chinese (within this group there was a complex substratification). There was a prestige
ranking of these groups and a certain amount of ethnic-"racial" prejudice, evident at critical social
moments, such as choosing a marriage partner.

Economically speaking, the Portuguese were the original dominant class in Macau, although the
Chinese, by virtue of their business success and connections with the mainland, soon came to form a
powerful stratum. Following the December 1999 handover, the Portuguese political elite has been
receding from the administration and government services. Chinese are becoming more prominent in
the leading strata of Macanese society. The Portuguese have seemed to close their ranks, although the
Macanese are in a more vulnerable position due to the pull of Chinese culture. Business and financial
institutions are largely controlled by a small Chinese elite. In Macau's strongly commercial-capitalist
economy there is a definite class structure based on wealth and business interests.

Symbols of Social Stratification. Dress, diet, and leisure activities distinguished the various groups from
each other. According to social and community background (Portugese, Chinese and Macanese), people
of the city visibly differentiate themselves by their religious behavior, leisure activities, and manner of
dress, but wealth and social status have cut across any easy "ethnic" identification. Elite groups tend
more to resemble each other, sharing smart western clothing, choice of the better residential areas, and
leisure activities like attending horse and greyhound races and clubs, literary-cultural activities, and
international traveling. In terms of diet, Portugese and other culinary traditions have to some extent
mingled in Macau, but their essentials remained distinct and are still a mark of difference if not
"identity" among the various communities.

Political Life
Government. Until December 1999, Macau was ruled by a Portuguese governor, appointed from Lisbon,
and assisted by a Legislative Assembly of twenty-three members (citizens and officials). One-third of
these were directly elected by the populace, and the rest were either appointed or "chosen" by business
interest groups. There was also a ten-member Consultative Council, an advisory body.

Under Chinese rule and the new Basic Law (a temporary constitution, promulgated by the China's
National People's Congress in 1993, and instituted in Macau in 1999), there is a chief executive, chosen
in a complicated procedure. The Legislative Assembly remained, and was by law accorded sole
legislative power. In practice, however, the chief executive has the decisive role. The Basic Law also gave
citizens a large number of civic, social, and economic rights. But there was no significant expansion of
democratic political rights.

Portuguese law codes still are at the basis of Macau's legal system, and the judiciary is held to be
independent. There is a three-tier court system topped by a Supreme Court.

Leadership and Political Officials. The last Portuguese-appointed governor was general Vasco J. Rocha
Vieira. In December 1999, Edmundo Ho Hau-Wah (a prominent and well-connected businessman,
educated in Canada) assumed the top post of chief executive of Macau. There are no political parties.
Social Problems and Control. There are problems of organized crime, prostitution, trafficking in women,
gang wars, and financial crime. Such crimes as assault, rape, and burglary are rare, but kidnappings,
stabbings, and homicides frequently occur in the criminal world of the competing triads. The legal
environment of Macau is not tight enough to allow the effective combating of organized crime—the
traditional attractiveness of the city (and its wealth) is explained by its record of condoning loopholes in
economic and financial laws.

Military Activity. Macau was a fortified city, with its own Portuguese army and city forts, that were built
in the seventeenth century after a 1622 Dutch naval attack and reinforced after Chinese and British
threats to the city. The army was also active against Chinese pirates that infested the Pearl River Delta
beginning in the late sixteenth century. In 1975 the military were withdrawn and an internal security
force of forty-six hundred men took its place. Since the 1999 handover, a Chinese army garrison of one
thousand has been stationed in Macau, but it officially has no role to play in internal security.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Existing programs in this field—support for orphans, the handicapped, and the aged; refugee care; social
work—all have their origins in Christian religions institutions and missionary societies. In addition to the
Church foundations, the government has also developed social safety-net provisions.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

There are many cultural and nongovernmental organizations in Macau, devoted to charity, public
monuments, heritage preservation, and cultural life. Some of these are financed by prominent
businessmen.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Women are more and more active in business (forming about 43 percent of
the workforce), but are not well-represented in political life. Chinese women in particular are taking
their place in public and business life.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Women and men are equal before the law, and in all private
and public organizations must receive equal pay for equal work. In recent years, there were no court
cases concerning sex discrimination. There are no significant social or cultural barriers to the
participation

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of women in society. Violence against women is not reported much. Among the Chinese and other Asian
groups, women were subject to many more restrictions than among the Portuguese and other European
groups, but this has changed due to economic developments.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship
Marriage. The three subcommunities of Macau— the Portuguese, Macanese, and Chinese—have
traditionally intermingled, but as the population grew and the Chinese population became more
predominant, intermarriage declined. The Portuguese and Macanese had formal monogamous
marriage, while the Chinese also engaged in polygamous unions until the 1940s (depending on the
economic situation of the husband). Weddings are important and costly occasions for celebration in
both the Portuguese and Chinese communities.

Domestic Unit. Among the Chinese, the extended family, based on lineage connections, remains
important; among Portuguese and Macanese, the nuclear family is the common domestic unit. Macau's
capitalist economic development contributed to the nuclear family becoming the dominant form of
domestic unit among all groups. In recent years, many young people live alone and/or marry late.

Inheritance. Inheritance still follows an adapted form of Portuguese law, but recognition is given to
Chinese customary law on succession and family matters. Under Chinese rule, only laws approved by
Macau's legislative and legal bodies are accepted, not Portuguese "imported" laws.

Kin Groups. Among the Chinese, lineage membership (with an emphasis on the father's side), and
occasionally clan identity, remain important elements in social and ritual life. Lineages and extended kin
(with some relatives often remaining in the Chinese area of origin) provided the moral framework of
economic activity for the Chinese migrants. In Chinese business careers in Macau, the role of relatives
on the mother's side has increased, indicating a development away from patrilineal orientation towards
bilateral relationships: appealing to relatives from both father's and mother's as a resource.

