Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 395 827 SE 058 552
TITLE Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education

1995.
INSTITUTION National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA.
REPORT NO NSF-96-52
PUB DATE Jan 96
NOTE 233p.; Appendix tables printed on light blue
paper.
AVAILABLE FROM National Science Foundation, Directorate for
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DESCRIPTORS *Academic Achievement; Curriculum; *Educational
Environment; *Educational Trends; Elementary
Secondary Education; Ethnic Groups; Higher Education;
*Mathematics Education; *Science Education; Sex
Differences; Tables (Data)
IDENTIFIERS Reform Efforts
ABSTRACT
This document focuses on information regarding
student proficiency, curricula, learning environments, and
demographics at the elementary, secondary, and postsecondary level
that has been gathered through 1993. The data presented here are
extracted from existing studies and surveys of education. After an
introductory chapter, chapter 2 provides an update on the achievement
of students, looking at overall changes in achievement and
differences by sex, race and ethnic origin, and region. Chapter 3
considers the characteristics of the elementary and secondary
educational system, examining the adequacy of teachers, curricula,
and resources in light of what the science and mathematics standards
have presented as a guiding vision for science and mathematics
instruction. Chapter 4 looks at postsecondary education and considers
how well the system is producing students who are adequately prepared
for the science, engineering, and technology workforce. Equity is
examined in terms of scientific literacy and U.S. students are
compared with students from other nations. Chapter 5 contains
additional reflections on what the present system of indicators does
not say. This chapter returns to policy issues and suggests critical
themes that researchers should pursue in the future. A review of
major reports recommending an indicator system for monitorin6 science
and mathematics education is presented in the Postscript.
Approximately 40 percent of the document consists of appendix tables
corresponding to each chapter. (JRH)
-**.AAA*****
* *
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
* from the original document.
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NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION
BEST COPY AVAILABLE

2
THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION ACT OF 1 950
The 'National Science Foundation was cstahlished lv ( :onQre, in 11)50 "to initiate and
,upport hasic Lientific research And proQrams ,treni:then scientific research potential
and \Lief-Ice education prov,ram at all levels in the mathematical, rhy,it al, medical, bit,-
( ILIA, and other 'A. iences and to inmate and stipp,rt re,earch fundamental to the
env,ineerine Foie, and proe!rams to ,trenttthen enwneerinQ re,carch potential and enci-
neerinu, eimat ion prourams at all level,..."
Indicators of
Science and Whemalics
Eduction
1995
JANUARY 1996
REC INDICATORS SERIES NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATIOr

RECOMMENDED CITATION
Division Of Research, Evaluation, and Communication, Directorate for Education and

Iluman Resource', Indicators iiitiocnce and Mathemancs Education 1995. Edited by Larry E.
Suter. Arlintzton, VA: Ndth,1111 Science Foundation, 1996 (NSF 96-52).
5
ficlinotuiefigments
This report was planned and prepared in the Directorate for Education and Human
Resources (EHR), Luther S. Williams, Assistant Director. Daryl E. Chubin, Division
Director of the IDiviscm of Research, Evaluation, and Communication, provided general
direction and oversight. Larry E. Suter, Deputy Director of the division, was responsible for
directing the writing and production of the report. An advisory committee reviewed the
outlines, preliminary indicators, and drafts of the chapters. Members of the advisory com-
mittee were Bernice Anderson, Educational Testing Service; Elinor Barber, Columbia
University; Bill Honig, San Francisco State University; Daniel Koretz, the Urban Institute;
and Terrence Russell, the Association for Institutional Research and Florida State
University. The Indicators of Science and Matherrultics Education 1995 was written by
Chapter I Larry E. Suter, National Science Foundation, and Joy Frechtling, \Vesta
Chapter 2 Daniel C. Humphrey, Amy L. Lewis, Marjorie E. Wechsler, and Judith
Powell of SRI International
Chapter 3 Iris Weiss, Horizon Research, Inc.; Francis Lawrenz, University of
Minnesom and Mary L. Queitzsch, Northwest Regional Educational
Laboratory (former AERA fellow)
Chapter 4 James S. Dietz, National Science Foundation
Chapter 5 Larry E. Suter, National Science Foundation
Reviews of the report were provided by Mary J. Golladay, Jennifer Bond, and Myles
Boylan. Reviewers outside NSF included Barbara Schneider, University of Chicago; Lyle
Jones, University of North Carolina; Rolf Blank, Council of Chief State School Officers;
Mary M. Lindquist, 0-4umbus College; Alan Fechter, National Research Council (retired);
and Lois Peak, National Center for Education Statistics.
Special tabulations for the report were provided by Rolf Blank, Council of Chief State
School Officers; Iris Weiss, Horizon Research, Inc.; Karen Brinker, National Data Resource
Center; Rita Kirshstein, Pelavin Research Institute; Thomas Hoffer, National Opinion
Research Center; and Stephen Leeds, Department of Commerce. The National Center for
Education Statistics, of the Department of Education, provided tabulations and survey
reporrs on student assessment, teacher characteristics, and faculty.
g-
Under contract to the Directorate for Education and Human Resources, Friday Systems
Services provided the following services in the production of this document: research, sta-
tistical imalysis, editing, design, data entry, graphics creation, quality control, and desktop
publishing. Kaarin Engelmann was managing editor. Other Friday Systems Services staff
included Megan Henley Kinney, Beverly Stark, So Young Kim, Ramona Winkelhauer, and
Ttill
7
Indicarors
Science and Mathematics Educdrion 1995
LIST OF FIGURES V
LIST OF TEXT TABLES XI
HIGHLIGHTS XIII
CHAPTER 1-11ITR0DUCTI0N 1
CHAPTER 2-AC H I EVE M ENT IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS 13
CHAPTER 3-TH E ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 33
CHAPTER 4-POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION 73
CHAPTER 5-POSTSCRIPT 105
APPENDIX TABLES 113
INDEX 205
List of Figures
CHAPTER 1 -INTRODUCTION
Figure 1-1. Funding for sectors of education by the NSF Directorate for Education and
Humar Resources (EHR): 1980 to 1994 4
Figure 1-2. Budget obligations of 11 Federal agencies for science and mathematics
education: 1994 4
Figure 1-3. Number and percent of students enrolled in grades 1-12, by race or ethnic
origin: 1970 to 1993 5
Figure 1-4. Number of children ages 5-17 speaking a language other than English at
home: 1980 and 1990 5
Figure 1-5. Education level of parents of elementary or secondary school students, by

student race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993 6
Figure 1-6. Percent of white, black, and Hispanic families

with only one parent present, by race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993 6
Figure 1-7. Percent of white and black children ages 6-17 below the poverty level: 1970
to 1993 7
Figure 1-8. Race or ethnic origin of students enrolled in college: 1970 to 1993 7
CHAPTER 2-AC HI EVEM E NT IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

Figure 2-1. NAEP science and mathematics proficiency, by percent of students at or
above anchor point 250 and age: 1977 to 1992 14
Figure 2-2. NAEP science and mathematics proficiency, by percent of students at or

above selected anchor points, agi!, and race or ethnic origin: 1977 to 199' 15
Figure 2-3. NELS mathematics proficieocy levels in eighth grade, by race or ethnic
origin and socioeconomic status (SES): 1988 16
Figure 2-4. NAEP mean science score percentile distributions: 1977 to 1992 17
Figure 2-5. NAEP mean mathematics score percentile distributions: 1978 to 1992 18
Figure 2-6. Percent of age 9 students answering NAEP mathematics questions correctly,
by race or ethnic origin: 1978 and 1992
Figure 2-7. Percent of age 13 students answering NAEP mathematics questions
correctly, by race or ethnic origin: 1978 and 1992 19
Figure 2-8. Average percent of NAEP mathematics questions answered correctly, by type
of question, race or ethnic origin, and age: 1992 20
Figure 2-9. 18-year-old population compared with number of college preparation test
takers: 1987 and 1993 .71
Figure 2-10. Percent of students earning each standard score in science reasoning on the
ACT, by race or ethnic origin: 1993
Figure 2-11. Distribution of SAT mathematics scores, by race or ethnic origin: 1987 and
1993
9
VI INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
1:11.,,iirc NAEP ience ,ind mathematics prof IL iency. In percent of students

at or above selected anchor unt,, age, uid sex: 1077 1, 109'
Figure 2- 11. Distribiiiiiii ot !-;.AT mathemat ks st. ire,. In. sex: 1091
'4
Figure 14...Mean scores t it 1.3-ear-old public s, hool white smdehp,
in NAEP mathematics test: 1991
Figure 2-15. Mean scores if I io.car-old ub1i ihool I lispinit students
on NAEP mat hemati,_s test: 19Q1
Figure 2-16. Mean sC,ifes if 13-Year-old public school black students
I1NAEP niatheinatfts test: 199'
Figure 2-17. REP --,1e1lee sCores tor selected countries ar -3th percentile,
mean, and
95rh percentile. by ac: 1991
Fwure 2- I REP mathemai lc- scores tor seletted Lount nes at 5th percentile, Mean,
,md 95th pert entilc, by age: 1991
Figure 2 19. Mathematics priticiency --Lore. tor I 3-veinold Iii Ltmntnes ,ind public
ewhill-grade students in I...S. stmes: 1991 or too'
CHAPTER 3THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

FwAire 1,1. Percent ot states imposing graduation requirements in mathematics:
1974 to 199'
Figure 3-2. Average number of minutes per dav spent teaching caL h
to selt-cont ained classes, by grade range: 1977 to 1993 38
Nlean number of credits earned by high school graduates in each subject
held: 1982 to 1992 38
Figure 1-4. Percent of high school graduates earning credits in science
and mathematics courses, by subject and sex: 1982 to 1992 39
Figure 1-5. Percent of high school graduates earning credits in science courses.
by race or ethnic orwin: 1982 to 1992
1:11re I -O. Percent ot high school graduates earning credits in mathematics courses.
by race or ethnic origin: 1952 to 1992
Figure 3-7. Percent of high school science and mathematics classes grouped by ability,
according to percent minority in class: 1993 42
Figure 1 -,`. Ability composition of high school sc:ence and mathematics classes:
1986 and 1991
42
Figure 3-9. Percent of science and mathematics teachers who are temale,
by grade range: 1977 to 1991 43
Figure 3- IC. Percent it public high school science teachers who are female,
1
by state: 0i) j
44
Figure 3-11. Percent ot public high school mathematics teachers who are female,
by state: 1991
44
Figure 1-12. Age distribution of the science and mathematics teaching force,
by grade range: 1993 45
Figure 3-1 /. Percent of science and mathematics teachers with master's degrees,
by %ears ot teaching experiente and by grade range: 1993
45
1. 0
LIST OF FIGURES VII
Figure 3-14. Percent of 12th-grade science and mathematics students taught

by teachers who are satisfied with their jobs: 1992 47
Figure 3-15. Percent of teachers who say they enjoy teaching subject,
by subject and grade range: 1986 and 1993 47
Figure 3-16. Percent of mathematics teachers who are "well aware"

of the NCTM standards documents, by grade range: 1993 48
Figure 3-17. Percent of mathematics teachers agreeing that virtually all students can
learn to think scientifically or mathematically, by subject and grade range: 1993_48
Figure 3-1S. Percent of science and mathematics teachers agreeing that students
learn science or mathematics best in classes with students of similar abilities,
by subject and grade range: 1993 49
Figure 3-19. Percent of mathematics teachers agreeing

with statements about- reform, by grade range: 1993 49
Figure 3-20. Percent of science and mathematics classes using hands-on activates
in most recent lesson, by subject and grade range: 1977 to 1993 50
Figure 3-21. Percent of science and mathematics teachers with undergraduate

or graduate majors in science or mathematics fields, by grade range: 1993 51
Figure 3-22. Total number of semesters of college science coursework completed

by science teachers, by grade range: 1993 51
Figure 3-23. Percent of science classes taught by teachers with yan;ing levels of
preparation in science, by discipline: 1993 52
Figure 3-24. Percent of science teachers teaching courses in one, two, or three or more
science subjects, by type of community: 1993 52
Figure 3-25. Percent of elementary school mathematics teachers with college

coursework in each area: 1993 53
Figure 3-26. Percent of high school mathematics teachers completing college courses in
mathematics, by teaching assignment: 1993 54
Figure 3-27. Percent of grades 7-12 science and mathematics classes taught
by teachers with undergraduate oi graduate major in the field,
by percent of minority students in class: 1993 55
Figure 3-28. Percent of self-contained elementary teachers feeling

very well qualified to teach each subject: 1977 to 1993 55
Figure 3-29. Percent of high school mathematics teachers considering themselves well
qualified to teach each mathematics topic, by teaching assignment: 1993 56
Figure 3-10. Percent of mathematics teachers considering themselves

well prepared for mathematics teaching tasks, by grade range: 1993 56
Figure 3-31. Percent of science teachers considering themselves well prepared for
science teaching tasks, by grade range: 1993 57
Figure 3-32. Percent of teachers considering themselves "master teachers" of their

subject, by subject and grade range: 1986 and 1993 57
Figure 3-13. Total amount of time mathematics teachers spent on in-semce education
in mathematics during previous 12 months: 1986 and 1993
VIII INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
Figure 3-14. Amount of time high school mathematics teachers spent on mathematics
in-service education in the past 3 years, by teaching assignment: 1993 59
Figure 3-35. Average percent of science and mathematics class time

spent on different types of activity, by grade range: 1993 59
Figure 3-36. Percent of mathematics classes never working

on 1-week-long projects at home or in class, by grade range: 1993 60
Figure 3-37. Percent of science classes about which teachers report various types of
activity are important in determining student grades, by grade range: 1993 62
Figure 3-38. Percent of test items, by type of test, use of conceptual knowledge,
and levels of thinking: 1992 63
Figure 3-39. Percent of classes for which teachers consider the quality of tl.eir science
and mathematics textbooks as good, by grade range: 1993 64
Figure 3-40. Percent of high school science classes for which teachers report various
types of equipment are needed but not available, by percent minority in class:
1993 65
Figure 3-41. Mean percent of schools with computers that use

16+ hit computers (80286 and higr processors): 1989 and 199.7 66
Figure 3-42. Percent of students reporting any use of computers in mathematics or

science classes during the academic year, by race or ethnic origin: 199" 66
Figure 3-43. Percent of external network use for schools that use external networks,
by type of external network used within school level: 1992 67
Figure 3-44. Average percentage of mathematics problems correct on test items

requiring the use of a calculator, ages 9, 13, and 17: 1978 to 1992 68
CHAPTER 4-POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

Figure 4-1. A map of the science and technology fields used in this chapter 75
Figure 4-2. Percent of high school sophomores aspiring to various

levels of education, by sex: 1980 and 1990 75
Figure 4-3. Number and percent of recent high school graduates and number who
enrolled in college: 1972 to 1992 76
Figure 4-4. Total fall education enrollment, by attendance status and

percent of students who are 21 years old and younger: 1970 to 1991 77
Figure 4-5. Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions, by sex: 1970 to 1998
(projected) 77
Figure 4-6. Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions,

by race or ethnic origin: 1976 to 1991 78
Figi,re 4-7. Percent of 1991 bachelor's degree recipients who took

one or more courses in selected science and engineering couise fields
in which they did not major, by course fVld and sex: 1994 79
Figure 4-8. Percent of 1991 bachelor's degree recipients who graduated

with a 3.0 (3PA or higher, by field and sex: 1991 79
Figure 4-9. Percent of population that is black, by population group: 1990 80
Figure 4-10. Percent of population that is female, by population group: 1990 80

LIST OF FIGURES IX
Figure 4-11. High school calculus and physics coursetaking of high

school seniors who intend to major in natural sciences and engineering
in college: 1990 and 1993 81
Figure 4-12. Percent of faculty agreeing with statements that undergraduates

in their country are adequatcly prepared in select skills, by type of skill
and country: 1992 81
Figure 4-13. Percent of 1980 high school sophomores identifying natural science and
engineenng as intended or actual field of study at various points in the
educational system, by sex: 1980 to 1986
Figure 4-14. Percent of 1987 first-year undergraduate students
in 4-year institutions who stayed in or switched to other
(declared or intended) majors by 1991, by field of major: 1991 84
Figure 4-15. Primary source of support of science and engineering doctorate recipients,
by residency status and race or ethri.c origin of U.S. citizens: 1992 S5
Figure 4-16. First university natural science and engineering degrees awarded
as a percent of the 22-year-old population, by ..2x and country:
mot current year (1989 to 1992) 86
Figure 4-17. Science and engineering degrees awarded, by degree level: 1971 to 1991 87
Figure 4-18. Science and engineering degrees awarded as a percent of degrees awarded
in all fields, by degree level: 1971 to 1991 87
Figure 4-19 Science and engineering degrees awarded per hundred U.S. population, by
degree level and sex: 1971 to 1991 88
Figure 4-20. Number of science and engineering bachelor's degrees awarded

to students in underrepresented racial and ethnic groups: 1977 to 1991 88
Figure 4-21. Ten colleges and universities that award the highest number of bachelor's
degrees in engineering to blacks: '.)93 89
Figure 4-22. Ten colleges and universities that award the highest number of bachelor's
degrees in engineering to Hispanics: 1993 89
Figure 4-23. Science and engineering doctorates awarded to blacks, Hispanics, and
Native Americans, by sex: 1982 to 1992 90
Figure 4-24. Number of institutions awarding science and engineei ing doctorates, by
race or ethni,: origin of recipient: 1992 91
Figure 4-25. Science and engineering doctorates awarded, by citizenship of recipient:

1972 to 1992 91
Figure 4-26. Proportional distribution of science and engineering doctorates

awarded, by citizenship of recipient: 1972 to 1992 91
4-27. Total number of engineering technology degrees awarded,

by degree level: 1975 to 1991 92
Figure 4-28. Institutions of higher education, by institutional type: 1994 Q3
Figure 4-29. Percent of full-time faculty who are black, by field:

Fall 1987 and Fall 1992 93
Figure 4-30. Percent of full-time instructional faculty who are feTiale,

by field: Fall 1987 and Pail 1992 93
X INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
Figure 4-31. Percent of all faculty whose interest lies primarily in teaching ..ersus
research, by country of faculty residence: 1991 94
Figure 4-32. Percent of engineering departments (electrical, mechanical,

and civil only) requiring or offering courses in communications to
faculty and graduate students, by size of department: 1992 94
Figure 4-33. Percent of classes that use a laboratory or problem-solving format,

by type of institution and field of faculty: Fall 1992 95
Figure 4-34. Percent of mathematics departments offering research opportunities to

undergraduate mathematics majors, by type of project and institution: 1990 96
Figure 4-35. Percent of college and university equipment and

instrumentation at doctorate-granting institutions used
tor instruction or research: 1988 to 1989 97
14
List of Text Tables
Text table 3-1. Indicators for equity and excellence standards of the
learning environment 35
Text table 3-2. Percent of high school graduates completing a three-course sequence in
science or mathematics during grades 9-12, by race or ethnic origin: 1990 41
Text table 3-3. Average age of science and mathematics teachers, by grade range: 1986
and 1993 45
Text table 3-4. NAEP mathematics proficiency of 17-year-old students, by frequency of

homework performed: 1978 to 1991 46
Text table 3-5. Percent of teachers with majors and minors in science or mathematics
and science or mathematics education, by grade range: 1993 51
Text table 3-6. NAEP science proficiency for students participating in classroom science
activities at age 9: 1977 to 1992 60
Text table 3-7. States with alternative assessments in science and mathematics: Fall
1991 and Fall 1993 61
Text table 3-8. NAEP mathematics proficiency of 17-year-old students, by frequency of

mathematics tests taken: 1978 to 1992 62
Text table 3-9. Percent of science and mathematics teachers reporting classroom
preparation for mandated standardized tests, by minority presence: 1992 64
Text table 3-10. Percent of science and mathematics teachers indicating that each
factor is a serious problem for science and mathematics teaching, by grade range:
1977 to 1993 65
Text table 3-11. Percent of science and mathematics classes reporting computer use:
1993 66
Text table 3-12. Percent of U.S. students ever taught a computer skill or programming
course, by race within grade level: 1992 67
Text table 3-13. Percent of mathematics classes where teachers report use of various
types of calculator, by grade range: 1993 68
Text table 4-1. Percent of students identifying natural science or engineering as
intended or actual field of study at various points in education system, by sex:
1980 to 1986 82
Text table 4-2. Percent of students whose actual or intended field of study is natural
sciences or engineering, by education level and sex: 1980 to 1986 84
15
.41
HIGHLIGHTS XIII
Highlights
Since its establishment in 1950, one of NSF's mis- dent achievement, the competency of teachers, the
sions has been to provide research, guidance, and sophistication of the learning environment, and others
support for U.S. science and mathematics educa- have been selected.
tion. NSF's role extends into the compilation of statisti-
cal data about science and mathematics education pro-
grams gathered by Federal agencies, such as the National STANDARDS AND SYSTEMIC REFORM
Center for Education Statistics. NSF analyzes statistical
information from outside sources, as well, and develops Over the past decade, science and mathematics educa-
appropriate methods for evaluating the effectiveness of tion standards, which provide an explicit set of expecta-
programs and initiatives. Creation of a biennial science tions for teaching and learning, have been articulated by
and mathematics education indicator report, therefore, a number of prestigious organizations, such as the
builds on the agency's leadership as compiler, reviewer, National Council for Teachers of Mathematics, the
and interpreter of complex data. National Research Council, the National Science
While the 1992 Indicators report primarily described Teachers Association, and the American Association for
science- and mathematics-education-related trends from the Advancement of Science. While differing in details,
1970 to 1990, this latest document focuses, wherever pos- the standards are consistent in providing guidelines for
sible, on information regarding student proficiency, cur- instruction, calling for improvement in teacher qualifica-
ricula, learning environments, demographics, and so tions and the learning environment, and setting levels of
forth, that has been gathered through 1993. Therefore, expectation for student achievement. The standards rein-
this report serves as an update on the ways in which the force the notion that the pursuit of excellence must be
important issues in science and mathematics education, open to all students, regardless of their sex, their race, or
analyzed in the 1992 edition, continue to change. the community in which they live.
A review of major reports recommending an indicator The standards have, in turn, yielded a widely aldorsed
system for monitoring science and mathematics educa- set of specific goals, such as the following:
tion is presented in the Postscript of this report. That sec- All students should be expected to attain a high level
tion also recommends new, future directions for collec- of scientific and mathematical competency.
tion and presentation of such indicators. Students should learn science and mathematics as
Major sources of the latest data include such existing active processes focused on a limited number of
national surveys as the National Assessment of concepts.
Educational Progress (NAEP), the National Education Curricula should stress understanding, reasoning, and
Longitudinal Study of 1988, the National Survey of problem solving rather than memorization of facts,
Science and Mathematics Education, and High School terminology, and algorithms.
and Beyond. The main source for international compar- Teachers should engage students in meaningful
isons is the International Assessment of Educational activities that regularly and effectively employ calcu-
Progress. In some cases, the authors have conducted sec- lators, computers, and other tools in the course of
ondary analyses of the existing data, but no new data instruction.
.have been collected by NSF for this report. Teachers need both a deep understanding of subject
A full understanding of the data presented here matter and the opportunity to learn to teach in a
requires some familiarity with the precepts of systemic manner that reflects research on how students learn.
retbrm in science and mathematics education and the Meeting the standards and goals of excellence and
standards upon which the concept is based. It is largely equity requires a broadly based, coherent, syftematic
within this context that the subjects of the reportstu- approach. NSF and the Department of Education have
As specified in the Senate 1991 Appropriations Bill (HR 5158), this report is a congressionally mandated one:
"...In addition. the Committee expects the National Sciencel Foundation to establish a biennial science and mathematics education indit.ator
report, distinct from the science and eriwneering indicator report, that evaluates the progress of the United Stares in improving rhe science and math-
ematics capability ot its students, and the eftectivenes ot all Federal and State education programs as part of this process."
16
XIV INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
of white or black students. Additionally, the propor-

collaborated on a number of systemic reform efforts that tion of families with children younger than age 18 liv-
entail a coordinated national initiative, as opposed to ing with only one parent increased from only 13 per-
piecemeal remedial efforts, to address all components of cent in 1970 to 30 percent by 1993. (See figure 1-6.)
the prevailing educational system. At the same time, students were more likely to he liv-
Systemic science and mathematics education reform ing belo... the poverty level; the proportion of stu-
is built on the following elements: dents between 6 and 17 years old living in poverty
Curricular reform for all students at all grade levels, rose from 14 percent in 1970 to 20 percent in 1993.
including the establishment of achievement standards (See figure 1-7.)
based on the ability to master scientific processes, Student achievement in both science and mathemat-
rather than memorization of facts or formulas; ics, as measured by the NAEP trends, has increased
Changes in the learning environment, including ped- since 1977. Although increases do not occur every
agogic reform, with teachers emphasizing active stu- year, they are clearly observable for studerrs of every
dent involvement through discussion, problem solv- race and ethnic origin and at every age. Increases
ing, hands-on activities, and small-group work; occurred in the percentage of students who attained
More opportunities for all students to use calculators at least a basic level of knowledge in science and
and computers in the classroom and for homework; mathematics, especially among blacks and Hispanics
More exposure of low-achieving students to the full and those at the lowest achievement levels. For
range of educational opportunities and demands; and example, the percentage of 13-year-old black students
Assessment reform that replaces tests based on factu- who attained a proficiency score of 250 or more
al knowledge with tests that measure the ability to increased from 29 percent in 1978 to 51 percent in
reason, solve problems, and use scientific principles. 1992a 22-percentage-point increase in students
who perform at acceptable levels of mathematics in
the eighth grade.
OBSERVATIONS These gains have not eliminated the gaps between
males and females. For example, in 1977, the largest
This report covers characteristics of elementary, sec- gap between the percentage of males and the per-
ondary, and postsecondary education. The indicators centage of females scoring at selected NAEP anchor
were selected to show evidence of change in the Nation's points was in science at age 17. The gap between the
science and mathematics education system. For elemen- achievement of males and females had decreased
tary and secondary education, the selection of indicators from 14 percentage points in 1977 to 9 in 1992. (Se,;
includes curriculum coverage, teacher practices, and stu- figure 2-12.)
dent achievement. This selection was influenced by Sharp differences in student mathematics perfor-
national standards, which were developed by professional mance among states in the United States match dif-
education associations. For postsecondary education, the ferences among countries. A comparison of interna-
selection of indicators monitors the extent of access to tional and state proficiencies shows, for example,
science and engineering postsecondary education by that eighth-grade performance in the highest ranking
underrepresented minorities and females. states (Iowa, North Dakota, and Minnesota) was the
Overall, the trends toward higher student performance same as in the top-performing countries (Taiwan,
and course completion are consistent with the goals of Korea, and the former Soviet Union), while perfor-
reform. Some significant observations of changes during mance in the lowest performing states was about the
the past 2 decades are as follows: same as in the lowest performing countries. (See fig-
ure 2-19.)
ACHIEVEMENT TRENDS Overall, students in the Midwest had the highest
NAEP mathematics scores, and students in the
Several demographic changes have taken place during Southeast had the lowest scores. (See figure 2-19.)
the past 2 decades that could affect student achieve-
ment. For example, the proportion of all parents who CURRICULUM TRENDS
had received at least some college education increased
from 25 percent in 1970 to 49 percent in 1993. (See High schools appear to be placing more emphasis on
figure 1-5.) The trend held tOr white, Hack, and science and mathematics education. Whereas 20 per-
Hispanic parents, although in 1993, parents of cent of states required high school students to com-
Hispanic students still had less education than parents plete 2 or more years of mathematics in 1974, almost
17
IGHLIGHTS XV
90 percent of states had that requirement in 1992. ments. However, science and mathematics teachers
(See figure 3-1.) However, requirements in all states are using more "hands-on" activities. The number of
remain below the 4 years of science and mathematics classes using hands-on activities increased in each
recommended by the national standards. grade level since 1986, following a decline since
Increasing proportions of high school students 1977. Still, fewer than 40 percent of junior high or
received instruction in science and mathematics in high school classes used hands-on activities in their
the past 10 years. (See figures 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6.1 most recent lesson. (See figure 3-20.)
Also, elementary students spent more time in class
studying science and mathematics. (See figure 3-2.) POSTSECONDARY TRENDS
Between 1982 and 1992, female and male high
school graduates had earned credit in all science and As the value of postsecondary education has increased
mathematics courses at about the same rate, except across all sectors of the economy, the percentage of
in physics, where rates for males significantly exceed- high school students aspiring to obtain a bachelor's or
ed those for females. (See figure 3-4.) higher degree has increased dramatically, regardless of
Substantial differences in coursetaking existed among sex, race, or ethnic origin. (See figure 4-2.)
students in various racial and ethnic groups. (S fig- During the 1980s, despite decreases in the population
ures 3-5 and 3-6.) For example, while about the same of college-age youth, the number of bachelor's degree
proportion of white, black, and Hispanic high school recipients increased markedly. The number of science
graduates had earned credits in biology and introduc- and engineering bachelor's degree recipients also
tory algebra in 1992, a significantly higher proportion increased, although not as notably. However, com-
of white graduates had completed courses in chem- pared with nations such as Japan, South Korea, and
istry, physics, geometry, advanced algebra, and Germany, the United States graduates significantly
trigonometry. fewer persons with first degrees in natural science
Ability groupingassigning students to specific class- and engineering. (See figure 4-16.)
es such as honors or remedial coursesin secondary Although interest in science and engineering careers
science and mathematics classrooms has declined, declines among students between 10th grade and col-
creating a more heterogeneous environment. (See lege graduation, a large portion of science and engi-
figure 3-8.) Whatever may have stimulated this neering graduates actually enter their discipline dur-
change, it is a move toward greater classroom equity, ing the final years of college. (See figure 4-13.)
since homogeneous classrooms may deprive low- Although 28 percent of male and 10 percent of
achieving students of exposure to demanding course- female high school seniors planned to major in one
work and the stimulation and encouragement to of the science or engineering fields, by the time they
achieve. were college seniors, only 11 percent of males and 4
percent of females actually completed the major. (See
TEACHIF.RS text table 4-1.)
Between 1971 and 1991, increases in graduate
High school science and mathematics teachers are degrees awarded exceeded increases at the bachelor's
likely to have completed their undergraduate training level. By 1991, doctorates in science and engineering
with majors in their teaching fields, but few elemen- constituted almost two-thirds of all doctorates grant-
tary school teachers majored in science or mathemat- ed in the United States. During this period, universi-
ics. (See figure 3-21.) Only about two-thirds of ties awarded 39 percent more science and engineer-
teachers of grades 1 through 8 have completed at ing master's degrees and 23 percent more science and
least one college course in the biological, physical, or engineering doctoral degrees. (See figure 4-18.)
earth sciences. (See figure 3-22.) The number of females receiving bachelor's degrees in
Less than 30 percent of elementary school teachers science and engineering has increased substantially in
say they feel well qualified to teach life science, while the past few years; while the number of males graduat-
60 percent feel well qualified to teach mathematics ing in those fields has remained flat or declined. (See
and close to 80 percent feel well qualified to teach appendix table 4-18.) Still, while females constituted
reading. (See figure 3-28.) 54 percent of all bachelor's degree recipients in 1991,
Overall, many teachers are not yet following recom- they earned only 44 percent of all bachelor's degrees
mendations for reforming classroom practice; for in science and engineering.
example, teachers have not implemented early intro- The number of blacks and Hispanics graduating with
duction of algebraic concepts or alternative assess- science or engineering bachelor's degrees increased
18
XVI INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
between 1985 and 1991. However, blacks represented

only 6 percent of science and engineering bachelor's
degree recipients, whereas they represented 14 per-
cent of the postsecondary population. Hispanics rep-
resented 4 percent of science and engineering bache-
lor's degree recipients and 11 percent of the popula-
tion.
Underrepresentation is evident in the number of
minorities and females who serve as science and
engineering faculty members. In 1992, blacks made
up about 5 percent of all higher education faculty,
but they made up only 3 percent of natural sciences
faculty and less than 3 percent in engineering. (See
figure 4-29.) Similarly, although the number of
women teaching in U.S. postsecondary institutions
increased markedly, females account for only about
15 percent of faculty in the natural sciences and only
about 6 percent of engineering faculty (see figure 4-
30); they make up about one-third of all higher edu-
cation faculty. M
19
Chdpt& 1
THE CONTEXT FOR THIS REPORT 2
Policy
Systemic reform
Standards 3
Assessment 3
Federal funding 3
Demographics 4
Elementary and secondary 5
Postsecondary 7
1HE ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT 7
REFERENCES 9
2 INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
Introduction
The Senate 1991 Appropriations Bill (HR 5158) they selected indicators for this volume. These events all
mandated that the National Science affect interpretation of the selected indicators.
Foundation (NSF) produce this biennial report
to evaluate the health of science and mathematics edu- POLICY
cation. This report is intended to update policy makers,
educators, and the general public on the status of stu- In response to mounting evidence from national and
dents and the system that serves them. It uses selected international studies that not all students in the U.S.
indicators of the system to provide a look at how science educational system perform well in science and mathe-
--,nd mathematics education has changed in the past few matics, educators and policy makers have placed a new
years and how it is changing today. Furthermore, the emphasis on the promotion of excellence and equity for
report uses a nurn',er of indicators that represent impor- all U.S. students. (See Chapter 2.)
tant elements of the efforts of systemic reform of mathe- One initiative to deal with excellence and equity
matics and science education. issues was the creation of a set of National Education
The data and findings presented here al-out science Goals to be achieved by the year 2000. One of these
and mathematics education are extractec' from existing goals stresses the importance of science and mathematics
studies and surveys of educarion. In some cases, chapter education by challenging school systems to make U.S.
authors have conducted secondi,ry P.:ialyses of these exist- students' science and mathematics achievement first in
ing data, but no new information has been collected from the world.
schools, students, or teachers specifically for purposes of Another initiative has been to implement systemic
writing this report. The report highlights information reform efforts, rather than piecemeal projects, to unify
regarding relationships between changes in student policies of reform. For example, standards have been
achievement and changes in classroom conditions. developed for science and mathematics education to pro-
Although the picture that emerges is detailed, it is far vide clear goals for students, teachers, and administrators
from complete because survey data for many important in each subject area. (For more information on science
topics of concern to science and mathematics educators and mathematics standards, see Chapter 3.) Also, new
are not available. Therefore, a secondary purpose of this assessment strategies have been created to measure the
volume is to evaluate the condition of current indicators outcome of new instructional methods. This volume pro-
as descriptors of science and mathematics education from vides an examination of the extent to which these reform
kindergarten through the end of the collegiate experience efforts have been adopted by educators throughout the
and to identify new directions to be pursued. United States.
Two themes are central to the indicators in this vol-
umeexcellence and equity. Excellence means the SYSTEMIC REFORM
extent to which high standards of learning are attained; Systemic reform is an approach to educational change
equity means the extent to which these standards are based on the premise that achieving excellence and equity
applied to all groups. Excellence and equity arc tile fore- will require more than piecemeal attacks on rhe education-
most goals of the educational systemthe bottom line of al system. Three elements are central to systemic reform
the system's health. (O'Day Sk Smith, 1993):
high standards for learning expected from all students;
alignment among the parts of the educational system;
THE CONTEXT FOR THIS REPORT and
a change in the governance of education, which
The changes in the educational system described in includes greater school site flexibility and control ,ver
this volume should he examined within the context of resources and strategies of curriculum implementation.
major events in the country that affect student perfor- Systemic reform efforts include more, however, than
mance in elementary and secondary schools and the sci- lust a vision of change in classroom instruction. They
entific literacy of college graduates. This section provides involve the community and the public in promoting
a summary of some of the recent events in policy, fund- change by encouraging partnerships among the sectors
ing. and demographics that the authors considered as of education institutions and among parents, business-
es, and the community to develop goals for students;
21
INTRODUCTION 3
,,fiLr an enhanced n,le tor What ha, l'cen "infor hands-on, inionry-based learningrather than purvevi,r
mai sLienLe- learning experleni esmuseums. parks. 'II knowledge. The principles iiithin the standard, .1re
and radio and televi"loo. Hupp ,ving the edu- widely acLepted by leaders of the education assoi
at ii,11.11 ,v,tet-o; lit provide a path 1,, cxiellenee.
LtiLe professional development enhanced prommenLe.
with the idea that such development is imp maw tor ASSESSMENT
all actors in the educational enterprise: and Assessment a tool that not only measures, but also
view the elementary and secondaly ss "tem as integralk drives, instruction. A, such), educators constder it a elltl-
related to tile p,,sbeiondary "istem; 1-..thc,,mmunit Lal ran if t Ile le.iLlim,2 and learning Lycle. The types of
Lolleges and 4-s.car inst loll, are II1Vols ed asse"sment used in s hook throughout die Lountry have
-:,ystemic retorm effort, emplia"1.:e an ligiunent among begun to L fiance in recent year'. Experiments ,uld
pans. with consi 'tent and coherent policies. instructional research are underway u develop new testing strategies
practice', and assessment,. For instance, instruction in that require more pniblem ,1Iymne and active engagement
elementary grade" should be articulated Ls ith that ot sec- the pan of the students. This new generanon of tests
indars grade", and instruction in elementars and "cc is expected to con,--ibute 1,, a more demanding educa-
ndarY schotils ,hould prepare students to ucLeed both tional ssstem Fri i,uch all students are expected to be
in tilt. ,,stseLondary education environment .uld p. nei ompetent ut 'lvmtie proHeIns as svel I as knowtng tact,
entrants to the workforce.
The vision that form, the foundation tor -yin:ink_ FEDERAL FUNDING
change forces educators to expand the definition of
excellence. It considers new componentsis well a, the One of NSF', missions is to provide research. guidance.
extent of alignment ot the components toward a common and support for science and mathematics education in the
Nlany of the necessary measurements of alignment United States. NSF provides funds to support graduate
are not currently available. Those that could be identified and undergraduate students in specific science and engi-
are shown in this volume, especially in Chapter neering fields, and primary responsibility for educational
Further development of appropriate indicators must be programs at NSF is vested in the Directorate for
i:ontinued to improve measurements ot the conditions Education and Human Resources lEHR). Since the
that affect the health ot the entire school :vstern. I980s, EHR has grown rapidly, largely propelled by
increases in programs for elementary and secondary educa-
STANDARDS tion. Although EHR spent only 22 percent of it, b ui.get
Standards for teachers and students that s ere devel- on elementary and secondary education programs in MO,
iiped by national professional societies play a pivotal role it expended about 57 percent .,f its budget on these pro-
in systemic reform efforts. Indeed, the descririti 'Ft ot grams in 19Q4. (See figure I -1 and appendix table 1-1.) A
instruction and learning portrayed in botn the science
and mathematics standards is one that is .11e heart of
systemic Lhange etforts.
The National Research Council, representing the sci-
The science and mathematics
ence community, is developing science stanclards, build-
ing on the American Association tor the Advancement standards are not merely a
of Science's Project 2061 and the National Science
Teachers Association's The (:ontent Core. The National restatement of the status quo.
fin- Teachers of Nlathematics developed standards
that were published in IoSQ, lq91 ind 1Q05. Both set, ot They call for a different kind of
smndards call tor changes in teaching methods, teacher
preparation, the learning envirotufient, and the systein's
expectations ot .111 students.
instruction, emphasizing depth of
These standards are not merely a restatement the
..
status quo. They stres Ii tli levels of science and mathe- understanding over breadth of
matic" c,impetencs. They call for a different kind of
instruction. emphasi:ing depth of understanding over coverage and instruction to
breadth ot coverage and instruction to promote problem
solving. In addition, the role ot the teau her be, ome, one promote problem solving.
coach or model- is iii students expected to engaite in
4 INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1 995
FIGURE 1-1
Funding for sectors of education by the NSF Directorate for Education and Human Resources (EHR): 1980 to 1994
350
300
250
2
200
5 150
e , r,i
100
,o- Undergraduate
............... ....
50 Graduate
. ... .................. Infonnie
0 -------
1980 1981 1982
.......
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
Fiscal year
SOURCES Nattcnat Spence icanCatc, EHR L.Vectav of &wan:is Fo5C8.1 NAV I 990 (NSF 92 751 Washogicr, DC NSF NatOn.x Scence PcknIalce 0994t (8.09e1119,11 UnpubkrilecS laWaticns
SOO tit table 1- I
large proportion of these funds financed systemic FIGURE 1-2

approaches to increase the alignment of projects within a
Budget obligations of 11 Federal agencies
state or city to achieve a more unified policy and structure for science and mathematics education: 1994
for elementary and secondary education.
800
Although Federal funding is a small portion of the
rrastaessamoR N
state and local government expenditures for science and Dept. of Heatlh &
Human Services
mathematics education, changes in Federal funding may 700
Department of Defense
provide useful indicators of changes in national priorities. 111 Other seven agensies'
NSF's financial contribution to education represents 600 Department of Educaton
about one-fourth of the total Federal investment in sci- 7
111 National SCI4000
Foundation
ence and mathematics education. Other funding sources 2 500
are the departments of Education, Health and Human
42e
Services, Defense, Agriculture, Commerce, Energy, and
g 400 EingERE
Interior; the National Aeronautics and Space 0
Administration; the Smithsonian Institution; and the
300
Environmental Protection Agency. (See figure 1-2 and
appendix table 1-2.)
200
DEMOGRAPHICS
100
Even as educators have continued to search for new

ways to enhance excellence and equity during the past 2
decades, the demographic context of the educational sys- Kindergarten to 12th Undergraduate 4-yar
tem has changed. Several of the changes that occurred in 00(4'1 ao,,CoS nCNCte the eenaements 01 Aoncurbro Corrnerce. Ewa,.
r lyninsr.r.an ne,oRaat Cs WO SoaC* Acyncotrato, arc] E,,woornen.
the past 2 decades are ones that directly influence perfor- "Ctec.1.On Age-,
Nc.riS tx,.ause Ca 00,,oe4 . cnanges tre^..0 ka.ros nas nOt De COrroatthe vete
mance of U.S. students. Since most of the indicators in Nes ous a,a:vse, tor. Aoonc, 10.et s May ne (1111Fyt,t
he Wes e,trt aur,otroteo amosems
a reso, 71 evyv,a rvor.e,
this volume are averages of a diverse population distrib- tS' =6,, 1E3,01(r1 IW(1,5 horn a000l-m.1,1,A
taMlatO,
uted over SO states, they reflect important trends, such as arVe, 1., cre`
changes in immigration patterns; however, because some ...' at 41
23
INTRoDDCTION 5
democtrApIlic chancles oss lIt sloclv, the% have limited appendix table 1-4.1 F;etil cell I `P,C' mud I'-)00, the num.
influence on education indk tr.,. her ot children \kilo spoke .1 lani.2.1fwe tither than En,lish
at home increased from 4.5 million to cal nulhon, or
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY trom 10 percent to 14 percent 01 .111 children. ln 1990.
Between 1970 and I t-)5, the sr.e ot the elementary Just under 1 million children, akut 2 percent of all chil-
ind secondary population declined. In 195, it bet2an dren, reported that they did mit speak Enttlish well or At
increasmc mcmln. Durim: this period, racial And ethnic All. A hwher percentaue if children n ho spoke a Ian-
.11yersity increa,,d slichrlv "nhin the elementary
Quai2:e other than Encilish at home reported to the Census
secondar; school rtTuhritm. By 1991. (lie white popula- Bureau that they speak Enizhsh t. cry well. I hiwevcr, this
tion percent smaller than it had been ii 197,". chanee in the number ot children who normally speak a
The 'lack populath.n %kJ- about the -.line si:e as in 1970, lanctuaue tither than EnQlish at home was not laril.e
Ind the p, rtil.ir ion i tther races, mostly Asian, 1.;reii. enouch to have any dramatic ettect tn the indicatois it
The I hspamc population increased b\ 2 Indlion stu- student performance presented in this volume.
dents, or ahout two-thirds. hetween 1075when u was Overall. elementary ,md secondary students tq' all races
tirst measuredand No to about 12 percent ot the and ethnic oricins i+ ere more likely in 1991 than in pre-
elementary and secondari population. (Hee ticure 1-1 vious years to have parents with hit:her education levels.
Ind .ippendix tahle 1-1.1 tHee fiizure 1-5 and appendix table 1-5.1 Bemeen 1970 and
:orrespondinc it, the increase ii the l-hspanic popula- 1991. the proportton if parents %%hitt kid reeeic est it least
tion was an Increase in the number children who did some coil cue education increased trom .25 percent to 49
ntt speak Enelish in the ht me. tHce to_ture 1-4 and percent. However, In 1091, only 17 percent of black and
FIGURE 1-3 FIGURE 1-4

Number and percent of students enrolled in Number of children ages 5-17 speaking a
grades 1-12, by race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993 language other than English at home:
50 1980 and 1990
50
White
40 ---- ....... 47
45
30
40
20
10 Black
Hispanic
30
970 1575 980 '985 1990 in,1
00
-a
Whrte
20
BO
2
50
40 10
6.3
EI,ack
Hisparuc
0
370 '9 -5 980 1985 1990 -03 1390
III All children ages 5-17

C` ldreh no speak a language other than Engl,sh at home
FIGURE 1- 5 .17 percent (ft I Ilpltli ratents had received at least siline
Education level of parents of elementary educat lOn. Akita -11.11t tit the increases in the
or secondary school students, by student prop frtion of student, whif performed at a hasic level ifn
race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993 the Xational :\,,essment fit Education Prolfress between
All students 10S2 and lq92 can he attributed to the overall increase in
parental education levels.- (Sec Chapter 2.)
in 1)9i, students ot ,my MCC Of ethnic oruzln %%ere
more likely to be inembers of one-parent families. (Sec
An, cOHNe
tiCure 1-0.1 The proportion (ft one-parent fatmlies
increased from rer,ent m 1'170 lii
I percem in 1001;
. . ................... iii 100 ;. f 'e nt ot Hack Mmiltes had (fnly one par-
............ 7 . r . - ent. (See appendix table 1 -0.1 Clearly, schools can no
0-11 ears o.7c,7-00.7 kincer .1!,111111: that t_hildren have parent, .11 h(fme to
'977, 960
tuomtor school activities.
White students
The prop, frt ion ot children livint: in families with
incomes helow the pot erh, level increased steadily
between 107C ,md 100 14 percent to 20 percent
1 children r, to I \ ears old. (See tif..fure 1-7 .lnd appen-
dix table 7.1 Althotit.:11 the pr. fronton (ft black cluldren
1
Ait fol'ege
....... FIGURE 1-6
. Z. ....................
.....
0-11 years of sCh.C;or
Percent of white, black, and Hispanic families
with only one parent present, by race or
ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993
a7f., ' 960 '990
GO
Black students
90
0-11 years ot school
...........................................
Any college
60
970 f
Hispanic students Black

Jo
... . . - - -
Sc Hispanic
0-11 years of school
-
20
40
White
.......................
Any cOliege 0
'970 980 980 "190 990 1495
BEST COPY AVAlt ABLE

25
INTRODUCTION 7
hying in tamihes with moque, behiss the posens les el

FIGURE 1-7
H ilk tease suktant talk during this period, u
Percent of white and black children ages 6-17
remained high---at ab(mt 43 percent. I or increasing below the poverty level: 1970 to 1993
levels i p(Yerty pt)puht I( ill, uld have .1
'90
negative influence on educai tonal excellence and equity.
50
POSTSECONDARY
Somewhat less racial md ethnis diversity exists among 60
the college populat ion than the elementary and see . Black
40
ondarv populat nn. and diversity ,unong postsecondars
students has not dianged great is in the past deLade.
WI-kte
Between 10 'C and 1003, the proportion of stUdel is
enn,lled in (..:011ele ss 11, were white des.reased. (See figure
'970 1980 '990 '993
I ,md appendix table I -;.) The proportion of black stu-
dents has increased little since 1O75, when it reached 10
percent. The proportion ot students (,1 (cther races and of
Hispanis origin ea, h increased to ak ciii 7 percent ot sw .
dents enrolled in ,ollege by 1003
THE. ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
This report considers changes in science and mathe- FIGURE 1-8

matics education in the United States with regard to
Race or ethnic origin of students
excellence and equity within the educational system. The
enrolled in r-ollege: 1970 to 1993
data are presented in three chapters, followed by a con .
+0.000
cluding chapter:
Chapter 2 provides an update on the achievement of 8.000
..................................
White
students, looking at (iverall changes in achievement and ..".'
differences by sex, race and ethnic origin, and reglon. 6 000
The chapter reports some "good news," in terms ot excel-

4 000
hence and equity; however, many questnms remain.
lapter 3 considers the characte-istics ot the elemen- 2.000
tary and secondary educational system, examining the Black
adequacy of teachers, curriculamd resources in light ot Hisparac
what the science and mathematics standards have pre- 1970 '975 '980 '985 ,990 1993
sented as a guiding vision for science and mathematics 100
instruction. These data provide the basis for both celebra- Whnte
tion and concern. These analyses also htghlight areas Ito
where Information is shut.

.9 60
Chapter 4 looks at postsecondary education. It consid-
ers hose well the system is producing studenn. who are F.z 40
adequately prepared for the science, engineering. and
technology workforce. This chapter examines e luny in 20
Black
terms of scientific literacy. It also considers how ' S. stu-
1-11s0arkc
dents tare compared with students from other nations.
'970 '975 1980 '985 '990 ,993
Chapter 5, the concluding ch;spter, contains addunmal
reflections, not as much on wlia the indicators say, but
on what the present system of indicators does not say.
The chapter returns to polic,. issues and suggests critical
themes that researchers sin Id pursue in the future. II
a INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1955
EN13NOTES
As specified in the Senate 1991 Appropriations Bill

(FIR 5158), this report is a congressionally mandated
one:
"...In audit:cm, the Committee expects the [National
Science] Foundation to establish a biennial science and
mathematics education indicator report, distinct from the
science and engineering indicator report, that evaluates
the progress of the United States in improving the sci-
ence and mathernaucs capability of its students, and the
effectiveness of all Federal and State education programs
as part of this process."
-Calculated by deriving the percentage of students

achieving basic levels in 1982 and 1992 for each educa-
tion level of parents and adjusting the education of par-
ent, to a current population.
27
Chapter 1 References
National Science and Technology Council, Committee on Education Training.

(1995). [Special tabulations provided by the working group on the budget of the NTSC
Committee on Education and Training]. Unpublished tabulations.
National Science Foundation. (1992). EHR Directory of awards: Fiscal year 1990
(NSF 92-75). Washington, DC: NSF.
National Science Foundation. (1994). [Budget figures]. Unpublished tabulations.
O'Day, J.A., & Smith, M.S. (1993). Systemic reform and educational opportunity.
In S.H. Fuhrman (Ed.), Designing coherent education policy (pp. 250-312). New York: Jossey-
Bass Inc.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1971). Charactensucs of the low-income population:

1970 (Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-60, No. 18).
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1971). School enrollment: October 1970 (Current
Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-20, No. 222). Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Offie.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1981). Characteristics of the population below the pover-
ty level: 1980 (Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-60, No.
133). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1981). School enrollmentsocial and economic charac-
teris.',cs of students: October 1981 and 1980 (Current Population Reports, Population
Characteristics Series P-20, No. 400). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1990). School enrollment--social and economic charac-
tenstics of students: 1989 (Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-
20, No. 443). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1991). Poverty in the United States: 1990 (Current
Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-60, No. 175). Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office.
teristics of students: October 1990 (Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics
Series P-20, No. 460). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1992). Household and family characteristics: March
U.S. Bureau of the Ccnsus. (1993). Household and family characteristics: March
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing )ffice.
10 INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995 1:c
k.
tertsucs of students: October 1992 (Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1994). Household and familv characteristics: March
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1994). Official povert:v statistics: 1993 (Current
Population Reports, Population Series P-60, No. 188). Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
teristics of students: October 1993 (Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics
U.S. Department of Commerce. (1980). 1980 Census of population, detailed popula-

tion ch.aractenstics: United States summary (PC 80-1-D1-A). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau
of the Census.
U.S. Department of Commerce. (1990). 1990 Census of population (CPH-L-96).

Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census.
29
Chaprei 2
ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS BY RACE AND ETHNIC ORIGIN 14

NELS scores supporting NAEP data 16
Locus of improvements 16
Analysis of individual NAEP items 19
Student achievement in mathematical problem solving rO
Performance of college-bound students 20

Science 21
Mathematics 21
ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS BY SEX 24

STATE, REGIONAL, AND INTERNATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT 24
CONCLUSION 29
REFERENCES 30
14 iNDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
fichievement in Science ond Mdthemdics
Juevement tests pro\ ide ke\ intormanon ab(Rit

ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS BY RACE
trends in stience and mathematics education- AND ETHNIC ORIGIN
-a._ itiCh how students are dome. in mathematics
Over the past 15 years, student achievement on the
and science. whether student pertorman,e improvinc,
ir- National Assessment of Educational Prol2ress (NAEP
`,1 hether students 4,111 1-.1t.c., and ethnic oriems are
science and mathematics tests (see sidebar ,,r1 Lima
lie het her an\ ditteren,es exist
sources) has unpRwed sli(41-itlY for all aies and racial and
between the scores of males and females. This informa-
ethnic i2roups. (See fliz,ures 2,1 and 2-2 and appendix
tion cm wide. usetul 1110;141re ot cducathlnal proLfress,
even thoui.411 the tests examine only .1 fraction Of stu-
tables 2-1 and 2-2.)
The percentaize iii \ -hire students who scored at or
dent-: knowledee and tend to reflect older notions of
above "basic perform," ce- levels, at all atzes and tor hot h
mathematics and science, such as re( itation if fact rather
t han demonst rat ion of pertormance.
FIGURE 2-1
This chapter examines academic .1\11ieveinent in sci-
ence UkI mathematics ot various o.roups ot students NAEP science and mathematics proficiency,
by percent of students at or above
\\ hites and minorities, males and telltales, students in var- anchor point 250 and age: 1977 to 1992
fls students from other countriesas a basis
tor discussion of elementary and secondary science and sc:ence
'JO
mathematics education in Chapter 5.
ic
DATA SOURCES FOR THIS CHAPTER 80

Age 17
The National Assessment of Educational Progress 60
(NAEP) tests are the primary source of :nformation SO...................................

about educational achievement in the United States. Age 13
40
NAEP tests have tracked student achievement in sci-
ence, mathematics, reading, writing, and other sub- 30 -
jects for more than 25 years. The advantages of NAEP
- -
C t`g:9
tests are that they are administered to a representative
national sample of students and allow for comparisons
over time on comparable test items. The disadvan- ' 9N2 '936 300 492
tages are that the test items, which remain consistent

over time to show trends, may not adequately capture Mathematics
current classroom experiences and that the tests use
small sample sizes, especially for black, Hispanic, and Ago 17
Asian students. 30
Longitudinal measures of student achievement :_om- -

........................
plement the conclusions drawn from NAEP results. Age 13
The National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS)
50
program is a conti.....iing long-term project designed to
study the educational, vocational, and personal devel-
opment of students at various grade levels. NELS and
...........
30
the High School and Beyond Study provide data that

Age 9
are not available from NAEP, including information
on student background and detailed and reliable mea-
sures of family background. The drawback of these lon- ' 912 986 '990
gitudinal surveys is that the measures of student perfor-

mance are much shorter, hence less reliable, than
those in NAEP. 1:
31
ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS 15
F IGURE 2-2
NAEP science and mathematics proficiency, by percent of students

at or above selected anchor points, age, and race or ethnic origin: 1977 to 1992
Science Mathematics
Age 17 at or above 300 Age 17 at or above 300
............. I ........ .........