Socialization
Infant Care. Children are cared for in the family tradition of their community. In the Chinese community,
this means the extended family participates in child rearing.

Child Rearing and Education. Formal schooling is growing in importance as a framework of socialization.
The school system is partly run by the government and partly in private hands (also subsidized by the
city government). Education levels in Macau are still relatively low. About 25 percent of the population
has secondary education, and less than 5 percent go to college. Education is compulsory up to only five
years of primary school, though nine years of state education are provided free of charge. Parents show
high levels of ambition for their children. There is an increasing demand for schooling, which has led to
overcrowding. The overall literacy rate is about 90 percent (slightly less for women). About thirty
thousand children (including many Chinese) are educated in Christian schools.

Higher Education. Higher education in Macau is well-developed, with two universities: the University of
Macau (before 1991 called the University of East Asia) and the Macau Polytechnic. There are also
various nonuniversity institutions, such as the Institute of Tourism Education, the Armed Forces College,
and the International Institute of Software Technology.

Etiquette
Chinese culture emphasizes family integrity, lineage solidarity, reserved public behavior toward the
powerful, and respect for parents and elder persons (that is, filial piety, or xiao ). These values are also
largely maintained in Macau's urban culture. The Portuguese and the Macanese form relatively cohesive
subsocieties of Catholics with their distinct values and preferences.

Religion
Religious Beliefs. According to 1996 census figures, a majority of the population (some 60 percent)
claimed to have no religion. Buddhism is adhered to by some 17 to 20 percent of the population. There
are minorities of Roman Catholics (7 percent), and of followers of Taoism and Confucianism (14
percent). There were also several popular Chinese spirit cults in Macau. Other religions such as Islam
and Hinduism are adhered to by tiny minorities. In the late 1990s there also emerged a small but
growing group of Falun Gong practitioners (although this is not considered a religion).

Notable in Macau's history is the great degree of tolerance and relaxed coexistence of the various
religious communities. This is also reflected in the mixed architecture of the town, showing churches,
temples, and other places of worship close to each other. The 1998 Religious Freedom Ordinance, which
codified freedom of religion, is still in force after the handover to China.

Religious Practitioners. Macau has a Roman Catholic bishop and Buddhist dignitaries. The other religions
do not have notable community leaders. Catholic and Buddhist officials often appear together at public
functions in the city. Among the Chinese, many geomancers (i.e., diviners interpreting the
[in]auspiciousness of lines and figures on the ground) are found.

Rituals and Holy Places. There are many churches and temples in Macau. The oldest religious structure is
probably the Ma Kok Miu temple, dating back to a thirteenth century shrine. The most important
churches are the Macau Cathedral, the Saint Joseph Seminary, and the Saint Laurence. Saint Paul's
Church, of which only the facade remains, was built in the seventeenth century and was the largest
church.

Death and the Afterlife. Attitudes toward death and belief in an afterlife differ according to the various
religious doctrines. Many Chinese have domestic shrines for ancestor worship.

Medicine and Health Care

Medicine and health care are well-developed in Macau, with thirty-four hospitals and a doctor density
of 1.5 per thousand inhabitants. The health-care system has its origins in Catholic Church institutions.
There is a good disease- and epidemic-control system, which is important in a densely populated city
with high rates of mobility. Health authorities are on alert for imported diseases brought by Chinese
immigrants, such as hepatitis B and tuberculosis.

Secular Celebrations
The Chinese and Christian New Year are major holidays. An important Chinese festivity is the Dragon
Boat festival.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. Before the handover, the city government designated Macau as a "city of culture.

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It supported various arts foundations, such as the Fundação Macau and the Fundação Oriente. There are
also private cultural foundations, such as the Instituto Português de Oriente. Since the mid-1990s,
several new museums have opened, including the Chinese Robert Ho Tung Museum, the Luis de Camões
Museum, and the Museum of Art. There is also a National Library. The tourist market and local people
have created a demand for contemporary art.
Literature. There is a long Portuguese-Macanese literary tradition in the city, which likes to take
inspiration from the myth that the famous seventeenth-century Portuguese poet Luis de Camões spent
some time in Macau. The most famous writer in the Macau patois was José dos Santos Ferreira (d.
1993). Macau also inspired many local Chinese poets and authors (such as seventeenth-century poet Wu
Li, and twentieth-century author Liang Piyun). The local Chinese and Portuguese literary traditions have
remained relatively separate. Chinese Macanese literature is as a rule more political in content.

Graphic Arts. The Chinese graphic arts emerged as landscape painting, Chinese calligraphy, and book
illustration. Some European painters (such as George Chinnery, d. 1852, and A. Borget, d. 1877) lived in
Macau and depicted life and landscapes of Macau in many drawings, watercolors, and paintings.
Notable local painters in nineteenth-century Macau were M. Baptista and Guan Qiaochang. Several
Chinese painters in Macau show a creative mix of Chinese and European styles. There are also
Portuguese-Macanese artists. The contemporary graphic arts scene (among both Portuguese and
Chinese artists) is alive and well, supported by cultural foundations.

Performance Arts. In hotels and clubs one finds traditional Portuguese dance performances, fado
singers, Chinese dance groups and foreign artists. The theater scene in Macau is relatively unimportant.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

The University of Macau is a notable center for technology studies, ICT, science and social studies. There
is also the Inter-University Institute of Macau, which is active in ICT and technology studies. In the
sciences, however, Macau stands in the shadow of Hong Kong, which has more institutions and research
facilities.

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