- -------------
----------
- %sant
3CK
..... ........................
6C
---------- ---------
7
sc
-
......
H.sparuc
4, .
13!ack
.rsoanc
9.acn
....... ..........
......................... .............................
13:ack
sCletlee and mathen. . s, increased s(miewhat le Ns, races and ethnic groups, those differences are narrowing
between 1977 and 1992 than the percentage of black and ,ver time.
Hispanic students scoring that well. Results of the 1992
NAEP science test showed that NELS SCORES SUPPORTING NAEP DATA
the percent of 9-year-old students who scored at 200 or
above increased bv 24 percentage points tor black stu- Increases in mean scores of all students on the National
dents, 14 percentage points for Hispanic students, and Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) tests generally sup-
percentage points for white students since 1977; port this upward trend in the achievement of all students
the percent of 13-year-old black students scoring at and the narmwing of the gap in achievement scores of stu-
250 or above increased more slowly between 1977 and dents from various races and ethnic groups. Among all
1992 than the percent of white or Hispanic students eighth graders, from all races and ethnic groups, NELS
scoring at this level; and mathematics test scores rose significantly between 1980
the scores of 17-year-old students of all races and eth- and 1990from 33 in 1980 to 36 in 1990. The mean
nic groups increased more slowly since 197*/ than the scores of black and Hispanic students increased 4 points.
scores of younger students. The mean scores of white students increased 3 points; the
Results of the 1992 NAEP mathematics test showed that mean scores of Asians increased 1 point.
the percent of 9-year-old students who scored at 200 or Even among students of the same socioeconomic sta-
above increased by 18 percentage points for black stu- tus, large differences remain between the scores of Asian
dents, 11 percentage point, for Hispanic students, and and white students and scores of students of other races
11 percentage points tor white students since 1978; and ethnic origins. (See figure 2-3 and appendix table 2-
the percent of 13-year-old students who scored at 250 or 3.) Attempt, to explain why these gaps persist, even
above increased by 22 percentage points for black stu- among students of the same socioeconomic status, gener-
dents, 27 percentage points for Hispanic students, and ate a great deal of controversy. Some authors cite cultural
12 percentage points for white students since 1978; and differences; others point out the difficulty and impreci-
the percent of 17-year-olds who scored at 300 or above sion entailed in applying measures of socioeconomic sta-
increased by 13 percentage points for black students, tus across ethnic groups or the effects of barrier, erected
16 percentage points for Hispanic students, and 9 per- by a majority society (Oghu, 1994).
centage points for white students since 1978.
The increases between 1977 and 1992 represent a LOCUS OF IMPROVEMENTS
large change for significant proportions ot the student
populancm. While considerable differences in achieve- Most of the progress in average achievement scores can
mem remain aimme white students and student, ot di her be attributed ti in increase in the scores of the lowest
F!GURE 2-3
NELS mathematics proficiency levels in eighth grade, by race or ethnic origin and socioeconomic status (SES): 1988
Less than basic Advanced
Asian 13 Aslan 26
28 18
ri:7732 8 1,:r77.=-17.7:7:A.Ma.arri 40
White 16 Wo4e 18
26 MEI 7
P711.7-74114..zr,r 14 reM".77111410:11EM 25
HISnar'iC 25 Ksoamo 10
33 IM 4
High SES
Frgr,ariZ.,F7 20 High SES 21
Black 27 g Middle SES Ft .1ck 101 5 Middle SES
33 p Low SES a 2 Low SES
20 30
Percent of students Percent of students
, i .
'3
ACHIEVEMENT IN CIENCE AND MATHEMATICS 17
UP.. student,. 1;oth scien,e and inathein e- 1902. Similark, the chievement level ot 11-%ear-old
went score, it Hack ,u1,1 Hispanic student, in the 5113 and Hispanic student, scormu at the 5th percentile increased
5t h per,. ent le li1ereie d sitmit ftant h let \. een he percent itirintl the same period, .md the achievement
19T:_`, nd 1902. For example, the aLhie%ement level ot level kit ,.-vear-o1,1 white students scormu, at the 5th per-
1
i-vear-tild Hack students scorint: at the 5th percentile in centile increased 0 percent. k See lit:tires 2-4 and 2-5.1
mathemat R., increased IT percent hetween 197`, and The achievement level if all students. it evert' race or
FIGURE 2-4
NAEP mean science score percentile distributions: 1977 to 1992
White Black Hisparti-

Age 17 Age 17 Age 17
350 95th Percentile
................................... 95th Percentle

'5th Percentile
.-
Percentile
...................................
95th Percenthe
-" ...........................
75th Percentile- .....
25th Percentile Percentile
.±C 50th Percentile
50th Percentile ...........
5th Percentile . 25th Percentile
:00 25th Percentile
stn Percentile
5th Percentile
' SO
'977 1982 '986 '990 1992 ,977 1982 1986 '990 1992 1977 1982 1986 1990 1992
350
Age 13 Age 13 Age 13
95th Percentile
300
..................................
75th Percenti-le 95th Percentile
95th Percentile
250 50th Percentile ................................... ..................................
................................... 75th Percentile -75th Percentile
.
25th Percentile
sainPercentile ...................... 50th Percentlie ....................
200 ............ -
5th Percentile 25th Percentile 25th Percentile
'50
5th Percentile 5th Percentile
'00 1982 '990 '992 1977 1982 4986 4990 1992

'977 1982 '986 '990 1992 ,977 1986
350 Age 9 Age 9 Age 9
300
955 Percentile
..................................
75th Percentile
.
..................... ..............
95th Percentile
95th Percentile
....... .......................
.
50th Percentile
J.
.00 ................................... 75th Percentile
75th Percentile
. ..... .............
50th Percentile ........................ .............. .

50 5th Percentile ...... .. 25th Percentile
25th Percentile
5th Percentile
5th Percentile
'977 '982 "186 '990 1977 1982 '986 '990 1992 1977 1982 '988 '990 1992
FIGUFIE 2-5
NAEP mean mathematics score percentile distributions: 1978 to 1992
White Black Hispanic

400 Age 17 Age 17 Age 17
360
95th Percentile
................................... 95th Percentile

...... ..........................
. .... "
a
50th Pc.centile
................................. - .....................
75th Percentile
75th Percentile
:180 25th Percentile .......

............... ...............
50th Percentile
50th Percentile
5th Percentile
..................
25th Percentile
25th Percentile
240
5th Percentile
5th Percentile
200 197E, 1982 1986 1990 1992 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 1978 1982 1986 1990 199:.
350 Age 13 Age 13 Age 13
95th Percentile
316
................................... 95th Percentile'
75th Percentile
95th Percer tile ................ ............
......................... ..........
50th Percentile
............. ......................
75th Percentile
-7-5th Percentile
25th Percentile ................ ...... ............ -

230 50th Percentoq
- 25th Percentile 25th Percentile
5th Percentile
190
5th Percentile
5:'1 Percentile
59 197 !9et 99:
1978 198: 1980 ',290 '992 1976 i9 8: 1986 '9'0 1992 '98: 1990
30C;
Age 9 Age 9 Age 9
95th Percentile
9511' Percentile
95th Percentile
........
...................... " ........
hutri Percentile
................ ......................... 751n Percentile
-2751-;;;Cen-h-le- .............. 50th Percentile

50th Percentile
' IC
............. ;5 .............
72'7
Percentde
`..' Percentile
St, Percentile
197, 198, 1980 4990 . '992 190' 198: 19Flt. ttl90 '992 197i- 1982 1981 1910
,It thu 70111 ,InJ 05th 1-L.16:hides JO lisr.lnk ,tujent, It int. tc.te,1 I )10 4 per, cm: nd the
1 1 111 ,1, 11111,11 it it ti1 JurttiL: the 'IttlI pelt l 1-,1 h tek ement le% v, hoe ...I Ildent Ii. tuAll, de, lined I
ex.lturle. the ,It.hicvetttent level ot I retLetl: dlitinu the -.line rctwd.

.11 the or)th perk cilt III In 111.1thettlatt,
It.ou.ised ; l'ettt cell 107-, JO I 1')2. t,
35
ACHIEVEMENT IN :LCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS 1 9
FIGURE 2-6 FIGURE 2 - 7
Percent of age 9 students answering NAEP Percent of age 13 students answering NAEP
mathematics questions correctly, mathematics questions correctly,
by race or ethnic origin: 1978 and 1992 by race or ethnic origin: 1978 and 1992
Read data in bar graph
Interpret data in bar graph
'
85
58
60
. 76 . 55
, 2-4
f3.ack 9-ace
36
spa n-c
38
j 1992
5panic 23
1992
1978
m mm
20 10 60 60
20 .:n
Compute with data in bar graph
Compute with data in bar graph
62
;mite
84
32
flack
'/WARit=
Black 64 IN 1992
17
m 1978
s"741,kr
45 Hispanic
,ftt 90
H.spanic 992 69
11
m 1978
0 20 40 60 80 '00
0 20 10 60 80 '00
Convert tractions to decimals
Subtract whole numbers
79 56
IA....Am. sVhute
71 56
Black
77-74155/141t=
'''----
66 Black
AW11= 38
23
111111.111EM 48
38
'4'spanic a 1992 /Asoarkc
.10
al 1992
m 1978 14 1978
10 60 80 '00 0 20 80 DO
0 20
Percent of students Pe,Lant of stu;:entr,
ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL NAEP ITEMS

ear.old Had, .md 111,panic ,tudent, ,wniticanik
A 11 eN11111II.Illon ',Indent pertormance individual iinproved their 'core, on item: that rNutred reas:.uu
matheman,, te,t item, provtde, a detailed look at interpret mil data trom a chart, table. tit- 1:.raph.
trend, in ,tudent ainevement. I;eiween .trid 1002. For example. on .1 te,t item requtrirp2, student, to re id
made dramatic on ',ink. kind, ot te,t -dna in a kir L:rapll. more than tt ice a, many k and
Hein, t ti,2.iire, 2-0 .md 2-7.1 In particular. .ind I ;- li,pank_ ,tudent, .we i.:ave correct .1n,er, lok12
as in 1978. A recent emphasis on graphing and charting FIGURE 2-8

in elementary schools could help account tor these gams. Average percent of NAEP mathematics questions
.Among all :tudents, achievement also increased signif- answered correctly, by type of question, race
icantly on items involving the use if computational or ethnic origin, and age: 1992
skills, such as subtracting whole numbers and ciinverting Extended constructed response
100
tractions t(i decimals, and knowledge (if basic geometry. M White
Between 1976. and 1992, NAEP mathematics achieve- 90 III Black
ment declined on only a few Items ( iCi percent of the Hispanic
80
published items), such as solving number sentences, relat- 70
ing parts to the whole, estimating metric measures, and
60
applying the concept ot Inequality et al., 1994).
50
STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT 40
IN MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING 30
20
Problem solving is a critical skill in mathematics. To
10
tap students achievement in this area, the 1992 NAEP
EMO
included two types of questnin format. 111 addini m to mid- 0
Age 9 Age 13 Age 17
nple-choice items:
Short constructed response
short constructed-response questions that asked stu- 100
Whrte
dents to carry out a calculation and write an answer, 90 1.1 Black
examine a situation and describe why one alternative Hispanic
80
or another was correct, or measure or draw a geometric
70
figure given some boundary conditions; or
extended constructed-response questions that provided 60
students the opportunity to express mathematical ideas 50
and demonstrate the depth of their understanding of a 40

problem (Dossey, s1ull is, & Jones, 1993). 30
Few students of any race or ethnic origin demonstrated
20
proficiency in mathematical problem solving by correctly
10
answering the more challenging, extended constructed-
response questions of NAEP. (See tigure 2-8 and appen- 0
Age 9 Age 13 Age 17
dix table 24) Black and Hispanic students' scores were
Ii i1Ver than white students tin all of these questions, espe- Multiple choice
10G
iallv on questions that required sophisticated kinds ot While
90
problem solving skills. The cap was most pronounced in 111 Black
Hispanic
duest ions that emphasLed application to real-lite settings 80
70
PERFORMANCE OF COLLEGE-BOUND STUDENTS 60
Se
Although the population tit 1 s-vear, ilds declined
between I0S7 and 1901. the number ot students taking
(ollege preparation tests remained about the same. (See
.bar about entrance exanunat ions and tit,ure 2-9.)
'ne reason was that increasing numbers ot temale and
40
20
30
10
I
minority students took the ..xanunations. Females took _
liii lc than halt tit the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT) Age 9 Age 13 Age 17
.md American College Tests 1ACT administered during 4Y .
the past felt years. hi 109',. 27 percent of SAT test takers

tt ere minorities, compared with 2 1 percent in 1957
t( ollege Board, I'l87 & 199;1. Aboit ;C. per( ent
dents taking the A(71" in 1994 %tete inintinne
(American liege Testint.. 1904)
SCIENCE
On the 1993 ACT science teas, in ing sec t U fl, the
COLLEGE ENTRANCE EXAMS REVEAL
mean scores ot students !tom various rices Ansi ethnic
TRENDS ON COLLEGE-BOUND YOUTH
groups ranged widek. The mean so ire (If Askin students
was ciinsiderablv higher than the mean score of white The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is a rich
students, .1nd the mean si ire it .111 other minority groups source of background data on college-bound youth
COnSideraN y lower than the m,,in score ot white stu- and a predictor of college success. However, any
dents. (See tigure 2-10.1 The ACT's science reasoning interpretations about SAT data must be tempered
sect 1011 Is designed to measure students' interpretatton, because students who take the SAT are not represen-
anal\ 'Is, evaluation, reasoning, and problem-solving tative of the Nation's students. This chapter exam-
skills in the natural sciences. The sAT diies mit have .1 ines SAT scores from 1987 (the first year extensive
sclence section. information on the performance of various ethnic
groups across the distribution of scores was available)
MATHEMATICS and 1993.
Between 197 and 1991, the mc,in qv, on the math- The American College Test (ACT) is another pre-
ot the SAT and ACT increased for ,tu.. dictor of college success. As with the SAT, students
dents tri,in all races and ethnic groups. F..r example, the taking the ACT are not representative of all stu-
mean score ot all students taking the SAT increased 2 dents. This chapter draws from data on the popula-
points during this period, while the mean score ot black tion of students who took the ACT Because a new
students increased II pt,Ints (College Board, 1987 & mathematics test was introduced in 1990 and a new
1993). With the exception of Asian student, the 12.ain, science test in 1991, comparisons with earlier years
on both tests within each race or ethnic group represent are impossible. III
a decrease in the percent of students scoring at the lowest
levels and little or no change in the percent of students
scoring at the highest levels. (See hollfe 2-11.) This find- FIGURE 2-9
ing is consistent with the pattern for NAEP scores.
18-year-old population compared with number cif
Large gaps remain between the SAT and ACT mathe- college preparation test takers: 1987 and 1993
matics sct)fes of students from v;ifloW, races and ethnic
groups. Asian students score considerably higher than 4 000 000
white students on both testsmd all other minority

groups score considerably lower than either Asian or 3.500.000
1987
v. hite students.
ffi 19113
In 1993, black students had the I,iiku est mean sciire 3 000.000
( 388) on the mathematics section ot the SAT, with the re,(13
largest percentage of students '0..(q-Ini; bdiisy 400 (57 per-

2 500.000
cent) iind the smallest percentage scoring above 600 (4
percent). In tact, only 0.5 percent of black students (479
2.000.000
students) scored above 700, and only 0.1 percent (103
students) scored above 750. A, low as these per,:entages
are, they represent unprovement in 1987, ( 3 percent ot 1 500.000
black students scored below 400 (Colle,e Board. 1987 &

1993). The trends among Hispanic students are similar. 1 000 000
The scores of Asian students improved between 1987

and 1993, especially among top-scoring students. In 500 000
199 3, Asian students' mean score on the mathematics
section of the SAT was -515, up trom 521 in 1987. The
0
proportkin Asian students scoring akive 600 increased All 18-year-olds SAT takers ACT takers
from 32 percent in 1987 to 3() percent in 1993. The per-
centage ot Asian students with scores over 7)0 increased
from 3.3 percent (1,945 students) to 5.4 percent (4,27(
students) in this same period. The scores ot white stu-
,
dents changed sets little Fetus Cell I -)7 Aid 1 Q0 3.

FIGURE 2-10 FIGURE 2-1 1
Percent of students earning each standard score Distribution of SAT mathematics scores,
in science reasoning on the ACT, by race or
ethnic origin: 1993 by race or ethnic mon: 1987 and 1993
White White
140 00C
'20 002
tO 100 000
a 80 002
6 60 00:-.
4 43 000
0 II I
10 11 12 1314 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3, 302 352 420 52 501 551' 67, E!'' 700 '':(
StartOwd score Score
Black Black
'4 25 000
"2
20 000
1993
.1 15
1987
9 10 000
liii
002
II 1 1 II II
;'.1 11 12 13 14 15 ,6 17 15 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3'
Slandara scof e Score
Mexican-Amencan Mexican-Amencan
00C
14
S 002 1993
1I I 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1
'8 19 20 2' 22 23 24 2525 2- 23 29 3..
SIlail Score
Asian Asian
11111 11111 I I I .
'8 19 20 21 2? 23 24 25 2E. 2- 28 29 30
",lar,43r4 SCOrr! Score
FIGURE 2-12
NAEP science and mathematics proficiency, by percent of students
at or above selected anchor points, age, and sex: 1977 to 1992
Science Mathematics
Age 17 et or above 300 Age 17 at or above J00
...a e
....................... .
,male
Ago 1.3 al or above t 50 Ago 13 at or above 250
Ferra.ie
Male
a ,e
.........................
a 10
.132 ,E,n ,1,40 9 ,3 1112 O0 c,/,,
90
00f
ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS BY SEX STATE:, REGIONAL,

AND INTERNATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT
Fetween 1977 and I 902, little ditlerence existed
bem :en the NAEP science sciires ot elementary males and NAEP mathematic, M.:(11-1,, for white students in some
females; him ever, during th,u peric id. males in middle and southern states and Appalachia are significantly lower
high schools outscored females. (See figure 2-12 On page than scores tor similar students in the rest of the country
23 and appendix table 2-5.1 For example, 9 percent more (See sidebar on state NAEP scores.) For example, the
17- c',1r-cId males than 17-vear-old females scored 300 or mean NAEP mathematics scores of 13-year-old white stu-
:non: the 1992 NAEP science test Notably, this differ- dents range trom 260 in \Vest Virginia to 284 in North
ence was less than in 1977, when 14 percent more 17 year- fakota, Minnesota, and Iowa. (See figure 2-14.) The
,Id males than 17-year-old females scored 300 or more. scores ot 9-year-olds follow the same pattern. The pattern
Bet ween 1978 and 1992, males and females in elemen- for the mean scores of Hispanic students is also similar.
tary and middle schools scored equally well on NAEP (See figure 2-15.)
and NEES mathematics tests. (See figure 2-12 on page 23 The mean scores of black students do not vary region-
and appendix table 2-6.) During that pertod, the differ- ally in the same pattern as the mean scores for white stu-
enc between the NAEP mathematics scores of males dents; indeed, tew statistically significant differences exist
ml teinales in high schools narrowed constderribly. among scores of black students in different parts of the
In contrast to the performance of male and female stu- country. (See figure 2-16.) The mean scores of 13-vear-
dent, on NAEP and NEES mathematics tests, females old black students in states where white students attain
re Sign it ie,int P twer than their male counterparts on above-average scores, such as New York, California, and
the mathematics portion of the SAT. (See figure 2-13.) Michigan, are about the same as the mean scores of 13-
kir example, in 19S7, the mean score for all females tak- year-old black students tn states where whites show
tic the SAT was 47 points lower than the mean score for below-average achievement, such as Mississippi and
males-453 versus 500. Although the mean score of Tennessee. None of the average scores of black or
females rt Ise slightly by 1993, it wal. still 45 points lower Hispanic students is as high as the lowest average scores
than the mean score ot men-457 versus 502. for white students.
Furthermore. females are overrepresented in the lower On the International Assessment of Educational
end of the scale and underrepresented in the high end of Progress (IAER which was administered in 1991, U.S.
the scale In 1995. while onls 22 percent of males scored students scored rather poorly. (See sidebar on IAEP.)
ht.' s 400, 32 percent ot females did. Conversely, while Most alarming were striking differences between the
2 7' I ell en! 4 males sl..,,red ',Vt.'!" 600, only 13 percent ot scores of 9- and 13-year-old students, especially in sci-
'That same year, less than 0.1 percent ot ence, which suggest that U.S. students do not receive the
nun, females scored 05er 750. same type iit scienet.' md 111,1t hemat ics education between
OW 'T science reasoning te,t. inales scored 6 ages 9 and 13 as their foreign c,iumerparts.
ent lui.hcr than temales in botli 99l and 1994. On Although 9- \ ear-iild students in the United States
[nal hemat ics test, males scored R percent higher earned competitive scores on the REP science test,
ill in females in 1994 and 7 percent hiiiher 1990
lege 1 c''.4 k..2, 10041 STATE NAEP SCORES
FIGURE 2-13 ALLOW REGIONAL COMPARISONS
Distribution of SAT mathematics scores, by sex: 1993
NAEP began a Trial State Assessment Program of
eighth-grade students in 1990; the program expanded
in 1992 to include both fourth- and eighth-grade stu-
dents. In 1992, the NAEP Trial State Assessments pro-
duced data on the mathematics performance of stu-
dents from 37 states. Although the data have limited
value for comparisons across time and do not lend
themselves to direct comparisons among the various
states' education systems, they reveal interesting
regional patterns of achievement. Unfortunately, few
researchers have examined the existence or absence of
Score regional differences in NAEP scores; certainly, social,
economic, and cul.tural factors need to be exami ed.
41
FIGURE 2- 1 4
Mean scores of 13-year-old public school white students on NAEP mathematics test: 1992
278
277
A
271
283
283
272
260 278
.411 264 DC .
265 281 00 .rer

MIL III 274 to :80
267 to 273
260 to 266
Nenoan,c.oarr
FIGURE 2-15
Mean scores of 13-year-old public school Hispanic students on NAEP mathematics test: 1992
258
240
232
241
247
239
240
DC=225
227
2211 233
232
223
238 * 228
251 or morlor
1 244 to 250
237 tO 243
220 10 236
Nonuart.c,o3,,t'
FIGURE 2-16
Mean scores of 13-year-oid public school black students on NAEP mathematics test: 1992
243
232 240
242
242
234 241
239
233
OC=233
234
230
I231
232 ,
234
251 or rro.
244 tc.:
237 to 143
10 to 236
?I-year-old students performed poorly relative to those in

IAEP ALLOWS
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS other countries. (Sec neure 2-17 and appendix table 2-7.1
Overall. )- \ ear-old students ranked third, with an ayera,,e
The International Assessment of Educational - ot 65 percent ot questions answered correctly. Korea, the
Progress, conducted in 1991, was an international ri,--;coring country, answered an aVerai!.e if 6S percent
comparison study of mathematics and science correcth. The mean score of U.S. 9-vear-iilds at the 95th
achievement-20 countries assessed science and percentile was identical to the score of Korean students at
mathematics achievement of 13-year-old students; 14 the 95th percentile; only student: in Taiwan a ,Traged
countries assessed science and mathematics achieve- higher scores. U.S. 9-year-olds scored above the interna-
ment of 9-year-olds. The data in this chapter for 9- tmnal average in each of the content areas measured by
year-olds are based on a subset of 10 countries and for the test. including lite science, earth and space science,
13-year-olds on a subset of 14 countries. The countries and the nature of science, except physical science.
selected for comparison are those "that assessed com- Among 13-year-olds, the United States had the second
prehensive target populations and that represent lowcst mean score. U.S. students answered an average of
important political and economic collaborators" 67 percent of question; correctly. Top students in five
(Dossey et al., 1994). International data must he countries outperformed U.S. student: who scored at the
interpreted with particular caution, given differences 95th percentile, and 10 of the 13 other countries outper-
in student samples, curricula, languages, translations, formed U.S. students who scored at the 5th percentile.
and testing practices (Bracey, 1991). MI U.S. 1 ',-year,idds scot ed helm\ the imernational averai:e
in each of the content areas measured k the test, except
the nature of science.
FIGURE 2-17
IAEP science scores for selected countries at 5th percentile, mean, and 95th percentile, by age: 1991
Age 9 Age 13
Rotea '
United States
Score
1.11.oted State,
SCO,
..)n the I -\1T mAthentttl,.., te-4, thd I ',%,-.1r-,1,1 the te,t, Ilk hl0111,2. hifillhur, Ind ,l`c I"
..tikicht, in the United States sLored lo\er than students mem: ,,cometp.. data analysts, slat NAL,. Ind prohahlity:
trom iii.t 'her ,ountries. (See n...:ure 1, and arpen and al"ehr.1 and tun,tb,ns.
Or iii 0,untrie, in the sample, When .1 special study ranked NAFT and REP mathe-
in the United State, .cored second lowest. They matics scores toether..1 starthni_t picture ot the diversu
nly 5. percent of questions ,,treetly; within the United States emertled. (See tiLture 2-191
-itidents ho t,. re the tor pertormersan.wered .111 Students in the lm.zhest pertormint: stateslt,w,i, North
iverlee T") percent ot questions c. it-reedy. Xittretti Dakota. MInnesota, Maine. and New I 1.unrshire--per-
..S. ore,' it t he 95th percent iii ored formed at the same lei el as ,tudents in the rpllerttui
to 5 per,ent.P.:e points h wet than their Lt,unterparts 111 ini LountriesTinvan, Korea. So\ let
countries. U.S. stlkiet1N in the 5111 per- swit:erland. Furthermore. the ,tudents in the lowest per
elude pert, Imed worse than student, in .111 countrle, tormith: statesAlabama, 1.,misiana, and M
excert Ireland. U.S. 1 i-year-old, ,ored woNe than ski- pet-thrilled ,It the ',line level I. ,tildetit III the 1,0ive,t per-
dents lii am other country q-1 the mathematics portion tormint.: countryIt trdan.
ot the 1:\ EP; they answered only 55 percent Moreover, the rani..te of scores within caeh state
tzreater than the rante ot scores within most Countries.
0-ear-olds pertormed belo\i the iniernati,,n.il Thus, the top-pert1rnuni2 students within some states
avetatx in all ireas except data anal\ sis, tatistics. and score hwher than the top-performint2 students in 111,1111
rrol-.11-111tv I, ..S. 1 ;year-old students performed beltm /untnes. and the lowe,t pertormint students soli-L. 1,iver
tile averaLfe on most ot the area, measured than the lowe.t pertormulLt students in many e unt nes.
FIGURE 2-18
IAEP mathematics scores for selected countries at 5th percentile, mean, and 95th percentile, by age: 1991
Age 9 Age 13
Korea is
tJnval
wan
i:oCient_inon
-",. '"' IS .
. _
0,ss iance 1111!"...7,1;;;,47r71--,.'"'72:-'. -
United States
...... 1111;:
'0 60 "rk
Score
Mean laverage ,
a.
United States
Score
28
INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
EDUCATION 1995
FIGURE 2-1 9
Mathematics proficiency scores for 13-year-olds in countries and
puolic school eighth-grade students
in U.S. states: 1991 or 1992
TAIWAN
ktma '''77-777'.31177"7--
KOREA "yr
North Dakota
Minnesota
SOVIET UNION
SWITZERLAND
Maine
New Hampshire
HUNGARY
Neoraska
Wisconsin
Idaho
Utah
WyOrrling ENNENNIS
ConneCtiCul
FRANCE
Colorado
IVRAEL
ITALY
Massacriuserts
Naw Jersey
kr(tnnsyleanla
CANADA
Missouri
Indiana
IRELAND
SCOTLAND
Micnigan
Ohio
Oklahoma
Virginia
New York
SLOVENIA
Arizona
(Anode Island
Maryland
Texas
SPAIN
Delaware M:aism=sikiLA.tatt.47WOM"'""7.74
UNITED STATES
Kentuckt,
Gatdornia
Carolina
Florida
L3eorqa
New Mexico
. hi Carolina
..nriessee
t'roSI Virginia
Arkansas
111111116.
Hawat'
Atarrama
t nt,Sina
JORDAN
m.rtsiss(cp tr7:111=t!EMZ::::=.,:1;1:,..11-11,7171?,1Z17.
t (-clung,
17c,
190 210 230 250 270 290 n, 33: 35:.
Score
N a.eracie
Igarqe SCWer, ,oplweer
MOM oercehtilel rt LI 5 states
Ord 95,i
7; 1-1Jrin 01 snirgeS (netwer- so- and c.',

Der( COura,er
L
r:
tj
CONCLUSION
This chapter discusses science and mathematics perfor-

mance of students by race and ethnic origin and sex as a
basis for discussion of the science and mathematics learn-
ing environment in Chapter 3. Over the past 15 years,
U.S. students have received higher scores on a variety of
science and mathematics achievement tests. During the
same period, the differences among the scores of students
from various races and ethnic groups have narrowed; how-
ever, black and Hispanic students continue to score signif-
icantly lower than white and Asian students. In addition,
although few differences exist among the achievement
scores of males and females on NAEP and NELS tests,
males score significantly higher than females on science
and mathematics college entrance examinations.
In the international arena, U.S. elementary school sw-
dents compete favorably on science tests with students
from other countries, but U.S. middle school students
have some of the lowest mathematics scores in the world.
Nevertheless, a direct comparison between the mathemat-
ics performance of countries and individual states shows as
much diversity within the country as worldwidegeneral-
ly, states in the Midwest rank as high as the highest per-
forming countries, and states in the South and Appalachia
rank as low as the lowest performing countries.
These trends in student achievement remain unex-
plained. Educators could make some progress toward
explanation if NAEP tests differentiated racial and ethnic
groups more finely and used larger sample sizes; still,
many questions would linger. NAEP and NELS offer a
very narrow window on the complexities of student
achievement. They measure just a small portion of what
students learn in school, and they measure it imperfectly.
The next generation of assessments should measure
students' cognitive skills in a way that will illuminate
how education reform efforts under way across the
United States affect what students learn. In addition,
they ought to measure students' ability to apply concepts
and solve problems. Finally, educators should explore
how economic and cultural values affect students'
achievement.
46
American College Testing (ACT). (1993). Reference norms for spring 1993 ACT
tested high school graduates. Iowa City, IA: ACT.
American College Testing. (1994). The ACT assessment 1904: An (It'ert'le-W. Iowa
City, IA: ACT.
Bracey, G.W. (1991. October). Why can't they be like we were Phi Delta Kappa,
71 (2), 104-117.
Bybee, R.W., Lawrenz, E, Rodriguez, R., Coley, R.J., Logan, R.M.. & Mead, N.A.
(1994). Science: Measuring L'.S. students' success. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing
Service.
College Board. (1957). National college-hound seniors: 1957 SAT profile. New York:
College Board.
College Board. (1993). National college-hound seniors: 1993 SAT profile. New York:
College Board.
Dossey, J.A., Duckett, BB., Lappan, G., Coley, R.J., Logan, R.M., & Mead, N.A.
(1994). Mathematics. How do U.S. students measure up.' Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing
Service.
Dossey, J.A., Mullis, I.V.S., & Jones, C.O. (1991). Can students do mathematical
problem solving.' Results from constructed-response questions in NAEP's 1992 mathematics
assessment. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
I.V.S., Dossey, J.A., Campbell, J.R., Gentile, C.A.. O'Sullivan, C., &
Latham, A.S. t N'AEP 1992 trends in academic prouess (Report No. 23-TROI).
Washington, National Center for Education Statistics.
National Center tor Education Statistic,. (1903). Dow almanac . \AEI's 1992
tissessment in mathematics (CD-ROM]. Princeton, NJ: Education Testing Service (Producer].
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education (Distributor].
National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). Digest Ot. cdticoti n staustics 1993
(NCES 93-292). Washintuon, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). Education in sLites and nations:
lndicatins comparing L '.S. states uuh the OECD countries in IcKti (NCES 03-237).
Washmitton, DC: NCES.
Oghti,J.0 (1904, Winter). Racial stratification and education in the United

States: Why inequality peNi,ts. Teachers College Record, 90 (2). 204-20-,
Rock, D.A., Pollat k, & limner, A. (10-11). The toted 0) the

nat,,,nal dictation longitudinal \MIS of the 198,) eight'a graic ela (NCEs 01 -460).
\X'ashinitton. IV: U.S. Department of Edutation.
47
U.S. Department of Commerce. (1987). Projectums of the population of the United

States, by age, sex, and race: 1983 to 2080 (Current Population Report Series P-25, No.
952). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census.
U.S. Department of Commerce. (1993). Projections of the popu/ation of the United

States, by age, sex, and race: 1988 to 2080 (Current Population Report Series P-25, No.
1018). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census.
48
Chapter 3
CURRICULUM 34
State curriculum frameworks 34
Graduation requirements 37
Coursetaking 37
Sex 39
Race and ethnic origin 39
Ability grouping 41
TEACHERS 42
Teacher characteristics 42
Sex 43
Age 45
Graduate education 45
Autonomy 45
Teacher job satisfaction 46

Teachers' beliefs about classroom reforms 47
Teacher preparation 49
Science teachers' preparation 51
Mathematics teachers' preparation 53
Teachers' perceptions of their own preparation 54
Professional development 57
Collegiality 58
Continuing education 58
Professional activities 59
INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES 59
Use of in-class time 59
Student participation in long-term projects 61
Participation in other instructional activities 61
Use of traditional and alternative assessment techniques 61
RESOUnCES 63
Textbooks 63
Classroom supplies and facilities 65
Computers and networks 66

Calculators 68
CONCLUSION 68
REFERENCES 70
The Elementaig und Secondarq Leuffing Environment
he ..S. elementary .ind seLondar% edu . atl,n

clii is under C1'11SIdei.ible Pressure it, improve
pertonnant_e particularly performance in scleiwe Both the science and the mathematics
and mai hematics--, tt elementary and secondary ss
hildrcll. The need for as t It Hi wis reinfiifted when inter.
national test -sore, Ience and mathematics ranked standards address two major goals:
students in the tInted States behind students in much mt
he rest if he world. (See Chapter 2.1 Subsequent h. the equity and excellence.
U.S. (*lit% eminent csininutted to achieve a set ot Nat lona,
Educam fl Ch,a1,. by the \ ear 2 .
Concurrently, ,..zroup, within the science and mathe-

matic, si minunitt, bettan to devei, nat bonal standards other insirui_tional activities. and use itt traditional and
fl teaching, surriculutn. and content tor science .ind alternat ive assessment technique,: mush
mathematics education. The science community, repre- resoursesthe availability and sumsienc\ of text-
sented h% the National Research C.:out-led, is wiirkintt on a books, classroom supplies and facilities, Lomputers and
science standards document. This document builds tin networks, and calculators.
the American Association for the Advanceinent For each component ot the learning environment, this
Science' Puiwct 20n1 t 10931 and the National Science chapter examine, the current data and, where possible,
Teacher, .Association's (NSTA's1 The Content I, ore. The changes in the component, over time.
National (ouncil of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM1
released its standiirds for mathematics in IL)85). (See side-
bar on the standards on page ih.1 CURRICULUM
Both the science and the mathematics standards
address two major goals: equity and excellence. Ti this The standards for curriculum recommend that all stu-
end, they assert that science and mathematics should be dent, take science and mathematics continually in ele-
accessible to all student, and that all students should mentary and secondary school. The mdicators selected as
achieL e a thoRiutth understanding of the subjects. measures of these standards are related to state curriculum
Fut thermore, both sets of standards recommend highly frameworks, Qraduat mon requirements, coursetaking, and
prepared teachers working in well-equipped, facilitative, ability grouping.
and supportive environments; curricula organi:ed around
central, unitving toncepts; and instructional practices STATE CURRICULUM FRAMEWORKS
and resources that emphasi:e problem solvingictive stu-
dent involvement, and hands-on participatuill. There is no official, rectigni:ed, or approved national
This chapter provides an overview ot htik «ell. and to surriculum in the Cnited State,. Instead, states s.eve,op
I l
what extent, elementary and secondary school systems their own curriculum trameworks, content standards, or
across the sountrv are measuring up to these standards by curriculum guides that establish gsrals or standards for
presentmg available data tor selected indicator, of the elementary and secondary instruction. Atter the release
elementary imd secondary learmng environment as they of the NCTM standard, in I 0S5), states I,egan moditying
relate tit the national standards. (See text table i 1.1 their curriculum frameworks for suence and
The learnint, environment is destribed by the tt tur mat hem Ines. By N94, 24 states had published revi-
Loinponeni, reflested in this chapter: sions, and by logi, still more states %sere ul the proLess
curriLulum --(he adequacy of science and maths malls:, of publishing new or revised Oldellnes V; in science
sourses a, indicated by state curriculum tramewt trks. and 31 in mathemmics (Blank. 1O9r/i11. A study by the
Qr.iduarit,n requirements, coursetaking patterns, and Council ot Chiet State School Officers tCCSSO) found
ability grouping; that the new stale ClIldellne, are responding tti the new
teaLhers----their characteristics, preparation. and protes- standards kir mathematics and science by increasine the
,I,,nal de, elopment. quality ot their t n recommendat h ,n,
.11 ss ience and
insirlIslIon.11 praL[Icesn,e nine, mathematics coursekLiirk and ,s 11.1 .Isse,Anenis kRlAnk
rank i.iI bn in long-term prolects. participati, tn in ,S1 Pcshnian, 10,61
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 35
TEXT TABLE 3-1
Indicators for equity and excellence standards of the learning environment
Equity standard Excellence standard Indicator
Curriculum Science and mathematics courses Students should enroll in science State curriculum frameworks
soould be accessible to all students. and mathematics courses throughout Graduation requirements
high school. Coursetakmg
Students should study specific content to Ability grouping
develop an understanding of key
unifying concepts.
Teachers Teachers of both sexes and of different Teachers should have a firm content background Teacher characteristics
races and ethnic groups should be equally Teachers should have a supportive work Teacher beliefs about
well prepared and have similar approaches. environment that encourages reflection. teaching reforms
Teachers should have opportunities Teacher preparation
for professional deveiopment. Teacher perceptions of
their own preparation
Professional development
Instructional Teacher beliefs about instruction Instructional practices should require Use of in-class time
practices and their instructional practices - "minds-on" student involvement Participation in long-term
should not vary according to the race - hands-on interaction projects
or ethnic origin of the students in the class. - problem-solving experiences Participation in other
- prolonged, in-depth contact with central instructional activities
or unifying concepts Use of traditional or alternative
- a community of scholars in which both assessment techniques
tF^thers and students learn and where
respect is shown for student opinions and
prior knowledge
- communication, demonstrated by
presentations of ideas and group interactions
assessment that emphasizes the process of
arriving at the answer and application of
knowledge to new situations
Resources Students in all classes, regardless Classes should have access to Teacher ratings of textbook
of their race or ethnic ongin, shouid - hands-on activities use and quality
have the same resources. - technology, including computers Teacher ratings of and
and calculators reported problems with
- appropriate textbooks supplies and facilities
- supplemental and varied resource Access to and use of
reading materials computers and networks
Use of calculators
NOTE: This table was designed as an organizing framework by the authors of Chapter 3
indicatoce of Science and Mathematics Educatron 1995

STANDARDS FOR SCHOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS:

BACKGROUND, PURPOSE, GOALS, PRINCIPLES
BY LYNN ARTHUR STEEN

In contrast to other countries, the United States has always favored local over national control of education. But
by 1983, mounting evidence of failin es of U.S. education moved the authors of A Nation at Risk to recommend
strengthened requirements, rigorous standards, and higher expectations for all students. This challenge was followed
by a profusion of headlines citing poor performance of U.S. students on international educational comparisons, espe-
cially in science and mathematics.
By 1989, rising public disillusionment with U.S. education led the Federal Government and state governors to set
national goals for education. Among the goals they adopted are two that lay the foundation for national curriculum
standards: One goal urges that all students demonstrate competency in challenging subjects including English, history,
science, mathematics, and geography, while another goal declares that by the year 2000 the United States should he
first in the world in mathematics and science education. Four years later, Congress wrote these goals into legislation.
Independently, but also in response to A Nation at Risk, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM) began to develop the first national discipline-based educational standards. These voluntary standards were
the product of a multiyear consensus-building effort led by the Nation's mathematics teachers and mathematicians.
The authority of these standards rests not on governmental mandate, hut on the evidence and logic invoked by the
standards themselves. Published in 1989, the NCTM Standards quickly became the Nation's premier example of edu-
cational "standards"a set of public expectations, rooted in research and practice, that is intended to raise the acade-
mic achievement of all students.
Since 1989, the Nation has embarked on a standards-setting process in many subjects. Draft standards and bench-
marks for science education have now joined those in mat .ematics. As the movement toward national standards
gains momentum, it has taken on many different forms and often serves quite different purposes. Depending on the
context, educational standards can offer
a vision of learning and teaching to guide educators at all levels;
a yardstick to measure the quality of educational programs;
a strategy to promote equality of educational opportunity;
a symbol of what society values in educational accomplishment;
a tool to enhance public accountability of the educational system;
a concrete expression of national goals for which all can strive;
a banner around which educators, parents, and politicians can rally; and
a public statement of support for exemplary practice.
Standards c-eate a shared vision of educational excellence, which can bring coherence and consistency to the
many separate components of the educational systemto schools and colleges, publishers and test-makers, and teach-
ers and administrators. Also, since standards give public expression to educational expectations, they enlist students,
teachers, and parents in support for a compelling vision of educational excellence. In this way, standards can express
expectations, communicate goals, and facilitate reform.
As standards serve many different purposes, so they also come in many different forms. Different standards docu-
ments may include
Content Standardswhat students should know and be able to do;
Curriculum Standardswhat students should learn and how they should learn it;
Professional Development Standardswhat support teachers need to be effective;
Program Standardswhat departments must provide for learning to take place;
Teaching Standardshow teachers are expected to perform as professionals;
Delivery Standardswhat schools must provide in order that students can learn;
Assessment Standardshow to monitor performance of students and programs;
Evaluation Standardshow to measure what students know and can do;
Opportunity-To-Learn Standardswhat is necessary to enable students to learn;
Performance Standardshow much students should know and be able to do;
Skills Standardswhat must be mastered as a prerequisite for specific jobs; and
System Standardshow the components of a school system must work together.
Standurds continued on page 37

GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS FIGURE 3-1

Percent of states imposing graduation
States dramatically influence the elemental- and se,' requirements in mathematics: 1974 to 1992
11,1ary curricula by set t me and entt ircine graduat
requiretnents. Since 1950, when less than 2,2 percent
states required 2 or more ve,irs of mu hemitt I
lè141111 to require that hieh schot,1 students complete sub-
..-tantiallY more classes as .1 prerequisite tOr eraduat ton.

This chtmee, Ihm ever, dires mit bun, states into conk
nuty with the standards, 1. !Itch advocate, tunone other
thine-, that students take science and mathematics each 2 or more years of math
%ear dump.; their 4 years ot lueh schtiol. St illiccordine to

the ( Vsso, in 1992, only 4 percent of states required
two or [note courses in science, and 56 percent q states
required mo or more courses in mathematics BLink k
Liruebel, 19931. The remamine states permitted local dis- 30
tricts to set eraduation requirements. (See fieure ;- I and

frreldIN 1.1He I .1 No slate requirements
COURSETAKING
0
1974 1980 '983 '985 '987 1989 '990 "392
In elementary schools, till students receive science and
matheinat les instruction. Theretore, it is Impossible to
exatnine coursetakine behavior; however, it is possible to
say that elementary teachers are spendine more tune than
in the past reachine science and mathematics (Weiss,
Standards continued from page 36.
Among the many different subject matter standards, those in science and mathematics bear a special burden concern-
ing the goal of achieving equity in educational achievement. Historically, science and mathematics education has served
more as a filter than as a pump in the Nation's educational system. Both public and professional attitudes reinforce this
"elitist" view of science and thathematics by emphasizing talent over effort as the essential predictor of success.
National standards reverse this elitist perspective by stressing the importance of science and mathematics for all.
These standards offer a coherent vision of science and mathematics education that pro:ides literacy sufficient for citi-
zenship and competency sufficient for life and work in a technological age. With such standards available for public
review and discussion, everyoneespecially students, parents, teachers, and administratorswill kncw what is
expected. These expectations flow from a set of goals on which there is now broad consensus:
all students should be expected to attain high levels of scientific and mathematic competency;
students should learn science and mathematics as active processes focused on several powerful concepts;
science and mathematics in the school should reflect science and mathematics in practiceactivities rich in
connections, exploration, and inquiry;
curricula should stress understanding, reasoning, and problem solving to provide context for facts, terminolo-
gy, and algorithms;
teachers should engage students in meaningful activities that regularly employ calculators, computers, and
other tools in an appropriate manner;
assessment should be an integral part of instruction, and tests should measure what is important for students to
learn;
teachers need both a deep understanding of subject matter and an opportunity to learn to teach in a manner
that reflects research on how students learn; and
the educational system must recognize that teaching is a complex activity that requires ongoing support for
classroom teachers.
Steen is a professor of mathematics at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minn. He also has served as executitv director of the
Mathematical Sciences Education Board in Washington, D.C.
J3
38 INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUC ATION 1 995
FIGURE 3-2
Average number of minutes per day spent teaching each subject

to self-contained classes, by grade range. 1977 to 1993
30 '00
so
80
'70
Reading
Mathematics
Mathematics
...... ...... -
----- ----- 2 43
Science
_-
Science
r)
1993 '977 1986 1993

' 7 ' 986
Grades 1-3 Grades 4-6
FIGURE 3-3 Matti, & Smith. 1994). (See tiLture 3-2 and appendix
table 3-2.) Accorduni to the National Survey of Science
Mean number of credits earned by high school
graduates in each subject field: 1982 to 1992 and Mathematics Education (NSSME), between 1977
and 1993, the amount of nme teacher, aldicated ro sci-
ence and mathematics increased shi;htlY; concomitantly,
the amount of tune devoted to readine. decreased shuhtle.
These chant2es were especially apparent at iJ,tades 1-3.
English
lowever, the relative position of the three areas
History or social studies ... ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
remained constant, with readmo receivint2 the most time,
.................
................ - followed by mathematics and science.
............. -
........... HiLth school coursetakini2 patterns naturally mirror
Mathematics - iJaduation requirements, which typically mandate 4 years
-- of Entdish, 3 or 4 years of history or social studies, and 2
25
or 3 years each of science and mathematics. Of course, as
Science requirements have become more strirwent over time.
cliursetakintz has increased t.i)r several sukects. Overall.
students are takini:, more science and mathematics cours-
es, even advanced courses, which is in accord with the
recotp-aendations of the standards. (See t.taire 3-3 and
appendix table 3-1.) Coursemktni: in advanced science
and mathk.matics classes remains lower than tim basis. su-
'982 ' 987 990 '992
ence and mathematics courses. (See Iwures 3.4. 3-5md
141 and al i'endix tables 3-4 .md 3-5.)
The National Center tor Educanon Stanstics (NrES)
I WI Shoo! Transi.ript Study (Leoum et al., 1993) report-
ed that the versentatv it lmth sclm. I tIndudtes who 11,1,1
irned , Lir,...- qtdent ropt11.111,,n 'Porter. kirsi, Osthoti. Smithson,

11, IL hetiseen Pt,: and 1992. For Schneider, 199i). CPRE examined mathematics and
hic To per,oni ,t s,h0,1 2.raduates science Llassniom praences in l'111,211 cht5.1, trom six
kid taken 11 i,es. rercent 4 1992 hien s,ho,1 eradu- states and found that the c,intent ot ctsurses hieh
11, - Is LI iken lie Lourse. and while Is's percent 1 1982 schools where .111 students were required to complete
LiJ1,11.,1 emduat, took alechra I, To percent of 1092 colleee preparatory classes was the same as in hieh
era:mates had taken the tirse. The percent- schools without the requirement. Thus, they found no
t2.. 111...11 Llteml-try evidence that ereater participation ot students 111.1
1:ii.R.Ised tr. m ;2 percent in 19.2 per...ent in 1912. course is linked is ith less demandm,, academit_ content.
die IF er.1.1t2 ,1 lueh iduates t..mrlerinci For additional int., rinat ion n coursetakme. sec Blank
I II m. iron) 7 perLeni 1)--2 I. reftent Dalkihc, 1990; Flank & (iruebel, 199i; Blank
Gruebel, 199:1.1
reases in mr-et.ikiniz may be due to increases tn
,hanees in stile ,urrkular 5Ex
r .,ther tactors. (7l rt.unk. s,.ience and mathe- Few daterences exist in the sLience and mathematics
.:, - ate .nailahle. In 19°C. 90 percent ot coursetakine patterns ot hich school male and female
students in the Limed Slates \sere in eraduates, except in physics. See neure ;-4 .1 In 1002. 2:s
itered Acinistri. nid phssits percent st male eraduates versus .21 percent ot female
1.2 I ..-mularls, peftent hieh ,chool i2raduates had completed physics; the difference between
-!iident.. %sere ifi Lhools that ottered aleehra I and II. the two ss as about the same in 1982, when 18 percent ot
ze.,inctry. and trie.nometry, and To rercent flere In male 2raduat-es and 9 percent of female eraduatesh,L1
th.lt ,ttered c.uicLilu (NCES. 190;.`1. completed Physit-'.
;he 'onsortium tsr P IiLV Research in
'PRE) in 1090 determined that increases in RACE AND ETHNIC ORIGIN
. urset "kinc ,,q11,1 not be attributed to (.1,1,-e, that were Minority students are takme more science and mathe-
tea, hers t. -c p il itahle it a broader matics Lourses than in the past ind the eap between
FIGURE 3-4
Percent of high school graduates earning credits in science and mathematics courses,
by subject and sex: 1982 to 1992
'00
Science
--------- 90
Mathematics
Male
-- Female
550
Male
-- Female
70
50
40
-
30
Chemistry
TrIcpanometry
- --
- -
--- Calculus
P- ,s -
'982 "987 '990 '0?.2

FIGURE 3-5
Percent of high school graduates earning credits
in science courses, by race or ethnic origin: 1982 to 1992
'00
......... ...
Any science
Physics
...
982 987 '900 '092 1982 187 '900 1992 '982 '987 '090 1992 1992 '987 '990 1992
While
813ck
.ii H.spanic
FIGURE 3-6
Percent of high school graduates earning credits
in mathematics courses, by race or ethnic origin: 1982 to 1 992
Algebra I
80
60
Algebra II
......
30
Trigonometry
..... ..".
-
'090 100: 1982 187 --!1.3 '992 "187 99,1 002
'082 '847
--
H.`,L.3^:
5 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

ELEMENTARY AND 6ECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 41
the t_ourset,ikintt ot minority students and v, hue stu- practice csimmon at many schtiols are considered
dents has narrowed. I loweyer, in 1992, white students opposites, because ability grouping denies some students
were .1111 more likely than Hat_k or I lispanis t dents is iccess to challenging concepts. For example, according
take advanced science or mathematics t_ourses. (See it) the NSSME, student: who are encouraged to take
figures iS and 3.6.1 introductory mathematics instead of algebra 1 at the
For example, in I9s2, 71 percent of white graduates, eighth- or ninth-grade level otten do not have the
61 percent tit hlack graduates, and 60 percent ,it opportunity to rake a traditional sequence of advanced
khpanic iiraduates had taken algebra I; hereas in 1992. 11 science and mathematics courses. Despite the statistics.
',LI" percent ot white graduates, 7S percent tit Had, 21adti- ahility grouping ,..ould be valuable and could support the
at es. and s4 percent it I lispinic graduates Ii ii taken the standards, if it provided alternat lee ri iutes to the saine
stIrse. I IL ive% cr. in 1992, while 23 percent 0: 1k hitt.: knowledge.
graduates had taken trigonometry, only Ii percent Ability grouping is more common in high schools than
Hack graduates and 15 percent- of Hispanic graduate- at middle or tumor high schools and is more common in
had taken the course. All of these percentages are higher mathematics than in science. In 1993, 57 percent of
than in 1 iN2, when only 14 percent of ikhire L:r.idtLites. high schools assigned incoming students to mathematic,
t, percent it Hack graduates, and 7 percent of I lispanic courses by ability, compared with 4(i percent ot middle
graduates had taken tnitonometry. The re'uir i.e siintiar and junior high schools; 34 percent ot high schools
assigned incoming students to science courses bm
About 34 percent ot Asian students complete the tra- cinpared with only 11 percent ot middle and junior
ditional sequence of biology, chemistry, and physics. Only high schools (Weiss. 1994).
21 percent of white students, 12 percent of Hack stu- In schools with abihtv grouping, classes consisting itt a
dents, and 10 percent of Hispanic students complete that large percentage of nunonty students are more likely to be
sequence. (See text table 3-2.1 About 35 percent of white categon:ed by their teachers as low ability than classes
and Asian students complete the traditional sequence ot with a small percentage of minority students. The oppo-
algebra I, geometry, and algebra 11; only about "i0 percent site holds true for high-ability grstups: Classes with a small
of black and Hispanic students complete this sequence
(Legum et al., 1993).
ABILITY GROUPING Both the science and the

13oth the suence and the mathematics standards rev mathematics standards recommend
ommend that science and mathematics be available to ill
students and that schools give all students the opportuni- that science and mathematics be
ty to achieve. Often, these goals and ability groupinga
available to all students and that
TEXT TABLE 3-2
Percent of high school graduates schools give all students the

completing a three-course sequence
in science or mathematics during opportunity to achieve.
grades 9-12, by race or ethnic origin: 1990
Often, these goals and ability
Course sequence White Black Hispanic Asian
groupinga practice common at
Biology chemistry. 21 (0 81 12 11 3) 10 (1 21 34 12 41
.ird physics many schoolsare considered
Algebra i geometry 38 11 61 29 (2 4) 30 (2 51 38 (2 ai opposites, because ability grouping
and algebra If
denies some students access to
.OTES C-,sos Med JO 4-1 Aefe coL,e, as rme, ot 1 ,OQ.C,C0 S3^
", APS
challenging concepts.
at
F IGURE 3 7
minority students are more likely to be care-
percenia,..:e
Percent of high school science and in:ed as Inch abilit% than classes k\ laNe percent,we
mathematics classes grouped by ability, mmont students. t S'e tietire ;-7 ind ppendix tahle
according to percent minority in class: 1993 n.) Nevertheless. hi:;11 scho1,1 teacher' replIrt that scienLe
and mathematics classes are becolnini:, more hetert,s2.e-
Low abihty abihty
neous. k Sec tii2ure and aiTendi. tahle ;-7.1
31
28 j, 28
TEACHERS
24 24
A s\ ell-prepared te.klunC tor,e Irincal iii ette(.tne

sLience and mathematics edikat in This section l',111Its
picture ot the te;ichiinc population and addresses teaLher
t.haractenstics, teacher preparation. and protessional
15 development.
11 TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS
Accordim: to tahillations trom i. -ES No4), in the

United Siatesipproximately 2..9 million teachers mill-
t tine and part-timel tauu.ht elementary and secondary
classes in I Q91 (the latest national estimate available),
0 compared with 2.6 million in l'Nti. In IQ9 I. nearly one.
Mathematics Science Mathematics
half million secondary (w-ades 7-1 2) teachers were specif-
3 Less than 10 -- ically assitmed to teach :cience It mathematics; approxi-
10-39 mnorm,
Eouai to or greater 1^.3,-. 4C
mately 3S-.),000 of these teachers h ii science or mathe-
matics as either a main or secondary assw,nment. (See
appendix table i-*)
FIGURE 3-8
Ability composition of high school science and mathematics classes: 1986 and 1993
i0
Homogeneous classes Heterogeneous cleseee
40
Science Mathematics
Science Mathematics
Mathematics
6 30 1;1
?Anthem:0.s
Science
0
=A1
'986 1993 '986 1993 '986 1993 .686 1993 1986 1993 '986 1993 11186 1993 016 1993
LOw ability Average ability High ability
58
FIGURE 3-9
Percent of science and mathematics teachers who are female, by grade range: 1977 to 1993
.48 98
96 96 96
94 Mathematics
Science
_to
84
80
77 76
67
-0 63
t44:
54
46 46 46
42 43
a-- :0 38
31 32
24
0
1-3* 4-6 7-9 10-12 4-6 7-9 10-12
Grade range
1977
1111 '4.86
'933
SEX on grade range, were members of minority eroups. (See

In 1991, the vast maiiirm t science and mathematics Chapter 1 and appendix table 3-10.1 This distribution
teachers in wades 1-1 were female. (See tieure 3-91 was approximately the same in 1986, althoueh there is
Accordine to the NSSME, the percentaee of female some evidence that the percent of black science and
teachers decreases as students get older. In 1993, lw mathematics teachers in elementary schools decreased
:Jades 10-12, only 34 percent ot science teachers and 46 between 1986 and 1993. (See appendix table 3-10.) The
percent of mathematic ,:lers were female. The per- NSSME reported that in 1986 percent of erades 1-6
centaee ot female mid 2 and high school mathematics teachers were black, compared with 5 percent in 1993.
teachers has increased Llm.iderally in recent vl'.1t, The National Educational Lonilitudinal Study of 1088
example, in 1q77, 46 pen cm lf Qrades 7-0 mathematics (NELS:88) Second Follow-Up Study provides additional
teachers were female, compared with hi percent in 1993. support that minorities are underrepresented in teachine.
(See heure In 1992, white teachers taught about 93 percent of 12th-
The distribution by ,cx ot the science and mathematics grade science and mathematics students. The remamine
teaching torce varies by state and reelon. (See figures 1- students were divided fairly equally amone teachers who
1,2 and 3-11 and appendix table 3-9.1 For example, were black. Hispanic, or other mces (NC:ES, 1 LN2 1.
accordine to the Schools and Staffine Survey, in 1901,
while less than 40 percent ot the lueh school mathemat
ics teachers in the Northwest were female. 60 percent or
more if tilt! 11101 school mathematics teachers in the
Southeast were female.
Blacks, Hispanics, and other
RACE AND ETHNIC ORIGIN minority groups continue to be

lispamcs, .md other minority groups ,onilmie
to he underrepresented in the sl 'cube ,ind mathematic- underrepresented in the science
reachme fi Re; in 1001, when minorities constituted
rouehly percent iit student enrollment, unIv ti
percent s, I C 111.11hell1.1( teachers, slept:mime
and mathematics teaching force.
FIGURE 3 10
Percent of public high school science teachers who are female, by state: 1991
111 60% or more female

AIL MI 40% to 59% female np
30% to 39% female
13% to 29'X female
Too few sample cases for a relable est,mate
FIGURE 3 -1 1
Percent of public high school mathematics teachers who are female, by state: 1991
IN 60% or more female

40°,0 lo 59^ female
r' II 30% to 39% female
17% to 29% female
Too few r:ramole Cre,er., for a e...Iree es! r-ate
.........
TEXT TABLE 3-3 GRADUATE EDUCATION

Accordmc to the 1\:SS.\ IF_ in 1993, about SI percent
Average age of science and mathematics ot science and mat hematIcs teachers in grades I -4 had
teachers, by grade range: 1986 and 1993 earned a de,ree beyond the bachelor's, Increasing to
about 34 percent in grades 5'3 and about 46 percent in
Grade range 1986 1993
rades 9-12. The percent It teachers with master's
decrees was hIcher tor pe,Iple itli the most years 01
1-6 400 (041 42 1 (0 5)
teaching experience; f,q- example. in 1991, only 21 per-
39 2 ;0 6) 42 0 (0 4)
cent ,;1 grades -12 science and mathematics teachers
10-12 40 4 10 51 43 3 (0 31
who had 2 , r fewer years previous teaching experience
had master's decrees. compared 551113 72 percent ot th,se
0",s with 21 or ml Ire \42,1r, rrl,,r teaching experience. (See tit!.
ure 3-1; and ppendix table ;- l.
`.. '04
AUTONOMY
AGE UnderlyIng many educational retorm ettorts is the
The science and mathematics teachinc torce is L:r0W11.1 notion 111.11, 111(:e Ll.lsrt tin teachers are in the hest posi-
Ider. The average age ol (Cachets at .111 orade levels tion t, kno55 their students' needs and Interests, the%
increased approxlmately 2 years het ween 19.sso and should be the ones to tnake decistons ahout tailorInt:
1993, from about 40 years to ahout 42 Years. (See text instruction to a particular croup of students.
table .3-3.) In 1993, nuachly 20 percent ot science and Roth the NELSN, Second Follow-Up Study and the
mathematics teachers m each crade rance were over ace 1993 NSSN1E asked teachers about how much control
50. (See Iwure 3-12.) This may have an effect on the FIGURE 3-I3
teachers as many in the current teachinit
Percent of science and mathematics
force reach -etirement age in the next 10 years. teachers with master's degrees, by years of
teaching experience and by grade range:1993
100
FIGURE 3 - 12
90
Age distribution of the science and mathematics
teaching force, by grade range: 1993
45
80
41 41
40
7C
36
.35
60
30
Grades 5-8
50
25
25
40
:: -- Grades 1-4
20
1
2
30
'5 Grades 9-12
10
1-4 5-8 9-12 0-2 5-10 11-20

Grade range
Under 31 Years of teachrng expenence
N 31
M
111 51 67, ..
61 Or :,,nr
0 1.
and instruc !mere-aim: ditterence- emerce in the-e re-pon-e- o hen

t decision, yr their classes.
1.1 ippendix t &le they are examined k reel ii Ind class proticienc \' le \ ci
; I2 Sc kik,: and mathematic Rlwrs at ,_:rade For example. I.:di...J.1,1e Ic k her- in the South are le
tamle, are likek ki perceive that the% ha% e the most likely to believe they have over content decision-
\ ,electinv te.whinll techniques and Jetertilln- thAn are teacher, in other re,:kin,. (See appendix table ;-
io amount ot 11 inew, irk t, assi,,ned: their -elt-per- 14.) teacher, ot -Indent, tiho pertormed at the 1,,,k -
,ei\ ed autonotm t- lc,. but -till -a: ihen it come, to est levels on the Sec,ind Stud% ('r,i-
-cttlf1,2 tilL r Iv e t,?r,,.vertm2 t,,pk criteria nciencv test, are lea,t likeh to believe that thek have
-clec t II1 the se,mence tor covenni.: ontrol over content del 1,1011, i See ppendlx table ;-
; FeLi.er -,.ience and math,. inanc, tea,. her---espe- 1 5.) Thi- last tindin, indIcate, that \,,ho are in
ill% in the elemental% and middle e the% the ureatest need ot IkivuiC ft:3,11er, use their
have -non:: control o% yr sciecnn:. instructkinal material,: itickment m makine deci-k in, are the least likel% ti have
determunniz. the II, and Alec tn es 01 their course,: teacher- k%11,, feel emp,wered i do so.
,electinc the content, 1,p,, and skill, to be tatdit: hr
,electin,_: textbooks. I've appendix table ;- I 2. TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION
--titularly. the NELS:-, >e,,,11.1 I tI %k -[.1, Study tound Overall, and mathematic, teacher, cniti% their
it larocr percentat:e- ,it I :th cr lie -Indent- had te,ICh- lobs. For ex.unple, in the s.\1-1.S:: second 1-.
et believed the% had 'Mite ,,ver deo- percent ot I 2th-12.1ade science ,ind mai hem
'ion, related to teachinc rechnklues and amount , students V, ere t,illoht by teacher, who telt ,arhale,1
hotneirk than over decisions related to disc:Thrum: stu- or ill ot the time. and only 2 percent had teachers iIlo
dents, selectitw., content, or -deL tIflC teXtbo,lks and other were -alimist never- satv,tied o ith their (ob,. (See ticure
mstructional material,. (See ,idekir on homework. text 3-14.) The NSSN1E found that teacher satisfaction sh,,ht-
taHe ;-4, and appendix table ;- I ; Iv increased between 1')S6 and Ho t See twure ;- 15.)
HOMEWORK MATTERS
Home;wrk is a significant component of the instructional systeM, and it is one practice over which tachers have
considerable control. Higher average NAEP mathematics proficiency is associated with the completion of mathemat-
ics homework. (See text table 3-4.) Students reporting never doing homework had the lowest proficiencies. The
results are similar in the High School and Beyond and the NELS:88 Second Follow-Up Study databases.
TEXT TABLE 3-4
NAEP mathematics proficiency of 17-year-old students,

by frequency of homework performed: 1978 to 1992
Otten Sometimes Never

Average NAEP Aver, e NAEP Average NAEP
Percent of mathematics Percent of mathematics Percent of mathematics
Year students proficiency students proficiency students proficiency
1978 59 (2.0) 309 (1 6) 35 (1.9) 291 (2.1) 6 (0.7) 284 (3.5)
1982 65 (1 7) 307 (1 5) 29 (1.6) 291 (2.1) 6 (0.6) 284 (3.4)
1986 74 (1 2) 304 (1.1) 20 (1 4) 296 (1 8) 5 (0.7) 291 (5 5)
1990 77 (1.3) 310 (1 7) 18 (1.1) 295 (2 0) 5 (0.7) 281 (3.5)
1992 76 (1 2) 310 (1 1) 19 (0.9) 295 (1 8) 5 (0 7) 285 (4.1)
NOTES Standard afrOrS appear n parentheses Tota.s nol must 100 percent SS s resua rocnd,nq
SOURCE Pau, I V ; er a' 07541 NAEP n acadxnr vog-ele Roper% No 23.TRSII Wash,ngt, 1), NA, 0,,d, Carter tor Ed..cat,on -;talistcs
...L0tt,r1 o' ;:c e,,e 4,0 0.1.1tt,e0Ya1,7
6')
FIGURE 3-1 4 In P-.)tinibout q.2 percent of .cience teachers and 96 per-

cent of mathematics teachers said they eniitved teaching,
Percent of 12th-grade science
and mathematics students taught by compared with 1991, when 94 percent ot science teach-
teachers who are satisfied with their jobs: 1992 ers and 97 percent ot mathematics teachers said the same.
Elementary science teachers were the gtoup least likely to
Almost never 2% enjoy teach in both I 96 and 1903.
All of Me time 11%
Some of
the time 18% TEACHERS' BELIEFS ABOUT CLASSROOM
REFORMS
Although the X(.2-1-X1 published its Curriculum and
4 Evaluation Standards tn l9S9 and Pulocionai Standaris for
Teaching in 1991. not all teachers are familiar with them.
-mad In 1993, mathematics teachers in higher grades were
more likely than their counterparts in lower izrades to be
famdiar with them.f d icuments. Rouizhly one in five ele-
mentary, one in lour middle, and one in two high school
mathematics teachers said they were "well aware- of the
Curriculum and Eualuation Sutridards: fewer teachers in
each grade range were familiar with the Professional
Standards .14 Teaching. tSee twure i-I6 and appendix
table 3-16.)
Most of the lime 69%
FIGURE 3 - 15
Percent of teachers who say they enjoy teaching subject, by subject and grade range: 1986 and 1993
Science Mathematics
98 98 98 97 98
100 97 96 96
96
93
90
86
83
SC
70
50
50
40
30
20
10
1-6 7-9 10-12 1-6 7-9 10-12

Grade range
:11 13;36
III 1193
48 iNDICATOR5 OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1 995
ln the loo ; NSS\IE, m. fence Atli inathemattLs te.k.hers

reported mixed views about the principles underk me, the Roughly three out of four science
standards and the recommendations that fli uv trom them:
Althouuh most science and mathematics teachers teachers in all grades indicated that
heheved that "virtually all students can learn to
think scientificall% and mathematically," sizable hands-on activities should definitely
proportions reported that such icartune is hest
ccomplished by placintz students in classes it h be a part of science instruction, and
,qhers ot sunilar abtlities. (See licures i-17 ,md 1-
1 and appendix table 1- 17.1 More mathematics nearly that many considered teaching
than science teachers, and more
teachers than middle school teachers or elemen- of applications of science in daily
tary school teachers, said they support ability
tSce the section about ahtlity ,.zroupin2 to be essential.
tin patz,e 411
N. tat hemat ics teachers did not support the earlier
introduction ot alizebraic cm incepts. Most elemen- classes, many appear to resist teachmiz science
tary, middle, and lu,h school mat hem.it c I ea, 11- concepts before they teach the terminololzy asso.
cr. reported that they believe student, must mas- ciated with those concepts. Almost one-third of
ter arithmetic computation before izointz on to elenlentarv school teachers and more than me-
alizebra. t See ficure 3-10 and appendix table ;- half of luizh school science teachers indicated rhat
17.1 "it is important for students to learn basic scientif-
Similarly. althou,h most middle and hich school ic terms and formulas before learniniz underlviniz
science teachers reported that they believe sci- concepts and principles." (See appendix table ;-
ence is best learned in the context of a perminal 17.)
ir social applicatiiin and that lakiratorv-based
FIGURE 3-17
classes are more effective than noniaboratorv
FIGURE 3- 1 6 Percent of mathematics teachers
agreeing that virtually all students can
Percent of mathematics teachers learn to think scientifically or mathematically,
who are "well aware" of the NCTM by subject and grade range: 1993
standards documents, by grade range: 1993
100
100 Science Mathematics
Curriculum and evaluation Professional standards
standards for teeching 90
90 84
80
BO 76 76 76
72
70
60
56
50
40 40
30
20
19
12
tO
1-4 5-8 9-12 1-4 5-8 9-12

9-12 1-4 5-8 9-12 Grade range
Grade range
6 ,4
ELEMENTAP AND SECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 49
ilt.!11 ,t.11,4 ii 11.11kelllat her, suprorted the detinnek be a part ot science instruction, and
I-equent use 1.4 ca Icu lators-71 percent indicated nearly that many considered teaLlung ot applica-
dial- "students should be ahle to tise calculaiors tions of ,t,:lence in d.nls lite to he e-sential. (See
most Lit the time.- Elementary mathematics tea,h- sidebar on hands,nn aLtivines and figure 3-20.)
ers were less likely to support extensive use of t_al- However, fewer teachersespecially at the lugh
culators. iSee h glare ' .111d .Irrend school level--considered it important to reach
1 7.1 concrete experience before abstract treatinents or
\ lore than percent oi elementary mathemat place students in cooperative learnin, groups.
teachersbut nink 5s:' percent ot miiLlle school Only about inne in five high s. h1 uI cience teach-
teacher- and 25 r erLent tit high scho, I te.u.h- ers considered it essential to take student concep-
ers,,,n,idereJ handon or mampulatne Jett\ tions aknut natural phenomena Into account
essenttal tor ettectise mathematics ututrsic - when planning curriculum and instruction; to
tlilfi. tSce iippendix table 1- I SI Sumlarly, math- have deeper coverage of fewer science concepts;
ematics teachers in the higher Qrade!, were less of to revisit science topics, each time in greater
likely than those in the lower grades to support depth. (See appendix table 3-20.1
the ip.e of new teaching strateglessuch as con-
crete expenences hetore abstract treatments. TEACHER PREPARATION
applicariins of mathematIcs in daily life, coorera-
nye learning groups tor students, use of Lomput- The science and mathematics standards advocate the
ers, and the effect that students prior concep- introduction of challenging science and mathematics
tions about a topic should have on curriculum content to all students beginning in the early grades;
and Instruction. however. only teachers who have a hrm grasp ot powertul
Roughly three out of four science teachers in all science and mathematks concepts themselves can guide
grades indicated that hands-on activities should students' exploration of science and mathematics.
FIGURE 3-18
FIGURE 3 -19
Percent of science and mathematics teachers
agreeing that students learn science or Percent of mathematics teachers
mathematics best in classes with students agreeing with statements about reform,
of similar abilities, by subject and grade by grade range: 1993
range: 1993
100
'00
Science Mathematics Students must master anthmetic Students should be able to
computation before going on use calculators most
90 to algebra of the time
90
81
80 77
76
73
70
68 70
/0
62
In
60
60
50
`6 50
41 39
40
rr,
3.3
30
30
24
23
I1I
20
29
10
0
1-4 5-8 9-12
II
Grade range
5-8 9-12
'0
3
1-4
1 5-8 9-12 1-4
Grade range
5-8 9-12
I. 1
0
nr cxv mea,ures. such as an evaluation I inder21-.Ishi, Illicre ha\ e mmored Ii science or mathematics at
ate or tlraduate malor r number ot course, completed in the underilraduate 2racluate le \ els than their elemen-
the held I 1,,r2,nunent. Ire one w.iv icc Clime how %len tary counterparts. 1 1,,wever. nearly 1,2 percem of hieh
te.tcher, uncler,tand sc fence ;Ind mathematiLs. in 109 ,clence reacher, and 10 percent or high school
les, than 5 percent of elementary school ten,: e or math- mathematics teacher, had neither an underilraduate nor
ematic, teachers had maiored in science or science edu- ,..!raduate tumor in science Or (.. lence ccIii,it ii in or mathe-
cation or mathematic, 'r mathematic, educatirm ii matic, or marhemat tr educat ion. Moreover, althour.th
either the undertgaduate (If craduate level. t :zee fp,2aire more than 90 percent cif hich schocil ience teachers had
couNe, thy, fiL,aare is not surpimanu, Izn en that at least a minor in science or ,Cience education, only 1
delnentary teachers teach all or most academic sub- percent ot hiQh school mathem,itic, tc.fther, had at least
lects. rather than spec:mil:7e in science ,cr mathematic,. a minor in mathematic, or mathematic, eslucamcn. 1St:L.
:-.cience and mathemancs teac:hers in u.r.Ides 2 .1re text raHe 3-51
USE OF HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES GAINS FAVOR AFTER SHARP DROP IN THE 1980s
Both the science and mathematics standards call for increased use of hands-on activities, because concrete experi-
ences allow students to use and reorganize their existing knowledge structures. Data from the 1993 NSSME show
that use of hands-on activities varies by grademore elementary school classes than secondary school classes use
them. In addition, at the secondary level, more science classes than math classes use them. Other differences exist
over time. In almost all grades and subjects, their use droppedsometimes dramaticallybetween 1977 and 1986.
(See figure 3-20 and appendix table 3-19.) This overall decrease in attention to hands-on classwork may have been
due to the "back to basics" movement of the mid-1980s, which emphasized a more direct instructional style with
less use of manipulativeseducators used drills; they didn't want students to play in the classroom. Interest in
hands-on activities increased in 1993especially in grades 4-6 mathematics classrooms, where the percentages
rebounded to levels higher than in 1977. Despite the resurgence in 1993, the percentage of science classes using
hands-on activities was still not up to the 1977 levels. Notwithstanding these recent increases, it is important to
note that, except at the earliest grades, only about half of science classes and about 30 percent of mathematics class-
es use hands-on activities on a given day.
FIGURE 3-2 0
Percent of science and mathematics classes using hands-on activities
in most recent lesson, by subject and grade range: 1977 to 1993
30
30
-o
fl 50
50
E40
3_
??3 '977 '336 03 '977 493 '9'7 '386 '393
Grades 4-6 Grades 7-9 Grades 10-12

Grades 1-3
- -
Mxrecvat- s
66
SCIENCE TEACHERS' PREPARATION te,icher, h iJ lc-, C3.teil`1% -,1,11,..e (Lin

A ttitil,ir riL tore eltleree -. wit h evunin.ItItin ,tt the their tit kiJle s(.1hnli ,unterrart,, who In Nan it.td Ies
nninher 1 ,cine,ter, !Utile k itir,ek,irk -Lierke thcir hiLth I (olinlerr,Irt-.
ntrIete,1k ,tence te.k_her. in 19');, clument try Cee (ji2,1tre i-2.2.) The percent iii hich h1 i1 lence
FIGURE 3-21
FIGURE 3 -22
Percent of science and mathematics Total number of semesters of
teachers with undergraduate or graduate college science coursework completed by
majors in science or mathematics fields, science teachers, by grade range: 1993
by grade range: 1993 so
M Mathematics teachers
50
Science teachers
tiC
72
39
31 31
28
40 20
17
16
21
23 8
1
MEN
3 I .1 I 1
0 1-4 5-8 9-12
5-8 9-12
Grade range
Grade range
Fewer man h
III 6-'0
11_14
IIII 15.20
21 ca Inure
TEXT TABLE 3-5
Percent of teachers with majors and minors in science or mathematics and

science or mathematics education, by grade range: 1993
Grade range
Field of class taught and field of study 1-4 5-8 9-i2
Science
Undergraduate major in science 3 (0 7) 18 (2 1) 63 (2 1)
Undergraduate or graduate major in science or science education 3 (0 7) 21 (2 3) 72 (2 2)
Indergraduate or graduate major or minor 'n science or science education 7 11 61 32 (2 5) 94 (1 21
Mathematics
Undergraduate major in mathematics 1 10 41 7 (0 8) 41 (2 5)
Undergraduate or graduate nlator in mathema0cs or mathematics education 1 Oi 11 (1 5) 63 (3 4)
Undergraduate or graduate major or minor in mathematics or mathematics education 7 (1 91 18 (2 1) 81 13 21
,I4CE t^ Y P' '
.11r, '1' J^ CI
U
FIGURE 3 - 23
Percent of science classes taught by teachers with varying levels of preparation in science, by discipline: 1993
Life science (7-12) Earth science (7-12) Physical science (7-12)
14%
140,640
11%
82% 34% 75%
aiofogy (9-12) Chemistry (9-12) Physics (9-12)
1%
4%
18%
44.
22%
89% 74%
Six or more courses to that science
111 Six or more courses in other science oiscioiine

Fewer Iran six courses any science a scirxine
FIGURE 3 - 24
Percent of science teachers teaching courses in
one, two, or three or more science subjects, by type of community: 1 993
Suburban Rural
Urban
12%
511-,
41 14.
76%
37%
ore SC.erroe
Ted(, IWO sc,..,e co,ses
Teac, th,ce or Tore once
6S
ELEMENTARY AND SECOND,;RY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 53
ir:F, c I 1/4, IIII`leIt'd Iii. rt; emesters t bough most prospecti\ e sec,:ndarv hn ci scIence
lence ..,ursek...qk increased :4 percent m 190; hers have in-depth preparation in one disciplme, many
UI H ',nun, in .1.0,-4, k \,1; Nhin. s..lettLe teachers are assagneJ t. teach .....mrses Ifl n.tre than
-smith 199;1 one discipline, resultIng In extensIve out-of-field teaching.
The :\.'...sTA has rec. innendc,1 that eletnentar\ In rural schools, tyhere this situation is particularly preva-
hut, h Ic. U IL iL One C.h_n lent, more than one in three teachcrs teach courses in two
JCL" It 11, lent. C", physical sci- scIence disc tplines and cine in eight teaches courses in
, Ind earth sc lences. A,ct,rding to the NSSME. three or ink 're ClenC:' t.`..-lee figure 1-24.)
,rades 1- ts teachers met thi, "tan-
in Ho; ,gTendi. nine 21..1 MATHEMATICS TEACHERS' PREPARATION
re,Inmendat I. are tnikh in.qe demik...1 It elementat Cliool mathematics teachers
11,4, course- that !:.ie taken college ceur.cs In Mat hel11.1tIC, tor elementary
cc. tie!, each discipline should Lomplete. Ic.c.iUe er\ school teachers and in methods of teaching mathematics.
hers, ey en the,se extensne coursekork ii Hc cwever. tar tewer have had collette coursework in ,'eonl-
He:r id, meet the .s:STA recommendations, the ern; or probalsility and statisticsareas that the NCTN1
\ domed ",..II-prepared (eachers" as ones ith in citie F2t cililctti \(.1tI,LHN su,gest should he
:et ill repara; ion --six or me iddressed In the prunary :trades. (See neure 3-25 and
n this Ille.1,111::, the Ic.el ot teacher prerarat ,n ippendix talsle 3-23.)
tr t se,ondary ley el t..Ines c.nslderably. t See NC :TM leconunends that .trades T--9 mathemaucs
.IlTelldIX Lille 3-22). her example, In 109 teachers have college coursework in calculus. geometry,
,4 grades 7- 1.2 life suence classes and 04 percent probahtlin, and statistics, abstract algebra Or number the-
.4 grades 9-12 holoLv .Aerc taught hy teacher- ory, and applications of mathematics or problem solvInLt.
h., had taken six .tr more Isiol,,,zy ,ourses, but only Although 1993 data show that m.tre than 70 percent Ot
percent .4 grades 7-12 earth science classes were taught these teachers had completed calculus, only about 40 per
teachers %ho had stx or more earth ,tence courses. cent bad completed a course focused mainly on applica-
Also, although almo,t all Holo.w, chemistry, and nons of mathematics. These percentages are essentially
1-hvsks disses were taught by teachers who had m-depth the same as in 1986. (See appendix table 3-24.)
preparatb,n in some science chscipline, more than IC' NC2TNI. recommends that high school mathematic,.
percent .4 grades 7-12 life. earthind physical scIence teachers C.)mplete advanced calculus, daferential
isses were taught by teachers who did not have in- rums, linear algebramd history of mathematics in addi-
icrr It Frer.lrat ittn in any 5C1CFICC t,See figure tion to the five courses previously mentioned. In 199 ;,
; 2 and appendix table 3-22.) although 95 percent of high school mathematics teachers
FIGURE 3- 2 5
Percent of elementary school mathematics teachers with college coursework in each area: 1993
Geometry mosiffigas 22
A0Ohcal.c,s 0 malnemat.Cs 24
()ropey". SOI,mg
Probahm. aed stahshcs 27
,ese correouters
35
Dr otrer technOtOCiees
a oFma .y ,r,gor.Ometry
memeotact, tuhchons INIMINIMEWEIM 42
p Wer,-,"tary 98
teachtcs
-(1
99
'0 .10 70 '20

Percent of teachers
0
0 t.1
had completed calculus. only 4b percent had completed TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS

history ot mathematics. Between and 100 the per- OF THEIR OWN PREPARATION
cent ot hit:h sch,,o1 mathematics teachers who coinpleted An ealmition ot teachers' undere.radume or I.Jaduate
the recommended courses increased sumilicantly; for majors and the number of courses they complete in their
instance. 13 percent more teachers completed linear ;dee- field of assmnment are two ways to j/auize how well teach-
braind 11 percent more teachers c,,mpletcd abstrac ers understand science and mathematics. Another v,
alcJebra. t See appendix table i-24.1 to evaluate teachers perceptions It their own prepara-
WIthin schools, te.ichers ii ith more in-depth tionhow well prepared they feel to teach the various
preparation in advanced mathein U cs ire more likely to content areas and to use the .,-arlous instructional strateeies
'each t he dvanced classes. t See twure ;-20.1 These recommended for science :Ind mathematics education.
:cachets are also more likek to teach classes with a low Elementary teachers picalk teach science, mathemat
proportion ot minority students. l'Or example. lq01. readinc and laneuaec arts, and social studies to a 'mule
,niv 47 percent of hit.:11 sch, )01 mathematics clasces con- izroup ot student s, but they cl, rh,t teei equally qualified to
teach all of these subjects. For example, in 1993, 76 per-
t 'mine Ith Ire than 40 percent numliatv students were
Jaueht by teachers with an underi:raduate lr LJraduate cent of elementary school teachers assumed to teach all
malor in mathematics or mathematics education, com- four sublects indicated that they telt very well qualified to
teach readinQ and laneuaLJe roue,hly 00 percent telt
pared k it h 02 percent of classes contamme tewer than 10
percent minorit \ students. This pattern was n,it evident very well qualified to teach mathematics and social studies .
ii hi,h scho,11 science classes, where all classes were but only 20 percent telt very well qualified to teach sci-
about as likek to have teachers with underuaduate or ence. (See Iture 3-2S and ppendix table 3-26.1
Accordmiz to the NSSN1E, in 1993. most elementary
eraduate 111.1107 in science or science education. See fie-
teachers telt well qualified to teach 4 of the 14 mathemat-
tire 3-27 nd ;ippendix table i-25.1
ics topics recommended by the Nr.TN1Currictiluin and
FIGURE 3- 2 6
Percent of high school mathematics teachers
completing college courses in mathematics, by teaching assignment: 1993
Calculus 91
,F,77.1_713,1:1111151101Zail 87
1,,euab.l.o, and statstics
73
. 85
L alear algebra
70
z.pstract amehra or number meory 77""."1751111747"1 777711.7- 7.7" 772r277:771-"rj2L""re"-

62
85
Geometry 84
77
Advanced calculus
c:-.1 71
Computer programmIng
57
--70;111f71777_77,72:1777:7777-7._7: _ _1 69
alferenbal eduatIons
48
tt,story et matnemancs
34
"5!r..:.trosa, uses of comoutnrh `

mpigarlir77.r.=.21 46
39
31
D screte ProatICS
111.1111111111.11.11 21
10 20 3C E0 911 '00
Percent of teachers
'.,iCo nor. Or more advancer. mato c.ar,F,e,

alvanced math casses
70
[t I..i/1..1,11A' ----est 1111.11 I, 81. I el 1 measure- ippendiN table i-2.1.1 Only "20 percent telt \sell qualified
ment. and patterns and relationships. lust percent ot 1 1 to teach discrete inathem.ifics.
elemental-% teacher said the\ telt ssdl qualitied to teach ln 19Qi, teachers ot ac.vant ed mat halal lc, classes
1
pnibahifits and stati,ncs. \ See appendix table 3-271 were more likely Ni percetve themselves as well qualified
Most middle school mathentatits teachers said they telt tit teach various mathemattes topics. (See fwure
%sell ttualit led to teach ses era! of the sublet. ts recom- The difference was marked %kith reLtard to teachers' per-
mended by the NCTN1 standardstractions and duct- ception of their qualification to teach mathematical
mak, number sense numerattim: estimation; mea- structure: 41 pervent ot teachers asswned to tine or more
surement; numher ssstems and number thei,rv: patterns advanced hicth schoti mathematics classes telt qualified
Ind eetIlletr\ -r.m.d sense. (see to leach thls toplc, comp;ired with onlV pereent tit I
appensliN tahle ;- 2 7.) Althom2.h nearls ne-halt k if all tho.,e who did not teach ,Idvanced classes.
middle sc13,,i1 teachers telt well qualified t, te ich tune- N. lost science nd mathematics teachers at all t.trade les
( loos and aliz.ebra. !list percent telt V. ell qualified to els perceived that they were well prepared to pertorm tasks
teach probability and statistics. such As present mi.: the apphcat tons ot science or mathe-
\ lost hwh school mathematics teachers telt v. ell quail- matIcs concepts and erkliuraQin14 part iclpat Ii in iii females,
! led ti t e.tch tIN ,t of the recommended t,,pics: however, however. most science and mathematics teacher,' percetved
,,nly about it.' percent t it these teachers telt \sell qualified that they were not prepared to teach students who had
t h proh.thilltv and statistic,. matheinati,:al riic- hinited Enttlish prtiftclencv and, cNcept In ffades 1 4. stu-
I and the t onceptual underpinninL:s it AIL (See dents who had learninc dlsabilit les. Also, t,nlv abtmt
FIGURE 3-27 FIGURE 3-28

Percent of grades 7-12 science and Percent of self-contained elementary
mathematics classes taught by teachers with teachers feeling very well qualified to
undergraduate or graduate major in the field, teach each subject: 1977 to 1993
by percent of minority students in class: 1993
'00
Science classes Mathematics classes

90
Reading or language arts
80
72 72 .......
68
62 60
54 -
Social studies,
50
30
Science
'0
'0
'0
Less
than 10
10-39
or mere
Less
n-an 10
II
')-39
or more
977 1986
Percent minority in ciass
3ES1 COPY AVAILABLE

71
56 ,NDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1 995
FIGURE 3 - 29
Percent of high school mathematics teachers considering themselves
well qualified to teach each mathematics topic, by teaching assignment: 1993
82
72
77
sesse
62
59
ca
18
0 10 20 30 33 50 60 '3 80 90
Percent ot teachers
Teacr so ad.ancec ccatrernat cs c asses Teach oê c-,cre act.anceo rcatrerc,at.cs : asses
FIGURE 3 -30
Percent of mathematics teachers considering themselves
well prepared for mathematics teaching tasks, by grade range: 1993
87
Pesent acthcat,ons of 93
-âtherhaucs concepts NEMIIIMINIIIIMININIMMINIMI=MI 93
62
Yanage cass ot students 79
manioulatIves 90
82
use coot -at Se earnmg groups
87
IFINIMIEMnIMIM.77-7n1 81
se ca-ca a'ors as mtegrai 71
Cart or atcechat.cs .nstruct.on 55
-each sLdests from

a .anet,, ot cultures
a 70
73
28
T.,ach st...cents Arlo hose 43
eatrunq 52
(JD, P's ac rteyra: part 48

' cs 3,ucr.on 51
.10 50 3") 30
10 20 30
Percent of teachers
Graries :1
111 G,ades
III Grades I 3
FIGURE 3 -3 I
Percent of science teachers considering themselves
well prepared for science teaching tasks, by grade range: 1993
, A. 92
1.-C.)'. Of
80
e^ce
74
W.M.."7-74"':_frrtnriMMTRI7.:: g:177-7-7.7.7-7M2MMEZZ7SWAT:7=4 ' '

t-es
78
64
83
83
.1177.3.447.774::-',27.M=MAA 62 69
73
27
46
50
40
..se CC^ C.,*.ers as Dart
31
sC e-Ce or,
30
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Percent of teacners
I Grades 9 ,2
DI Grades 5-8
111 Grades 1.4
FIGURE 3-3 2 third of elementary ,ind middle ,.11,,ols,..tence teachers

Percent of teachers considering themselves and only about one-hlf ot elementary and middle sch,m1
"master teachers" of their subject, by mathematics teachers felt well prepared to use computers
subject and grade range: 1986 and 1993 as an intetzral part of instruction, despite the fact th,u sLa-
00 ence ,ind mathematics education reform dvocates vseater
Science Mathematics use of technoloa. Ahout 40 percem school science
and mathematic:, teachers feel well prepared to use coin-
77 puters as an intei2sal pan ot (See twures 1-30
74
and 3-31 and appendix tables 3-2..s and 329.1
69 69
Althout2.h elementary science teachers continued to he
tar likely than other s ience and mathematics teach-
ers to perceive of themselves as "master- reacher. ot their
49 49 suhiect. the percentaee it elementar\ science teachers
44 considerirw themselves to he "master.' science teachers
has increased from 14 percent in I 9S6 i 25 percent m
1Q91. Indeed. at all L:rade levels, the perLenta,e of sci-
25 ence nod mathematics teachers who considered them-
selves "master- teachers was hwher m 1003 than in 10'4,
see tiL:ure
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
' '0-12 1-6 7-9 0-2
Grade range 13, oh the sclem e and mat hemat indards CAI tor
devel,Tment i tea, hers prole heLathe teas her,
who sec theinsek C, protessionals are in, ire likely to he
rr% Li, (I% L. .11,, 'III (CAL I share authority
lIFt lOst Lir edu, anon. and 1111,11..11e il phoes
)
st, +nal .1( In ale,. Pr '.i inc teachers tend to pert.,rm i,..1 educatum III their neld during TEL! past %ears, relatively
hiher standard, therek enhancing students. e..111(.,111(111.11 few had de kricd sukt,ulual amount ..f time to these
experiences. This -ett n ,icscnbes the state ot teacher activities. (See appendix table 3-32 .1 Even ,unong hih
development in elementatx and sec,Indars education. school science and mathematics teachersmanv
whom are specialists in their held. !tile aknir one-half
COLLEGI ALITY had spent 16 or more hours on in-service education in
Accordin., to NELS, in I 9q2. 12th-trade ience and their field in the previous 3 years.
mathematics teachers .11-cussed science and mathematics Ilowever, between 1986 and 19q3, the number ot
curriculum primank with teachers in their depart- teachers particip,umg iii protessional development educa-
inents and their depart Inent Ch.ur, Fewer teachers di- tion increased. (See figure 1-11.) For example. in 1Q91,
( us,ed urriculum with their principals: teachers ..Litside xl percent Llt grades 10-12 nathemat ft- teachers indicat-
the department Or school: other school administrators: or ed they had parr iCip,Ited ui ;1t professirmnal
parents. kismess leaders, university stilt, and, others in development activities in mathematics in the past 12
the conunumtv. Scc arpendix tally 11-10.1 months, L.- from 05 percent in 19`36.
In addition, the 1\:SS 1E reports that in 1°'-)1 most pn- In 1993, high school science and ni.0 Ile111,II lc, it:Adler-
mary and secondary ss:tence and mathematics teachers were the most likelyand elementary teachers the least
ed I Lit their suns, 41 110% I c.ichint.: ideas, likelsto have taken a cLullege coIrse Ill their field in
share ideas and materials on .1 recmlar basis. nave many recent ears. I. See appendix table 1-31.1 The p,utern was
opportunities to learn neLc things in their iol-ind ire more pronounced in science than in mathematics-55
supported b% administrator,. (See appendix table 3-11.1 percent ot high school science teachers, compared with
io 1. ever, fewer than One in four had time during the re:4- 41 percent of middle school science teacher, and 26 per-
ular school we,.k to work with peer, on science or mathe- cent of elementary school science teachers, had taken a
mattc\ curriculum and instruction. and L.nlv akrut one in science or science education course for colleoe credit
eight reizularly observed other teachers classes as part of since 1989.
sharing and improving instructional strategies. Despite indications that huh school mathematics
teachers who do not teach advanced classes need addition-
CONTINUING EDUCATION al professional development to strengthen their content
The NSSME reported that in I 993, while most science knowledge (see section on teacher preparation on page
and mathematics teachers had at least some HI-service 49), they are less likely than teachers of advanced classes
FIGURE 3-33
Total amount of time mathematics teachers spent on in-service education

in mathematics during previous 12 months: 1986 and 1993
1986 '993
00 30
90 90
30 80
70 70
60 60
50
50
10
30
30
to
'0
IMMO
.6 16 7-9 10-12
7.9 '0-12
Grade range
Grade range
74
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEAF "ING ENVIRONMENT 59
to receive U. In 1091, i,nlx 44 percent Ii the hii2.h %school INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES

mathematic, teslCher, %%hi; tau,..iht lower level cla,,e,
It; iir ins ire hour, inervice education in the p.1,1 ; Much it is urrent educational reform LAI, tor t.i.1,11112.e.
ears, compared with 03 percent ot those who taii,!ht It In the way instriletiOn h dehvered within a
lea,t iine advanced inathematk, class. t See tiLiure 3 4.1 The indtcator, in till, -section provide a picturemice,-
',truly limited by the aviulable data, it what
PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES inside the -science and mathematic, clas,room,. The mdi-
Sizable proportion, ot hich ,chool ,cience and mathe, cator, ddres, of in-clas, [Mies participation in ion-
mule, leacheis ha% e participated in -some prote,,kinal term prilect,. ,tudent parucipat u in In other in,tructIonal
ILUCIIC durinci the rrevloli, 12 month.. isssee activitic,, And INe of traditional and alternat ive
table ;-.34.1 The 19Q1 tound that Ketween one mem tc.Lhnique,.
third and If ot hih ,chool ,caence and mathemat-
USE OF IN-CLASS TIME
ic, teacher, had ,erved on -school or disarict curriculum
And textbook 'elect in commluee, ,ir had attended 'tate Accordmiz to the 1001 NSSNIE1 wide %army iii-
k national science mathematic, teacher ;1,,soclat ion instnictional technique, sire prevalent in typical ,cience
meet Teacher, in the l,ier urade,, i ho Are likek to And mathematic, clas,e,. (See ticure 25.1 For in,tance. in
cd in tesichin,_:. 1arietv sit --uhtect,, were les,
ts, participate in ,clefuLe And mathematic, prole,- FIGURE 3-35
activate,. Average percent of science and mathematics
class time spent on different types of activity,
by grade range: 1993
FIGURE 3- 1 4
Science Mathernattcs
Amount of time high school mathematics teachers
spent on mathematics in-service education
8% 9%
in the past 3 years, by teaching assignment: 1993 29%
26%
21%
100
26%
13
'10
9%
36% 26% 9%
80
70 12%
11%
23%
18%
60
26%
1111191
50
12%
37%
36%
15%

7%
30 11%
21%
17%
10
10%
48:S 14%
42%
Teach no advanced Teach one or mcre

mathematcs classes advanced mathematics classes Daily routines irterrurations and otnnr i.nrinstructiOnaI activities
Individual students reading lentoodk Aothe, noninstructona'
1.1 NOniaboratOry Snlailioroun Aiore
Who'n-iTIV:S Ienritre or d sc..,sson
Workiiirj lb nannsiri, materQls
FIGURE 3-3 6 1091, t pical elemental-% or ,et.iindarv s tence lass spent

Percent of mathematics classes never almost 40 percent tit its Mlle in leoure and disLussion
working on 1-week-long projects at involvinii the entire class,
home or in class, by grade range: 1993 ,thtlin .20 percent of it, time storkiiiti as individuals
,CC Teat, inc . the teNt book or complenne worksheets,
about 25 percent of as time wi Amt.: with h,,nds-on
materials, and
72 the remaininii time liii daily riititines and nonlakirati,
66 tv small-Li,roup work.
58 The thstrihin ion ot line :i t. ri iss cr,l,le levels chaniietl
53
48 little, eXt, ert ,It the hi ch i. 1114,1 level. where t here was a
41 shtiiht increase in the amount it rime spent in lect lire or
whole-Llass discussionwith correspondiniziv les, time
20 spent h1 tudent, svtirkin individthals. (See litt.ure /-
"i5.1 At least superticiall%. these tune distriFutions appear
to Rill ill the recommendations tor small-t!roup work and
irk with manipulative, that are set torth in the science
At home In class and mathematics standards. I lowevei, it is not pi issithle ti
1 Graces 1-4 Grades 5-8 Graaes determine Inuit the clata 11 such tune is spent in awird
with the standards, doinc activities suk.h as creative prtils-
"
lem si iIv i tic, or not in accord with the standards,
routine data verification.
TEXT TABLE 3-6
NAEP science proficiency for students participating in classroom

science activities at age 9: 1977 to 1992
Students answering "yes" Students answering "no"
Average Average
Classroom Percent of NAEP science Percent of NAEP science
science activity Year students proficiency students proficiency
Experiment MI, batteries arn bulbs 1992 49 (1 91 233 (1 8) 46 (1 91 231 (1 71
1977 51 11 41 225 i2 8 43 11 4, 217 (2 1)
Use a microscope 1992 6211 41 237 (1 51 33 (1 41 225 (2 01
1977 53 (1 41 222 (2 5) 43 11 51 214 (2 1)
Experiment with living plants 1992 64 (1 1) 234 (1 6) 32 (1 01 226 (1 81
1977 70 (1 41 221 (2 3) 27 (1 3) 217 (2 8)
Use a thermometer 1992 91 (0 6) 234 (1 4) 7 (0 5) 217 (3 5)
1977 84 (1 0; 222 (2 21 14 (0 9) 199 (2 71
Use a calculator 1992 98 (0 31 233 (1 4) 2 10 31 203 (5 81
1977 87 (1 2) 222 (2 2 ( 11 11 01 195 (3 4)
9110 234 (1 4) 8 10 51 218 (4 0)

Use a scale to A,e 'In things 1992 71
1977 89 (0 81 22012 31 9 10 7) 202 14 5)
ES - AnA a, ea, Asc.. le ê

In 1993, the distribution of time in elementary mathe- classroom that lasted 1 week or more, and 66 percent did
matics classes was similar to elementary science classes; not do any week-long projects at home. (See figure 3-36
however, upper-grade-level mathematics classes spend and appendix table 3-35.) Also, 43 percent of high
considerably less time using hands-on activities. (See fig- school science classes did not do projects in the class-
ure 3-35.) A typical high school mathematics class spent room that lasted 1 week or more, and 49 percent did not
almost 50 percent of its time in lecture and dis- do such at home. (See appendix table 3-36.) Elementary
cussion involving the entire class, and middle school science and mathematics classes were
about 20 percent of its time with students working more likely to participate in week-long projects in class
as individuals, than were high school students.
almost 10 percent of its time working with hands-
on materials, PARTICIPATION IN OTHER INSTRUCTIONAL
the remaining time on daily routines and small- ACTIVITIES
group work.
In contrast, a typical elementary school mathematics The most prevalent instructional activities in high
class spent almost 30 percent of its time working with school science classrooms in 1993 included listening and
hands-on materials and only 26 percent of its time in taking notes during a presentation by the teacher,
whole-class discussion or lecture. watching the teacher demonstrate a scientific principle,
participating in dialogue with the teacher to develop an
STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN LoNG-TERm idea, doing hands-on/laboratory science activities, and
PROJECTS working in small groups. The results were similar for
high schoo' mathematics classes; an additional instruc-
A key principle of the standards is that students, espe- tional activity prevalent in mathematics classes was
cially in science, receive a better overall education if they working with problems from a textbook. (See appendix
spend more time on fewer topics, thereby gaining a bet- tabl..:s 3-35 and 3-36.)
ter, more in-depth, understanding of each topic. Never- Trends from 1977 to 1992 (Mullis et al., 1994) indicate
theless, according to the 1993 NSSME, 58 percent of that students are using more sophisticated and technolo-
high school mathematics classes never did projects in the gy-based materials in the classroom. For example, over
that period, 9-year-old science students were increasingly
likely to use thermometers, microscopes, and calculators,
TEXT TABLE 3-7
although they experimented less with plants. (See text
table 3-6.)
States with alternative assessments
In science and mathematics: USE OF TRADITIONAL P ND ALTERNATIVE
Fall 1991 and Fall 1993 ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES
Subject and status According to the science and mathematics standards,

of alternative assessments 1991 1993
assessment of student performance should require stu-
dents to solve problems, justify their solutions, and apply
Science total 16 20 knowledge to new situations. This is difficult using tradi-
tional assessment mechanisms, such as fact-oriented mul-
In-use 5 1
tiple-choice tests. Alternative, or nontraditional, mecha-
Developing 11 19 nisms, such as performance, enhanced multiple-choice, or
extended performance tests, are better suited for such
Mathematics total 20 32 assessments. Performance tests require students to com-
plete a specified task, enhanced multiple-choice tests
In-use 8 7 allow students to explain their answers, and extended
Developing 12 25 performance tests require students to complete a task or
project over a given period of time, such as a week. The
NOTES Alternatne, or nontradthonal assessments tnctude ennanced frucole chcnce short. won- use and development of such alternative assessments for
ended. sotencle<1. open-ended Encino:Mal performance group performance onservetton portlohn
end nfolect science and mathematics increased between 1991 and
CLIFICE Bank R 119950, St Ate trOcatori Of nClence and rnaMentehos educanon
Unpublished tabutations 1993. (See text table 3-7.) Most significantly, whereas 20
Ind:anon of Scarce and Stethemaltcs Educabon INS
77
FIGURE 3 - 37
Percent of science classes about which teachers report
various types of activity are important in determining student grades, by grade range: 1993
91
88
92
Eementane 1.
SChool 75
trades 1-4. 47
29
83
' 7'. 77
72
56
1-aces 5-8, 79
62
60
. 54
r4.qh 48
sCs001 37
9-12;
85
64
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 '30
Percent of classes
Effort Indmdual arprovement Partictpatton Intememnd students 061ectse tests Flomev,ork assconments
'start:\ %%ere developing usim2 .11i ernilt ICC nmtheinatics 12rading methods vaned widely. (See figure
assessments in 1991, 32 states were developing or using Testing, in whatever kirm, is becoming a more coin-
them Isy 19y3. mon activity. Between 1975 and 1992, the number tt 17-
In 1993, elementary sclutol teachers were rnut.h more year-old students who reported that testing occurred
likely to use nontraditional assessment techniques--such often in their mathematics classes increased from 04 tt,
as participation. elk results o! stu- percmt. (Sec tem tal-le More frequent t(sting
dents. and IndIvidual pn;gress over past pertormancetor may or may not translate into improved understanding ot
assessment than were iiitih school teachers. I Ugh school science and mathematics. A study conducted by the
teachers tended ro (rq: oliec(ive tests and homework. hut Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation. and
TEXT TABLE 3-8
NAEP mathematics proficiency of 17-year-old students,

by frequency of mathematics tests taken: 1978 to 1992
Often Sometimes Never
Average NAEP Average NAEP Average NAEP
Percent of mathematics Percent of mathematics Percent of mathematics
Year students proficiency students proficiency students proficiency
I Q78 64 ;1 3) 308 0 71 33 0 1) 292 (2 1) 3 (0 5) 270 (4 7)
1992 831071 308 (1 21 16 (0 81 301 (3 01 1 (0 4) 270 (5 Et

FIGURE 3-38
Percent of test items, by type of test, use of conceptual knowledge, and levels of thinking: 1992
Mathematics tests Science tests
'30
27 -.73
5,0
',.
4
1121M11110
Sianaaro ze"
11111111M111111
ext boo', iinai

21111E111=
.,,tandaraizec
sq
Textbook firal Standardized Textbook final Standardized Textbook final
Conceptual knowledge Level of thinking Conceptual knowledge Level of thinking
Educational Policy (1092) showed that the most wideiv ine. Tests that demand low levels of thinking and con-
used standardt:ed texts and textbo,ik series tor rade 4, ccptual understanding appear to have more influence on
,rade Sind most high school subjects assess predomi- the instruction in classes with large proportions of minor-
nantly low levels of thinkine and conceptual understand- ity students. For example, teachers of classes with high
(See ficure 3-18.) This tindine was true for both sci- proportions of minonty students reported spendine more
cii,e and mathematics. class tIme preparme tor standardi:ed tests and reported
Iests that demand low levels ot thinkine and concep- teaching daferent c ntent in an attempt to more closely
tual understanding are in direct contrast to the standards' match the tests. (See text table 3-9.)
call tor hi,ther level thinking and in-depth understand-
RESOURCES
Teachers of classes with high Well-equipped classrooms are necessary to provide the
quality ot instruction called for in the national standards.
proportions of minority students This section examines the use, vailability, and quality of
Inous supplies. matertals, and facilities available to su-
reported spending more class time ence and mathematics teachers, as measured by teachers'
opinions of textbi sit classroom suppltes and facilities,
preparing for standardized tests and computers and nets,,rks, and calculators.
reported teaching different content in TEXTBOOKS
an attempt to more closely The most common lassroom resourLe is the textkiok.
While most science and mathemanc, teacher, reported
match the tests. in Ho hat t heir text b, ioks ere eit her "good," "very
eoo,l," or ",...t.ellent," mathematics teadwrs rated their
79
TEXT TABLE 3-9
Percent of science and mathematics teachers reporting classroom preparation for mandate
standardized tests, by minority presence: 1992
Minority presence
fiigh-minority class Low-minority class
Classroom preparation Science Mathematics Science Mathematics
Teachers prepare students for mandated standardized tests by

Teaching test-taking skills 75 84 42 55
Encouraging students to work :iard on tests 74 61 50 49
Teaching topics known to ge on test 60 60 19 37
Providing test-specific material 29 38 6 12
Using state or district test prepared materials 11 14 6 7
Usmg practice tests 20 32 10 12
Mandated standardized tests influence teachers to

Include topics Rot otherwise taught 71 58 23 42
Exclude topics otherwise taught 41 39 16 20
Increase emphasis on certain topics 67 71 38 46
NOTES 'M.nonty' , aetined a$ Want, eltscar, Astao Pacific Isrander and NatoetAmericanAtaskan w,01 dunCinhc Classes are loose ro etotert more elan 60 6erceri 01 studentsate monorthaS tItle
e'toto65 Ctanses MSS iran pe,cen, o MI:tents are rotoontles leachers wen more man ere ctas$ were tesitucted to settee( ire si Monday class Extent or inttueoce was .r.y.cated 06 esvaoses of
SOURCE Center tor Ire Study or Postal() E ralaaeon ar,d Edudattonie Potty t;q2. rn ,ttyondu et ,n5pnd no reaching main ar,c ,C,OnCe n graces 4.12 Swon Ceotet tOr tee Suds- or TesItod
Era.latte, and Educational Pettey
FIGUF1E 3-39 textbooks more favorably than dtd science teachers. (See
figure 1-19.) However, many science and mathematics
Percent of classes for which teachers consider
instructors reported that they rend not to cover all of the
the quality of their science and mathematics
textbooks as good, by grade range: 1993 material included in textbooks. (See appendix table 3-
37.) In fact, between 1986 and 1991, the percent of all
'00
science classes and the percent of :Jades 1-6 mathemat-
90 ics classes covertnu virtually the enure textbook
decreased dramatically. These data do not show whether
80
63 77 textbooks have changed in k outh or quality. how text-
72
69
books are used, or if teachers use additional or supple-
mental readinu materials.
63
Overall, mathematics teachers cover inure of their
60
texts than do science teachers. This findinu may be
50 because science texts tend to be comprehensive, allowInu
teachers to pick and choose amonu the topics. In con-
40 trast, mathematics textbooks tend to be streamlined,
because there is more consensus wuhin the mithematks
30
community about which topics should be addressed in a
particular course.
20
'3
The resources that are available to

1-4 5-8 9-12
Grade range
schools do not appear to be
7 `k,ur,cf
III Wm&
distributed equally across classes.
TEXT TABLE 3-10
Percent of science and mathematics teachers indicating that each factor is a serious prol
for science and mathematics teaching, by grade range: 1977 to 1993
Grades 1-6 Grades 7-9 Grades 10-12
Factor 1077* 1986 1993 1977 1986 1993 1977 1986 1993
Science
Mateha s 3, struchon 30 i2 3. 30 i1 8i 36 ,2 11 27 (2 31 2712 71 37 51 28 (2 2) 2022), 38 (2 4)
Funds lc- purchasing ego:pc-eh! or SuPPLOS i2 3i 3011 81 40 (2 51 24 12 21 26 (2.61 31 4 51 27 ,2 2i 23 (2 3) 36 (2 3)

AccesS 3 computers 18118. 20 ti 3, 23 (2 51 3713 31 17(2 1) 40(221
Mathema! cs
Matena s individuaht.nd -51,uctIon 1 7 .1 71 '4 114. 2132 21 (2 11 15 ,2 2( 22 i2 19 (2 0) '0 (1 2) 2419

PUnas (C aUChaS1ng eauicent or supplies 0
' 1! (t 2. 23 (2 9) '3 (1 2i 11 i1 9) 30 ;7 4i 15 tt 81 3(1 21 25 ;2 11
Access Ic :0mputerS 18 (1 51 2212 1i 18 (2 3i 41 (3 41 - 14 1 41 31 (2 51
dOr.....CA:
o 1,) eni.m.ve, 1, 'co. ',5 440es n
canon,......
SOURCES toss .6 t19871 Reoo,r o' 86 ',Porta .^.1,-; :5 eJca,,,, 0,-5e., en 1, vl.e Par. NC Rosemcr Tr :le., I A Von. 1.1 C S S'^ II
7' 5500Ce a^c elca' -c 4e.5s ,483 Nato-. Girt el sc 90-0 ,,vne.rabcs
7 ''994' 7, '609
^JuCd1,0" 9,e0
CLASSROOM SUPPLIES AND FACILITIES reported to the l\ISSNIE that a lack of fundim4 for equip-
ment and supplies is one of the most sei toils problem, or
Overall, studies show that science and mathemat barrier, thet encounter. (See text table 3-10.) The prob-
t receive adequate support for ,upplie, and
Lh!,es sle) fl lem Ltrett. considerably since 1077, when about 27 percent
equipment. In I 9q 3ihout 36 percent ot .111 scienLe of all science teachers trid 14 percent of all mathematics
teacher, and 27 percent of .111 mathematics teaLhers teachers cited this problem -at, SeflouS. In 1992ihout 40
FIGURE 3-4 0
Percent of high school science classes for which teachers report
various types of equipment are needed but not available, by percent minority in class: 1993
'00
00
80
70
60
52
50
43 41 40
.10 771
33
31
30
24
21
20
'1 13
11
10
-
0
Computer/lab CD-ROM player Computers Videodisc player Gas tor burners in laboratones
interfacing device
III 40 - '3 '. Less
BEST COPY AVAILABLE

FIGURE - 41
Mean percent of schools with computers that use 16+ bit computers
(80286 and higher processors): 1989 and 1.,)92
Lower secondary Upper secondary
Japan Japan
Austna..;')
;' S!Ovenla
German,.
'reinerlaras
USA
'992 1589 '992
tem.. e t eacher, rtp in ed that the COMPUTERS AND NETWORKS

percent iit 12th-i.f.rade
equipment. facilities. and supplies they had available
were only poor i or fur. See appendix table 1- i*) AlthouJi the standards r .commend that computers
The resources that are available to so.hools do not play an important rode in the cla.,sroom ci tronment,
,ippear ro be dNtributed equally across classes. Teachers many science and illathematics teachers report that
iccess ro computers is a serious problem. In I9Q2, the
report that 1,01 school science classes consist-inc ot more
than 40 percent minority students are ii re likely than
FIGURE 3-42
other hii411 schokil science classe, to need various types of
equipment that are not available, includimi. computers, Percent of students reporting
any use of computers in mathematics or
compurertlab interfacimf devices, S kleodisL and CD- science classes during the academic year.
RONI players, and tfas tor burners. t See I ii.iure 1-40.1 by race or ethnic origin: 1992
TEXT TABLE3-11
53
Percent of science and mathematics 50

50
classes reporting computer use: 1993 44 44

45
41
Grade range :5
Type of computer use 1-4 5-8 9-12
30
Ever used in class
Science 52 (24) ',..1`13 0; 40 (2 5r

20
Methemalics 7712 1) 6013 1) 4412 4)
Used in most recent ciass '0

1
Science 310 6) 4 It) 9I 4 11 1)
Malhema!,-, i 1 11
Grade R Grade 11
Wron
OV.v
111 Ott,
82
uletil in nuinher .4 ,e,,nd.11% -ilident- per computer .\ ers, k ink percent

I 7 I. w-er seciinclan schools and .20
I
i.e. iO,I the mean 0 .1, eight Appeni \ (31,1c 5. percent of upper secondary i liik had I ('i- bit cimputeri,.
It : ,porni, or Ii nd cannot he used to
. ci warmers ibiwe the capacity :an lI3\I (5 or an
reiate the neker and in( ire IN A% chid instructional prii- Apple (Ie. (See f:gure 5-41 and appendix table 3-4C.) A
rims 1-'02..lin.ng :Mr I 1 I I much lo(( er percentage ot U.S. ,chook have 16+ bit cilm-
puter, than chi in other c; mntne,, especially lapan.
TEXT TABLE 3-12 Moreov.-r. simple IN ot computers is Ili 4 stati-
c:lent ra support- the recommendations in the standard,;
Percent of U.S. students ever taught a t,ir increased and sophisticated use ot rechnoli
computer skill or programming course, INS, the use it computers in science and mathematic,
by race within grade level: 1992 classes k% ,15 quite lowin a given dd., only 1 percent ot
grades I -4 science disses, 4 percent id-. grades science
Grade
elasse-. and 4 percent i4 grade- 0-12 science cl,bses used
SKIII or course Race 5 8 11
computers a, part ot instruction. Similarly, students used
computers during theu :tt ni receni lesson in Only 0 per-
21 14 46
cent tit grades 1-4 mathematic, classes, 6 percent of
B.:acs 19 50 51
mathematic:, classes. and 2 percent ot ,rades
Oner 23 49
0-12 m.uhematics Jasses (Weiss, Matti, S, Smith. 1°O4).
(See text table 5-11.1
,-n V:h,te la 20
Generally, in 1001. computer use was highest in ele-
f- 8Ck 16 35 27
mentary mathematic,. where 77 percent- of classes used
Other 27 30 24
computers at some point during the semester: in contrast,
only 40 percent high school science classes and 44 per-
Pasca. White 11 13 7
cent of hip,h school mathematics classes reported ever
Black 17 21 13
using computers. Black students appear to be more likely
Other 18 19 13
than white students to use computers in science and
mathematic, classes. (See figure 3-42.) In 199.. a higher
Bas,c White 27 35 (9
peii-entage of black students than white stuck its reported
Black 31 38 25
having been taught each of a number of computer or pro-
Oiler it 40 25
gramming skill-. tSee text table 3-12.)
In addition to computer use, network use is beginning
to "catch on" in schools as t- way to provide more cur-
rent and realistic information for science and mathemat-
ic-, classes and to h, lp rnodel the clt ,cussiiins and inter-
FIGURE 3- 13
Percent of external network use for schools that use
external networks, by type of external network usud within school level: 1992
52
46
43
36
34 34
30
I
44 24
15 15
13 12 11
.:=271A
3
Eleme. tary Lower secondary Upoer secondary
D.3'00 0' Olt,' 0:11at.q"..es National Geoorapr,c NetworK C. :,,Serve or other e-i,ati
NNW across all grade levels: tr irefe,1, at the hieh

TEXT TASLE :1.13
sLhool level, scienntic and graphine calcul,Itors ere
Percent of mathematics classes where becomine more evident. t See text table 1-111 The laree
teachers report use of various percent ot hieh st.lbtol mathematics classes using graph-
types of calculator, by grade range: 1993 ing calculators nlav be indicative of movement nIward
the standards, winch recommend more conceptual
Grade range approaches to mathematics.
Calculator type 1-4 5-8 9-12
In 1992. almost one-half of Sth- and Ilth-grade stu-
dents reported usine calculators in science 01- mathemat-
10,1r fu,cilor 50 (2 5. '2 (3 0, 6523 ics classes (Anderson, 1991). In 1992,1-lack Sth- and
Pac:Qn 3 (0 7i 26 (2 31 28(2 31 Ilth-grade students were more likely than students ot any
1 0 4, 22 r3 0) 6712 0)
other race or ethnic °twin to report :my use of c dculat ors
Graorhrg 1 i0 3, 5 11 0) 40 (2 3)
in mathematics or science classes during the academic
\ ear. In Sth grade. 5/ percent ot black students, 41 per-
cent of white studentsind 44 percent ot students ot
another I.- or ethnic onem reportine anv use (it calcula-
, science ,r mathematics classes dunne the acade:mc
year: in 11th erade, 50 percent or black students, 44 per-
Ilanges that t.,.t.tir within (ile -Lis-man_ and mathemat-
cent ot white studentsind 45 percent of stitjents trom
it_s communities. CompuServe ,11- other e-mail is most
another race or ethnic onein reported anv use of calcula-
popular across all grade levels. (See hgure /-4; and
tors durin, the acadomic \tar t Anderson. 1995).
appendix table 5-41.1
Students appear to have become in,)re altpt at operat-
CALCULA-ros ing calculators, considering that in 1992 significantly int3re
students au each grade level got corrt:ct inswers using a
Many different t pcs iii _alculator are used in mathe- calculator on the NAEP mathematics assessment than Ifl
martcs classrooms. In 1991, four-tunction calculators were 1978. (See fieure 3-44 and appendix table 3-42.)
FIGURE 3- 44
Average percentage of mathematics problems CONCLUSION
correct on test items requiring the use of
a calculator, ages 9, 13, and 17: 1978 to 1992 This chapter examined indicators of the elementan
'CO and secondary science and mathematics learning envi-
ronment in relation to the equity and excellence stan-
90
dards. Based on the indicators presented here, the learn-
ing environment is beconung more like the one envi-
80 Age 9 (8 Items)
sioned in the standards. Iiowever, while enrollment in
0 science and mathematics courses is increasing, with few
Age 17 (11 items)
differences between the coursetakme patterns of males
60 ........ ..."' ....... and females, students from minority groups continue to
- Age 13 03 Items) he underrepresented in both science and mathematics.
And, despite the increases in enrollment, the number tit
studerits completim; 4 years of high school science and
mathematics remains low.
30
The science and mathematics teaching force is better
prepared and more involved in professional development
:3 activities than in the past However, blacks, Hispank.s.
and Asians remain underrepresented. Teachers are bewn-
nine to implement many rhe recommendatu)ns in the
science and inathemancs standards. In cc octal. high
982 "36 '990 ;92
school teachers are the group most resistant to ref,mn.
4-3'5
Despite recommendations to increase the use ot hands-tin
activities and approach subjects in more depth, high
school teachers continue to rely heavily on lectures. and
84
69
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
less than one-half assign long-term projects. In addition,

most are not using computers for science and mathemat-
ics instruction. Generally, science and mathematics class-
es are poorly supported in terms of facilities and supplies.
Computers, when available, tend to be unable to run
modern software.
Future indicators volumes could be enhanced if addi-
tional emphasis were placed on gathering data on class-
room and informal= learning environments. Currently, lit-
tle coordination or consensus exists among researchers
about what types of data need to be gathered. Accurate
financial data and additional data on state, school dis-
trict, and community goals for science and mathematics
education would provide a clearer indication of educa-
tional trends in the United States.
ENDNOTES
' Physics and chemistry courses may be offered in alter-

nate years.
Informal learning activities occur outside the school
setting, are not developed as part of an ongoing school
curriculum, and are characterized by voluntary, as
opposed to mandatory, participation. Television programs,
museums, aquariums, nature centers, and zoos are infor-
mal learning settings.
Chutef 3 References
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for

science literacy: Project 2061 . New York Oxford University Press.
Anderson, R.E. (Ed.). (1993). Computers in American schools 1992: An overview.

Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.
Blank, R.K. (1995a). State curriculum frameworks in mathematics and science: Results
from a 50 state study. Unpublished tabulations.
Blank, R.K. (1995b). State indicators of science and mathematics education, 1995.
Unpublished tabulations.
Blank, R.K., & Dalkilic, M. (1990). State indicators of science and mathematics edu-
cation 1990, Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.
Blank, R.K., & Gruebel, D. (1993). State indicators of science and mathematics edu-
cation 1993. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.
Blank, R.K., & Gruebel, D. (1995). State indicators of science and mathematics edu-
cation, 1995. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.
Blank, R.K., & Pechman, E. (1995). State curriculmn frameworks in mathematics and
science: How are they changing across the states? Washington, DC: Council of Chief State
School Officers.
Blank, R.K., Matti, M.C., Weiss, ER., Broughman, S., & Rollefson, M. (1994).
SASS by state, 1990-91 Schools and staffing sumey: Selected state results. (NCES 94-34-A
Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy. (1992). The
influence of testing on teaching math and science in grades 4-12. Boston: Center for the Study
of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy.
Legum, S., Caldwell, N., Goksel, H., Haynes, J., Hynson, C., Rwi:, K., Blecher,
N., & Westar, Inc. (1993). The 1990 high school transcript study tabulations: Comparative data
on credits earned and demographics for 1990, 1987, and 1982 high school graduates (NCES 93-
423). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Mullis, I.V.S., Dossey, J.A., Campbell, J.R., Gentile, C.A., O'Sullivan, C., &
Latham, A.S. (1994). NAEP 1992 tr,mds in academic progress (Report No. 23-TR01).
Washington. DC: National anter for Education Statistics.
National Center for Education Statistics. (1990). 1990 National science asMs/Ill'ilt
Washington, DC: NCES.
Natkinal Center ttir Education (1992). Nati( mal educatu,n 6 mgitudin.il

stud), of 1988: Second teacher follou -up study. Unpuillkhed tabulations.
86
National Center for Education Statistics. (1994). 1990-91 Schools and staffing sur-
tey. Unpublished tabulations.
Pelgrum, W.J., Janssen Reinen, I.A.M., & Plomp, T. (Eds.). (1993). Schools, teach-
ers, stukients and computers: A ,:ross-national perspective (IEA COMPED Study Stage 2).
Netherlands: lEA.
Porter, A.C., Kirst, M.W., Osthoff, EJ., Smithson, J.L., & Schneider, A.S. (1993).
Reform up cloce An analysis of" high school mathematics and scicncc classrooms. Madison,
Wisconsin: Universm of Wisconsin.
Smith, T.M., Rogers, G.T., Alsalam, N., Perie, M., Mahoney, R.P., & Martin. V.
(1994). The condition of education. 1994 (NCES 94-149). Washington. DC: National
Center for Education Statistics.
Stecher, B. (1991). Describing secondary curnculum in mathematics and science:

Current conditions and future indicators (N-3406-NSF). A RAND note presented to the
National Science Foundation, Arlington. VA.
Weiss, I.R. (1987). Report of the 1985-86 national survey of science and mathematics
education. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute.
Weiss. I.R., Matti, M.C., St Smith, P.S. (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey
of science and mathematics education. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc.
Weiss, I.R. (1994). 1993 National survev of science and mathematics education.
r:.:5n 7
Chapter 4
STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS 75
Aspirations 75
Enrollment 76
Females 77
Racial and ethnic groups 78
Individuals with disabilities 78
Coursetaking 78
Science and engineering students 80

Preparation 81
Pipeline 81
Financial support 85
Degree production 86
Sex 87
Foreign students 90
Technical students 91
POSTSECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 92

Faculty 92
Teaching and research 94

Part-time instructors 95
Instructional practices 05
Resources 96
CONCLUSION 97
REFERENCES 49
74 IND:CATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
Pos[secondm Educdion
T,,Ili.lry .0,,Ietll N 11I1I,ple 111 IN I111,1, I'l Ind statistic ; and man\ worker., trom electricians to
Lred.ze pr,ducers .4 science and technoloe% stockbrokers, use statistical kno5sled,..!e in their 1A ork.
,lennsts, en..z.ineers. rechnoloLn"ts, and edik.a- lnlormiruz con .umers It .cience and technoloC%
tors--Ilk JIit 'Vet', ,, nthel:e. and transmit knowledv,e :iti:ens are exposed to science and enwileeri% In
that in,..ream.s undcrstandin,, ot the 11.Itural world. their everyday II% es. They need to he educated al-, III
enhame" the qualm, ot life, .ind strem:t Ilea the e,,noill- h,iw 1,, interpret ientmc ,md technolo,_!.cal 11mq-illa-
ic and s, mai tabnc. Recen; l5. how,: \ er, the postsecondary tion in order to make sound decmons about Comm in
sstein has .icquired .aht tonal 1",.1e-.. ISL.,: "Idebar on activiti sudi p irentirhz, consunlin,_!, and plannin,.2
postsecondary educati,q1.) These l'( de, inv,,Ive retirement.
Preparim: %,,rkers I, apply st lence .111.! te..rhibmlo...n. I, ALhICVII.1,, eq1.11(v WIthin the science .md
he CoIllretItIve, Li, q-ker, m nearly .ill Held. must he able communit%. 'urrent ",,cietv pre"sures are increasine
to appls ,i Satiety t mathematical, ,:r1,4incerin,_!, and recruitment ot ..zroups that triditi, calk. have iseen
ba"ic science skills to pr, ,,..uLth.,n ot I, r, -,I,,,i, t v ,,,,d.
1
underrepresented in or underserved science and
and sets ices. F.,,r e \amplemyone who record. and techt ,loQs edu,ationtemales, Hacks. klispamcs.
interprets tret id. in data must comprehend III.Ithemanc, Native Americansind people with dNabilities
(Simpson & Ander.on, 19921.
FACTORS AFFECTING POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION
As the year 2000 approaches, factors both external to the postsecondary education system and internal to the sys-
tem are having a profound effect on the purposes and roles of science, engineering, and technology education. Three
of the external factors, summarized in a recent report from the Pew Higher Education Roundtable (1994), were value,
budgetary support, and technology.'
In torms of value, students, parents, and policy makers are placing increasing pressure on colleges and universities
to :aake college degrees more valuable for the labor market. Alarmed by increases in tuition and student debt, a per-
ceived oversupply of college graduates, and the notion that students graduate without learning what they need to
know, parents are asking institutions, "What exactly are we paying forr They are measuring the quality of postsec-
ondary education in terms of their children's ability to garner secure and well-paying jobs.
State policy makers are taking another look at value with regard to budgetary support. They have used reports of a
positive relationship between college education and postgraduation earnings to redefine postsecondary education as a
private, rather than public, good. They claim that students from well-off families should not have their college educa-
non subsidized at public expense. As a result, in many states public funding of postsecondary education has decreased,
and public institutions of postsecondary education have to compete with public safety, health care, elementary and
secondary education, and other services for state appropriations. This shift has affected private institutions, as well.
They are now competing openly with their public counterparts for support from charitable, corporate, and other pri-
vate sector sources.
Budgetary constraints are forcing more and more institutions to consider how changes in information technology
make the e.2.livery of quality education at a lower cost a possibility, a prospect that most have not yet fully explored.
Differences in the way people deal with technology are also making this change possible. For instance, today's high
school graduates are better acquainted and more comfortable with computer and information technologies than any
generation before them. Moreover, a growing number of adult students hold full-time jobs while attending college
and simply want an education, rather than a "campus experience."
Internal factors affecnng science, enineering, and technical education include changes in the composition of the
U.S. population. The 1990 census showed that during the 1980s the populations of Asians and Pacific Islanders living in
the United States increased 99 percent, while the number of Hispanics increased by 54 percent (U.S. Bureau of the
Caisus, 1994). In addition, the proportion of students attending college from groups that historically have been under-
served by science and engineeringolder students, females, racial and ethnic minorines, and people with disabilities
increased. In light of such factors, educators and policy makers are reexamining how better to meet society's needs and
pressures.
POSTSECONDARY POUCATION 75
STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS
A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
Students ti day a:pire to higher levels ot education
This chapter makes the following distinctions in
than their recent predecessors and are enrolling in post-
terminology: Science and technology includes all
secondary institutions in greater number:. The section
fields of science and engineering and the development
below describe: student haractenstics in terms of student
and ...se of technology; science and engineering
aspirations, enrollment patterns. and science and engi-
encompasses all natural science, engineering, and
neering coursetaking.
social and behavioral science fields: natural sciences
Include study of earth sciences, amospheric sciences, ASPIRATIONS
ocean sciences, life sciences, mathematical and com-
puter sciences, and physical sciences; social and In general, wday's high school students ,ispire tin
behavioral sciences include the social sciences and attend college and seek advanced degrees in much larger
psychology. (See figure 4-1.) E numbers than did their predecessinrs. (See sidebar on 111.1%
more students are attending college tin page 76.1 Ab.4.1t
The swniticance of these rk de- has increased because 90 percent .1 1090 h icli school sophi)mores believed that
r he influence inf technology on -oe tet \ has made science they would attend at least s. me college, compared with
and technology educat ion in finvortant contributor to about 70 pc rcent iii 1980 sophomores. (See figure 4-2 and
national econoune_ prosperity and sinizietal keen-being. appendix table 4-1.1 Almost 00 percent ot high school
I See sidebar on ternuninloge and tigure .
students stir% eyed in I 'NO said they intend to seek a 4-
This chapter cl ,n-ider, the characteristics int -tudents year or graduate degree, up from about 40 percent in
within the postsecondary systems and examines the state 1980. 01 note is the growth in the percentage of female
it science and engineering educat lOn within the context of student, who intend to earn a graduate degree. In 1980,
the postsecnindary environment.
FIGURE 4-1 FIGURE -I-2
A map of the science Percent of high school sophomores
and technology fields used in this chapt, aspiring to various levels of education,
by sex: 1980 and 1990
Male Female
Science and Technology '00
LScience and Engineering

90
Natural Sciences and Engineering
80
Natural Sciences
70
Earth, Atmosphere
and Ocean Sciences
60
bfe Sciences
50
Mathematical a-d
Computer Sciences 40
Pet/sa! Sc e-res 30
Engireeing
to
Social and Sahaviorpl Sciences

0
111
1-- Social Sciences 1980 1990 1980 1990
I High SC11001 dipioma

Psycho:v.4y
mr iCs5
III 2 yeors or ti:rir
Science and Engineering Technologies ,,(7-11.-a*
Ccheau graduate
III Graduate dcdree
1
76 INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEM:NTICS EDUCATION 1995
WHY ARE MORE STUDENTS ATTENDING COLLEGE?
One reason more students aspire to higher levels of education than in previous years may lie in students' percep-
tions of what it takes to get a well-paying job. The U.S. economy has shifted from a manufacturing-based economy,
where higher levels of education have traditionally been unnecessary, to a service-based economy, where higher lev-
els of education often are desirable. Between 1990 and 1992, the number of white-collar jobs in the United States
increased by about 1 million, while the ilumber of blue-collar jobs fell by about the same number (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 1993). In addition, since 1979, the salaries of individuals who have at least a bachelor's degree increased
at much higher rates than those who ended their education after high school (Hecker, 1992). In the past decade,
the gap in expected earnings between college and high school graduates increased by 20 percent (Pew, 1994).
This explanation is supported by a 1993 siudy that asked 1993 college tceshrnen why they decided to attend col-
lege. "Generation X" students placed more emphasis on money than did the freshmen of the baby boom generation.
In 1993, 82 percent of freshmen said they decided to attend college "to get a better job," and 75 percent said "to
make more money." In 1976, about 71 percent of freshmen said they wanted to get a better job, and 53 percent
wanted to make more money. In both 1993 and 1976, about three-quarters of the surveyed students cited a desire to
learn more about interesting things as a very important reason for attending college (Dey, Astin, & Korn, 1991;
Astin, Korn, & Riggs, 1993). N
uht 19 percent of female high school students aspired to This rate has increased because the number enrolling in
this level. compared with 31 percent in 1990. For com- collec,e within 12 months of their high school graduation
panson, MO, 24 percent ot male 111 scnoo. 1 remained steady over the period, while the number of high
mores expressed a desire to earn a graduate degree. up school graduates declined. The number of postsecondary
trom I s percent in 1980. students with limited English proficiency is growing,
largely as a result of increases in immigration from Asia,
ENROLLMENT the Pacific Islandsind Latin America (Rosenthal,
1992/1993).
Over the past 20 years, the pn,pIrtion ot hi h chool Students enrolled in college in 1991 were more likely
graduate, who go directly on to ckillege has increased from than their predecessors to be attending school part rime
49 to (a2 percent. (See figure 4-3 and appendix table 4-2.) and less likely to he 21 years old and younger. Between
FIGURE 4-3
Number and percent of recent high school graduates and number who unrolled in college: 1972 to 1992
100
3 500
90
3 000
80
Number of high school graduates
2 2 500 70
60
7, 2 000
7% 50
Percent of high school oraddates enrolled 111 collego
.10
Number ot hugh school graduates enrolled in college
30
500
,0
476 480 ' '1813 '983 "1.3?
91
POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION 77
FIGURE 4 -
Total fall education enrollment, by attendance status
and percent of students who are 21 years old and younger: 1970 to 1991
9 000 100
8 000
80
300
70
:8 6 000
50
5- 5 000
=:-3
50 -6
z
4 000
"Er 40 8
a.
.!o5
3 000
30
.1' 000
23
1 000 '0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1987 1990 1991
Full-hrne students 5 Pameme stuoents Percent of full-time students Percent of part-erne students
n/ho are 21 ,ears old and yoonger who are 21 years old and younger
PC F r9ea '3.4. .3,;,s rr

A; CP,: .3, 4
1970 and 1991. the number of postsecondary students FIGUF1E 4-5

who were enrolled part time increased from 2.8 million to
Total fall enrollment in postsecondary
6.2 million, or from 32 percent to 43 percent of the total institutions, by sex: 1970 to 1998 (projected)
enrollment in postsecondary institutions. (See fuzure 4-4
9 030
and appendix table 4-3.1 The proportion of full-time u-
dents 21 years old and younger decreased from 74 percent
8.000 Females
in 1970 to 59 percent in 1991. The proportion of part-
time students 21 years old and younizer decreased from 16 7 000
1.ercent in 1970 to 13 percent in 1991.
6 000
FEMALES
Between 1970 and 1991, there was a lanze shift in the 5 000
makeup of postsecondary enrollment. In 1970, females

4,000
accounted for only 41 percent of total postsecondary
enrollment, but they made up 55 percent of enridlinent
3,000
by 1991. (See fi2ure 4-5 and appendix table 4-4.) The
postsecondary enrollment of males increased by nearly 2 000
one-third duriniz this 20-year period, while Ole number of
telltales t unm. to college more than doubled. ' 000
1970 rj75 ' 180 185 "300 1998'

78 NDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS FIGURE 4-6

unII,Irk, Ilk' et binft and rac Iii mliIIn Total fall enrollment
seLondars Inst nut ins has i.. han,zed sin,.e the I 97Cs. in postsecondary institutions.
r2Alre 4-6 and appendi \ table 4-5 1 In I970, 111.1,k by race or ethnic origin: 1976 to 1991
op perk.ent of U.S. I:en, enrolled in pi ist secondary '2 .)00
institution". Pis look that prop, irt h n hdd i,, 79
percent nurme the inters eruml I 5 C.IN, the enrollment White
, 1 blaLks. .ind Native American, increased bs
5:5 peftent. sanlu enrollment ot %shift, II1 C,I,ed \ Plt
2 1 perLent INspite these iii,_re.1"es in enrollment. the
tital nutni-er dc._:ree- earned l'\ I he,t: nun.
i.:roups in,rea,ed onls 3 percent durini..: this period.
One reason tor this disparity is that 2-sear insaitution,
enroll particularls IitIt proportion, ot black, I fispanic. and
000
ative American pi istseck indars. 'Indent,. I :-:ee
:able 4 5 i T Ccl her, these ,_:roup, ak.counted tor 2,2 percent iC
.47?
4 the dir lhni.nt m 2-sear in-a itutton and 14 pet-Lent in

4-sear in-ntut ions. In I 90 1, ak git 50 peRent II lispank
students, 5 5 percent ,,t Nati. c .2sinerican students. and 4; H:sparnc .....
percent Kick students enrolled in IN,Necondmv ednea- LI". ...... " ..... '''''''''''''''''''
t1011 ss erc cnr,illed in 2- c.ir in,rauttons (NCES. 1994.0. Nonresident aben
In comparison, 40 per,ent iit Asian stiklent, and 3-, per- 200
cent sshite students were enrolled in 2-sear institutions.

gaoye Arnevcan
980 1984 1988 1990 91

INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES
Access postsecondary eduLat ion 1, kes to individ-
ual financial success and independence. A 1 9:-37 snide
k Fa invemther Si. Shas 19901 .howed thdt ,ttelcrits. \t
disabli;!:es may mit be atrainim2 access ro postsecondary
educanon Ill proportions equal to the 12eneral popuia-
t iononlv 2C percent of orthi ipedicallv unpaired, 14 per-
i.ent of speech-unpalred, 3 3 percent ot Ilearini4-unpaired. they u.raduate. For example, in 1991 ibklut SO percent of
.1nd 40 peftent ut vIsualls hllip.IIreLI lueh school eraduates students ssho earned a hichelor's deL:ree in .1 tield other
took at least one course in a 2- or 4-year institution with. than the lite and physical sciences took one or more
in a year of izraduathin (Fairweather & Shaver. 10901. In courses in these held,: about 17 percent of the:e took five
I 990ibout percent of .IH underuaduate studk.nt, had ir more course,. (See ticure 4-7 on paLze 79 and appendix
some form ot a disabilIty..About the same proportIon table 4-0.1 The same pattern existed ISir mathematics and
,raduate students had sotne form of disability (NSF, computer sciences course,. Howeyerlllittist all nonmajors
og4e1. The proportion ot students with disabilities in -CI- rook at least one course In the social and behavioral cl-
ence and eniuneenn,, nelds ences dittim; their underuaduate eareers; about half took
tive or more courses. Few flu incience or -ent:ineerin2
COURSETARING majors rook enL;ineerine courses. Maks were shi.Ihrly miire
hkels to have taken at least one course In ans 55 ience or
\lost students, es en those \ ho are 11, II -k_ ielICe or eni- envaneerim: field than were females. k See ',debar on
neerim.i. its, take one or 8101-C. silence course, before female ak.hievement and fiuure 4-*/
FEMALES OUTPERFORM MALES ON SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING GRADING SCALES
Females tend to outperform males in the science and engineering classroomand, indeed, in all fields. Overall, 59
percent of females who earned bachelor's degrees in 1991 graduated with a grade point average (CPA) of 3.0 or better
on a 1.0 to 4.0 scale. (See figure 4-8 and appendix table 4-7.) Only 47 percent of males earned a 3.0 GPA. Females
outperformed males in all science and engineering major fieldsthe largest disparities were in mathematical and com-
puter sciences and engineering. Males' grade, were rnim similar to females' grades in the life and physical sciences. IN
93
POSTSECONDARY ZDUCATION 79
F IGURE 4-7
Percent of 1 991 bachelor's degree recipients who took one or more courses in selected
science and engineering course fields in which they did not major, by course field and sex: 1994
94
; 83
'
78
in1,4
- 79
a^d ze:t-La-
.s .^c.a
78
4-0 êer,ng Male

111 Female
c 20 30 50 60 80 90 '00
Percent
FIGURE 4-8
Percent of 1991 bachelor's degree recipients who graduated
with a 3.0 GPA or higher, by field and sex: 1991
65 ea 63
59 59
57
49 49
46
36
Abated
On held9 tic,ence and t hernat+c a,,d Life ant/ Enolneenng Social sciences
0-qneer11cl two. ornoute, scencec scerc,io
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING STUDENTS lials with if t tigures 4-0 and 4- l and appen-
dix tahles and 4-9.) This is true particularly within the
--Cicrkc and en,unecring students have 111,111V character- natural sciences ,ind engineering. With attention to these
isocs that make them unique whi.m compared as a group unique characteristics, this section examines the prepara-
with the 11encr:il p..culation ot postsecondary institutions. iiim of xtudents who intend to maior in cience and enQi-
For instance, se% eral rnur histnincally have heen "under- neermg, fields, the flow tit students into and out ot science
represented" science and cnilineerinLI., includirw and enL!ineenni4 majors, coursetak Ino among these stu-
lemales, Hacks, Hispanics, Native Aniericansind mjmvii- dents, financial support, and deQree rroduct
FIGUR' 4-9
Percent of population that is black, by population group: 1990
S
14
8-24 'rearS oc.
F.,Cr33, :,-azuates 13
8-24 Wears 03.
schoo. graduates
e^roPed .n co,nege
18-24 years 0.0i
Sc.ence and eng.neenng 6

ea,ed bacnelor s degrees
Sc.ence and engrneermg 2

eamea doctorates
4 8 ,0
Percent of population
.
FIGURE 4-10
Percent of population that is female, by population group: 1990
S DC-OW:111On SI
18-24 o.d1
H gh SCCOO, graduates 52
yea,s ondl
-bgn scbool graduates

r0nnfiyj .rn cc ege 51
.18-24 ,,,ears ordl
'.'..ceoce and e^dnriee^^9 43

,..arêd cane,or S deo,es
7..z.ence ard nee,ng 28

earned docicrateS
20 30 40 60
Percent of population
FIGURE - 1 1
ARE STUDENTS ADEQUATELY

High school calculus and physics PREPARED FOR MATHEMATICS
coursetaking of high school seniors CLASSES?
who intend to major in natural sciences
and engineering in college: 1990 and 1993
In an international survey performed in 1989
(Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching, 1991), just 15 percent of U.S. faculty
believed that students had adequate mathematical and
quantitative skills, compared with 22 percent of
Japanese faculty members, 27 percent of Russians, and
39 percent of faculty members from Hong Kong. (See
64
figure 4-12 and appendix table 4-11.) These percep-
tions correspond closely with the results of the 1991
52
International Assessment of Educational Progress,
which tested 9- and 13-year-olds on their science and
mathematics abilities. The nations whose students
a-
33 scored the highestRussia and South Koreawere
the ones with the highest faculty perceptions of stu-
dent preparation. The nation whose students scored
20 lowestthe United Stateswas the one with the
lowest faculty perceptions.
FIGURE 4- 1 2
Calculus Physics
Percent of faculty agreeing with statements that
3 1990 m 1993
undergraduates in their country are adequately
prepared in select skills, by type of skill
and country: 1992
AC 4-
Hong Kong 'LmilW7":11 19

11.=.11=1111.111.111111 38
PREPARATION south Korea 77WWININIMMEMIENIIIIMIIIMNIMI 59
Overall, huill schiiol students who plan to mai, ir in the 1111.111.11111.1111.111111111137
natural sciences or ent:ineerini2, were better prepared in 7111.111111111111,1111111111111 32
1093 than in 1090. For example. het ween 1900 and 190-3, 'weden 11.1111.1.11111111.111111111 32
the percentai2e of Intended natural science or erwineerinu R ssia 71"`-1W322WMI 26
major, who took caIcuIu in hii4h school increased from 27
,ibout one-quarter to one-third. (See fitzure 4-11 and Meaco '11.11111111111031111 24

appendix rabic 4-10.) The prop irtti in who It lok physic,
increased hy percentavie poInts over the period. Man\ Japan 7-1-1
more students who intend to major in natural science, 11.111111.111111.11 22
.md eneineermi4 take advanced mathematics and science 7.711PAMPIMI '7

courses than student, v.ho intend some other colletze Ch'e illEMIMMEN 22
moor. (See sidebar on preparation and fh/ure 4-12.1 Israel "1/11/4"11115

11111111.111.19
PIPELINE: Australia 711-114°11"" 29

percent of male, M1111.1111 18
-i. loot rA10111, itht Mt
and IC` percem ot female, planned to study natural so- ui-iteci States -"n""r7nll 29
15
ences or enLoncermu in ciillei.ze (M:ES, 100431.
percent tt males and 70 percent ot females. throuirh. 0
Percent of faculty
iior h ItIi tk: h ttti and colleue, never expressed the inten-
I' MaIsFunal,., a- Il ,1y
tion to maiiir in the natural si_iencys or eni;ini.einv.z.
hereas iinit 4 percent it mile, .md p..rcent of temalesI
expressed tonsi,tent in.crest thromhout IliLdi sL lion 4 and

moot-Int.: iii the-c I ield. (Sec text take 4-1 1
82 INDICATORS OF SC ':INCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
TEXT TABLE 4-1
Percent of students identifying natural science or engineering as intended or actual

field of study at various points in education system, by sex: 1980 to 1986
1980: 1-ligh school sophomores 1982. Hign school seniors 1984* College sophomores 1986: College seniors
untended field) untended lieldl (actual or intended held of study) lactual or intended field of stuay)
Male Female Male Female Male Femate Male Female
4.3%
6.5%' 11%.
2.2% %-24% r.a

11,9% ".- 34%
0.1%.
5.4% 1.8%
NS8E
4.8%
0.6% 0 2%
". 1.6% OS% .
15.994 . 2'7.3%
- .0 5% 0 1%.
.14.3% ' 7%
l7W777,7771"71
0 8%
. 3:9% . 11%
re$M00714-404'1. '
-72% 7. 8,1%
Non-NS.P.E
1Fi:6777771F
2.3%. 2 8%
.
.81.1% 81.8%
1481, 7%.
58.6% S00%
11111 N,iturai s ence and eno.neer.no iNS&E;
No, "eerno d -Noo N'AE
1
FIGURE 4 13
Percent of 1980 high school sophomores identifying natural science and engineering as intended
or actual field of study at various points in the educational system, by sex: i980 to 1986
MIMI I.IIII,I fiffilit Ittlifit

High school sophomores (1980) High school seniors (1932) College sophomores (1984) College seniors (1986)
ftIttitt Ms-
Mffitt
M Stt: fitt:-
Mtttilt
tt
I Ma,e StJOent rema.,n0 ^
sa,aI Sc ence ono erg.neenrc
It Fe.; ib -_,.....oent rerrammo ,
na!_.,a sc er,ce aro eno.neer.nq
Male enter:nq ,al.,r.) 5": e-
ano erq,reertrg
er,terino
and enq êenno
sc:er,tie
Eact- figure 'eOreSentS 1 DerCent 01 the samo.e 000uiatOn

_ _
For many \ ears, educators believed that students who departments face attritionis their students switch to
eventually became science or engineering majors in college other majors, but not all face net attrition. However. the
made up their minds early, in elementary or secondary natural sciencesand, to a lesser extent, engineering--
schoolibout their career intentions. Thusinalysts are particularly susceptiHe to attrition. .According to the
assumed that, although many students dropped out of the High School and Beyond study, only 40 percent of stu-
science and engineering -pipeline- as their educational dents who intended to major in natural sciences or enJu-
careers progressed, few new entrants replaced them along neering h1f2h school sophomores were actually in a nat-
the way. HOwever, the High Schotil and Be\ i Ind study ural science or encineering tumor as cillieg(' irs.(See
(NCES, 1994a) indicates that the system is more open. text table 4-2.)
(See figure 4-13.) Many students drop out of science and Indeed, a 1991 study by the Higher Education
engineering majors, some enter, and some students change Research Institute found that only about half of students
their intentions several tunes before ch,J:ising a tumor.' who, in their first year of college, had declared or intend-
Quite a few students \\ ho major in sLience ,ir engineer- ed a major in the natural sciences f(illowed through with
ing in college decide to do so relativety late in their their plans by the time they were In or approaching their
undergraduate careers. The High School and Beyond senior year. (See figure 4-14 and appendix table 4-12.)
study (NCES, 1994a) found that about 3C percent of stu- .About percent ot engineering students, and more than
dents who \\ ere high school sophomores in 19SOInd 05 percent of students who intended to major in Erwlish,
t1110 ultimately became natural sl ence or en,ineering he lt i m,il sciences, tine arts, education, or history, fol-
majors in college, chose this direction siJmentue after lowed through with their original plans.
10:-4probably atter their would \ ear iJt c liege. See The I ligh School an, 11 I eyond study data indicate
text table 4-1.) This suggests that, if 1,1,,\ makers' ,Jbjec- that the pool ot students interested in natural science
nye is to increase the number it moors md degrees, in and engineerim, shrank most atter the senior year in
addition to emphasi:ing retentiin strategies, they sbould high school and before the sophomore year in college.
consider ways of attracting sfudents wli are turther along lust over halt ot the net decrease in the number ot stu-
in their postsecondary careers. dents is oh an actual Jr intended nialor in natural sc
Overall, many more students drop out ot natural sci- enees or c ng neer ng recurred during this period. (See
ences and engineering I Lin enter t I rse all College text table 4-2
TEXT TABLE 4-2
Percent of students whose actual or intended field of study is natural sciences

or engineering, by education level and sex: 1980 to 1986
High school (intended field) College (actual or intended field)

Sex Sophomores (1980) Seniors (1982) Sophomores (1984) Seniors (1986)
Male 27 8 23 0 14 3 11 1
remaie 10 3 10 0 6 5 4 0
SOURCE National Center for Education Statistics. (1994al High School and beyond study. 1980 to 1992 Unpublished tabulations
FIGURE 4 -1 4
Percent of 1987 first-year undergraduate students in 4-year institutions who stayed in
or switched to other (declared or intended) majors by 1991, by field of major: 1991
Engssn 17.,11111,7= 85
SOCIAL AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES'
F-ne arts 77,9
Educat.on
1-1,stoni or ooidcal science
Engineering 62
Business
NATURAL SCIENCES
AND ENGINEERING' "Ma-233:512111=
BiOlOgi Cal Sciences
Physical sciences =2ZiOriiii=6110=01KEU=Na 49
i:itinrutet sciences
Mathematical scieness
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of students
Moved to other group of malorS 111 Remained in same or like rnaior
n stIltiV 'eVCn I lit it lit li,n L onduc kid by Seymour Similarly. Tinto ( I 9SS) n.tued that students who leave .1
and I ie.itt 1'1°4), students whii switched from natural riirticuhr Collette or collet:A! malor before completini2 their
,:leFICC, .1nd entzineerint: motors to other tields most studies often do because they feel alienated trom other
.itten attrlbuted their decision t, a loss of intere-t in nal students 'it taculty or because they are unable to make the
ural science and eni:.ineermi..! coupled with increased transition from their old peer izroup to a new one. This
interest in other fields, Iiii ir quality teaLhinc!..in t' make necessary peer connecni ins may be a par-
iiitlex 'He curriculum. List course rice, .md a sen,t.' th,u ticular problem tor student- trom uroups historically under,
the c,Ifeer opt hins and rewards in natural science, and represented in science and enwneerinC. Includint! blaLks.
CnCineerintz WI're !WI kvinrth the ettiirt Hispanic-. tilt ive Americans, and females.
9
Attrition among minority students in science and engi- about one-third of graduates in 1980. The median debt of
neering may also he due to a variety of other social and these students in constant 1990 dollars increased from
academic obstacles. (For example, see Holden, 1992; about $4,000 in 1980 to about $7,000 by 1990 (U.S.
Culotta, 1992.) Among these obstacles are financial diffi- Department of Education, 1993).
culti2s, poor precollege preparation, low expectations Roughly half of 1990 bachelor's degree recipients who
from instructors, negative peer pressure, difficulty bridg- hold postgraduation occupations in the science and tech-
ing the gap between their cultural identity and the world nology labor market had college debt. (See appendix table
of scienceind poor access to information on postsec- 4-14.) Graduates employed as elementary and secondary
ondary educational opportunities. teachers and engineers were most likely to have accumu-
Reason: for high attrition among female science and lated debt during their college years. Graduates working in
engineering students may include a Lick of, or damaged computer science were least likely to have graduated with
sense of, self-confidence or self-esteem; stereotyping of debt. This debt accounted for a large fraction of some
science and engineering as "male" fields: experiences of graduates' median first-year incomefrom about 40 per-
gender bias; distaste for the competitive nature of science cent for social scientists to about 20 percent for science
and engineering education; psychological alienation; an technicians (U.S. Department of Education, 1993).
inability to get adequate academic guidance or advice; About 24 percent of science and engineering doctoral
and low faculty expectations (Frazier-Kouassi et al., 1992; students finance their education through personal sources
Seyinour & Hewitt, 1994). such as loans. About 02 percent ot science and engineer-
To encourage retention of females and students from ing doctoral students obtain their primary financial sup-
underrepresented racial and ethnic groups, some postsec- port from university sources, mostly in the form of gradu-
ondary institutions have sponsored campus-based efforts ate assistantships funded by research grants awarded by
to provide social and academic support to these groups. the Federal Government. About 7 percent of recipients
These were originally designed as stop-gap measures to receive direct Federal support in the form of competitive-
provide students with the necessary skills to succeed in ly selected fellowships or traineeships. (See figure 4-15
the existing undergraduate educational system; however, and appendix table 4-15.)
they are increasingly being implemented on a broader Of all U.S. citizens, 54 percent of white students and
scale. Some are even working with employers and ele- 58 percent of Asian students are supported by university
mentary and secondary school systems (National sources, mostly in the form of assistantships. Only 37 per-
Research Council, 1992; Matyas & Malcom, 1991).
FIGURE 4-15
FINANCIAL SUPPORT Primary source of support of science and
In the late 1980s and mrly 1990s, private and public 2- engineering doctorate recipients, by
and 4-year institutions raised tuition and fees significant- residency status and race or ethnic origin
ly in response to increasing costs and, for public institu- of U.S. citizens: 1992
100
tions, declining or flat state appropriations levels.
Between 1985 and 1993, tuition and fees in 4-year insti- 90
tutions increased by about 40 percent, in real 1993 dol- 80

lars. (See appendix table 4-13.) The percentage increase
70
was slightly more in public 4-year institutions and slightly
less in private 4-year institutions. Public 2-year college so
tuition and fees increased by about 30 percent. 50
Between 1981 and 1993, the buying power of Federal a.
40
student aid grants eroded rapidly. In 1981, the maximum
Pell grant (the main Federal grant program for low- 30
income students) covered 31 percent of the average edu- 20

cational expenses at a private 4-year institution. By 1993,
10
the maximum grant covered just 16 percent of ',oat cost.
In its place have come student loans (Blanchette, 1994). 0
Temporary Asian White Native Hispanic Black
Originally conceived as a mechanism of support for residents American
U.S. citizens
middle-income students, loans have now become the
Other
major student aid program tor low-income students. As a o:r ii.. - .xpr, 7) 1714.
'95; ' Federal
result, just under half of all bachelor's degree recipients in 1,1, , A.7.10ero,
Personal
1993 graduated from college in debt, compared with
Urvynrsity
100
86 INDICATORF OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
t.ent ot blaLk students and 44 percent of Hisr,illie lor's deuces awarded in 1901. 1 .lence and encineerinc
dents .Ire supported k university sources. tSee tictire 4-15 doctorate was awarded. i See ticure 4- 17 ind appendix
and appendix table 4-15.1 A c,imparataveh hich propor- table 4-17.1
tion I;lk,ut 77 refl.:ern) of torcicn students are supported Between 1071 and 1091, the number of science and
universit% sources. This is due, in part. to their htch enctneerinc decrees increased at all levels, except the
concentrations in fields such as encineerinc, where assist- associate decree !eve! Bacheliir's deCrees awarded in sci-
antships are prevalentind their mehethility tor Federal ence and enwneerine I n reased by 15 percent. mastet's
craduate student fellowship procrams. decrees increased 39 percent. :Ind doctorates increased
Blaci.s are more likely than other racial and ethnic ki 23 percent. By broad held, the tolloWMU trends
croups It', tinance their craduate from pers,inal emerced hem een 1971 and :
,itirces, such as loans, or other sources, such as nationally Eneineerinc decree production umeased at the bache-
,omper it ice fellowships, business 0" employer funds, and mr's. 111.Mter',. and doctoral levels. The increases
state covernments. ranced from ahmt one-third at the hachehmr's level to
almost one-half at the doctoral level.
DEGREE PRODUCTION Natural science decrees increased k 11 percent .11 the
Richelor's decrees account for the vast maionty ot all bachelor's level. 24 percent at the master's level. and
science and encineerinc decrees awarded in ;my civen 17 percent at the doctoral level.
\ e,tr. 1See stdebar for internatt,mal comparisons and IIQ- Social and hehavior.d sciences decrees increased by IC
ure 4-1(1.1 For every 14 science and encineerinc 1-ache- percent at the bachelor's level, 4 percem at the mas-
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS
A greater proportion of 22-year-olds in the United States and Canada complete college than in any of the 14 other
countries from which compa;able data are available. However, the proportion of individuals who earn natural science
and engineering bachelor's degrees is lower in the United States and Canada than in Bulgaria, Japan, and South
Korea. (See figure 4-16 and app-ndix table 4-16.) The proportion of males who earn natural science and engineering
degrees ranges from a high of about 11 percent of male 22-year-olds in japan to a low of about 3 percent in Italy. In
the United States, about 7 percent of the male college-age population earns bachelor's degrees in these fields. The
countries with the highest proportion of females who earn natural science and engineering degrees are Bulgaria, the
United States, and Canada. In Bulgaria, the proportion of females earning degrees in these fields is more than double
that of the United States or Canada.
FIGURE -1 13
First university natural science and engineering degrees awarded as a percent of

the 22-year-old population, by sex and country: most current year (1989 to 1992)
10 10 09 0 Oa
07
ELuara S7,,th japan Canada Germany Uated Prar,ce LM.tee Syeder 3eece Seam Poland S,..,,zer. Italy Ausma
States og do rn 'and
KOlea
.1 Male
Femam
BEST COPY AVAILABLE

ter', level. and 10 l'crt ent it the .loct,.ral el. ,ent the bachelor's de.2.rees, ,1\\ ardei in the natural ,li-
appenilx tahles 4-1 4-1Q. and 4-20.) ence,, and itht 10 percent ot enwneenn.: hachelor's.
F.% en th'll,211 the 11`sollIte number ot cietu.e ni en._4- appendiN I tble
neerine,let:ree's .uvaried ro.se suktantialk between 1071 Female, ako earned the Malt MI V 1t ma!,ter',. Lle12,ree,
and 1°0 I ience and ent4ineernat bachelor', .1e,ree, .mardei in all field,: h, :ever, they earnei tnt i0 per-
proportion ,'t ioral baccal.mreates: they cent ot ,cience and encincerint:. master', .leuee!, t NSF.
a,_counted ter ;') percent ,1 .111 bat.calaureak. s, ill iriei m 1004,1). Females earned 54 percent .4 the ma,t deuces.
1971. hut , nl% ;1 percent in 1001. t Sec n.zrur awarded in the 'octal and behavioral cience,, IO percent
The pr, portion .4 sscience and ent.:IneennIz ot natural ,,,tenk.e:s ma.ster., decree', and 14 percent
de,ffee, t nej ak,ut the ...ime--almos4 one-quarter 11 .111 ent2aneerin- ma,ster......let:ree,...k See appendix table 4.10.)
111.1,ters .jcree. On the t her hand. and en,u- .Althou,2.1) temale, earned ;7 percent , 1 all doctorates,
neerin tilLrea.sed percentalle 4 iii doctor- they earned urst percent 01 doctorate. in 'science and
av, aRk ..cience and en....!ineerint: ioctorates .1..counted enizineerint.i t NSF, 1004,11. Female!. earned 4 percent .4
tor 01 percent ot .111,1ot:coral .1c4rees. awarded in 1071 doctorates in the ,k,L1,d and behavioral ...cient.es., 20 per-
Ind .11', nit 04 r crc ciii in 1001 cent ot doctorate, within the natural science:, and 0 per-
cent ot encineerin4 doctorates. lSee appendix table 4-20.)
SEX. A it holl.:11 Ic111.11e c.11-11ei the 111,11,4u ot baehel,4', The t_!ap bet w:en t.le number ot ,cience and em.:ineer.
in all cadenth. tieli in 1001, the\ earned 1114 deLlrees, awarded to temales, ye1,41, MAC,. .11 .111 deL;ree
.nlv ahout 44 percent ,4 .cien-.:e and en4ineernw bache- level, ha, narrowed over the 20 \earmostly because
lor', t NSF. 1004.11. Females earned 50 percent ,4 the putp,,rt ion ,t. males. who e,u-ned dellrees. in thoe
cii and beha !oral ,cience, bachel,,C, de$2ree.s, 41 per- FIGURE 4-18
FIGURE 4-17 Science and engineering degrees awarded
as a percent of degrees awarded in all fields,
Science arid engine wing degrees awarded, by degree level: 1971 to 1991
by degi ee 1971 to 1991
70
_
-
000
60
Dootocai -
.2',0 000
Bachelor s
30
...........
.yJ000
Master's . .....
--------------- - ......................
coo" Associate
..............
Doctoral
Associate
97, '979 '983 "187 991
.)75 '993 ,137

88 INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1 9 f.": 5
declined, \kinie the proportion telltale, I nk. Ii Ned. At the doe tor.d level, Idrue decline in the numher it
ft.:we 4-1') liii arpendiN table 4-2 1 .1 nidle, enrolled in ,clence and ellilinecrin.z rather than
.,, t ;1., -port ,-t i leIllIk s in increase in the nianl-er , temale, enrolled In ,clence
eArned And enemeerme ieree narrowed and enwneenni.znarrowed the t4.tr. iii 1,1, the pRipor-
nio.t dt thy Isachelor%, le% el. In 1071. 12 t kin lit the kindle, who earned science and erwineermi2
\ er,us 5 female, per hundred 22 -%edr-,,k1, ft:Lk:IS ed .1 doctorate, reindined !Lit mo-t tI the period hetween
hunk de-..r.rec III ,..tence.111,1 en-,Inceriti,..:. 5% 1001. 10 107 I md 1 001 .
male, %er-u, teindle, rer hundred 22 Sedr-, dds
in science and RACE AND ETHNIC ORIGIN. I;lack, and Hispanic,
remain underrepre,ented Ill -,eience and en,.:Aneerintl. In
I. d1th,1(1,41 Kick, /11.Ide up al,,,ut 14 percent ot the
FIGURE 4-19 collet.4e,n2e population, they earned Wer rereetlt
the science dnd eni2incerinC bachelor', del2rce, ci interred
Science and engineering degrees
awarded per hundred U.S. population. to U.S. citt:en,. (See fli.:fire 4,20 and appendlx tAble 4-22.1
by degree level and sex: 1971 to 1991 Alter .1 dec line in the 1 0 I he numher , 1 scIence And
hachelor', sleuree, .155 aRled 1`)111
Bachelor's degrees per hundred U.S. population. 22-year-olds
returned I(1 107 7 level', RILL. recetved total 1 lust it,
more se It.1102 and en,,ineetm,2. l'achelor%, de,.2ree, in 100 I
Male than m 1077. tSee appendtN table 4-221
SunilarlY, 1 it-pantc., made up I 1 percent ot the col-
populdtion, hut earned not qrate 5 percent ol
... ,ctence and eranneerim:. decrees; however, their repre-
"
. ......
Female
... ..............
scram ton 11,1, incred,ed markedly. (See ,idchar on con-
centration of entmleenne, deuce, ,md twures 4-21 and 4-
FIGURE 4 -20
975 '979 '183 '187 '991
Number of science and engineering bachelor's
degrees awarded to students in underrepresented
Master's degrees per hundred U.S. population. 24-year-olds racial and ethnic groups: 1977 to 1991
45 000
JO 000
':-]
15 000 .A
........... .
............
.......... .. ......... .... Fe.r.;;;; 30.000
.375 .483 4991

25 000
20 000
I
Doctoral degrees per hundred U.S. population. 30-year-olds
15 000
/
Male '0 000
II
5 000
Female .. 0
1977 1979 1981 1985 1987 1989 1990 1991
Nat.ve Ame-c
,k3
H1SDan,C
111 Black
A FEW SCHOOLS AWARD MOST ENGINEERING DEGREES TO MINORITIES
In 1993, blacks and Hispanics each earned about 4 percent of engineering bachelor's degrees (NSF, 1994e).
Roughly one-third of these degrees earned by blacks were granted by just 10 colleges and universities. (See figure 4-
21 and appendix table 4-23.) Five of these institutions are historically black colleges and universities, and two offer a
doctorate in engineering. Similarly, in 1993, just 10 postsecondary institutions conferred 41 percent of the engineer-
ing bachelor's degrees aarded to Hispanics. Nine of these institutions are located in states or territories with large
Hispanic populations. (See figure 4-22 and appendix table 4-23.) E
FIGURE 4-21
Ten colleges and universities that award the highest number of bachelor's degrees
in engineering to blacks: 1993
Mastac husenes
Institute ot Technology
10
, 9 Pratt Institute
a CUNY City College
5 - Howrel University
anNooTrtach ChanricoalilnsataAtgneucnuilvtuerrasio
4
\ North Carolina Stat. University at Aleigh
Georgia Institute of Technology
3
Southern University
Prairie View
and A & M College et
A & M University
Beton Rouge
Tuskegee University
FIGURE 4-22
Ten colleges and universities that award the highest number of bachelor's deg ees
in engineering to Hispanics: 1993
Massachusetts Institute
of Technology
6
California Polytechnic
State University. SLO
9 1 University of Puerto Rico Mayaguez

5 2 Universidad Politecnica de Puerto Rico
New Mexico State University
7 4, University of Miami
University of Texas at El Paso
Texas A & M University 10
3 Florida International University
University of Texas at Austin
'JEST COPY AVAILABLE

22.1 Hispanics earned 5r) per, ent more ha, hel, a's degrees Black females earned about the same number ,,t science
in science ;Ind engineering in 191) 1 than in 1977. and engineering di.ktorates as Hack nmles in I992the
Over this same period of tune, the number ot sk, tem e number ot Hack females earning doctorates increased
and engineering bachelor's degrees awarded to groups not slightly and the number of black males earning doctorates
underrepresented in science and etwineering remained rel- decreased slightly between 1982 ,md 1992. (See figure 4-
atively c,mstant overall. Although the number of science 23 and appendix takle 4-25.) Although Hispanic females
and engineering bachelor's degrees awarded It Asians more were earning increasingly more engineering doctorates,
ill,- tripled, the number of degree awarded to whites the total number of doctorates they earned still lagged
dect :ased by 6 percent. (See appendix table 4-22.1 behind the total number of doctorates Hispanic males
Blacks .ind I lispanics are even more underrepresented earned. (See sidebar Im diversity .md figure 4-24.)
at the master's degree level than at the bachelor's .md
still more underrepresented at the doctor ii level. In 1992. FOREIGN STUDENTS
blacks earned just 2 percent ot the science and engineer- Between 1972 and 1992, tlle number of science and
ing d k klrat es awarded to U.S. cit lams, and Hispanics engineering doctorates .marded to foreign students by U.S.
earned about 3 percent. (See appendix table 4-24.) postsecondary institutions more than doubled, attilom2h
the number awarded to L.S. citi:ens declined slightly. (1-;ee
FIGURE 1-2 3 tigures 4-25 and 4-26 ,md appendix table 4-26.) In 1972,
Science and engineering doctorates awarded foreign students earned 2k7 percent of science and
to blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans, neerme doctorates; by 1992. they earned 38 percent.
by sex: 1982 to 1992 The science and engineering field with the highest
300 proportion of foreign graduates is engineering. Foreign
Blacks
950
200
Males
ARE POSTSECONDARY INSTITUTION'S
DOING ENOUGH ABOUT DIVERSITY?
-2 150
......
100
Females
Despite a large postsecondary educational infrastruc-
50
ture and perhaps 20 years of effort to diversify the sci-
ence and engineering workforce, few institutions are
982 1983 1981 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
producing large enough numbers of black and Hispanic
300 doctorates to achieve true diversity. In 1992, universi-
Hispanics ties awarded only 5 percent of science and engineering
250
doctorates to blacks and Hispanics, collectively (NSF,
20()
Males 1993b). That year, although 366 postsecondary institu-
2 150 tions awarded one or more science and engineering
.........
,co ..... doctorates, nearly two-thirds of these institutions
50
.
Females
awarded no doctorates to blacks, and fewer than half of
these institutions awarded even one science and engi-
'982 1983 1984 1983 1985 198: 1988 1989 4990 1991 1997 neering doctorate to a Hispanic. (See figure 4-24.)
Diversifying the science and engineering workforce
900 may be possible only if postsecondary institutions
Native Amencans
750
increase access to science and engineering study.
Blacks and Hispanics come from backgrounds histori-
cally overrepresented at the lower socioeconomic stra-
ta, at lower household income levels, and among fami-
lies living in poverty. Students from low-income family
Males
.......... Fem;1"e;
............
'982 1983 1984 1985 '986 '987 1988 1989 '990 ,991 ,992
backgrounds of all races and ethnic origins complete
college at lower rates than those from higher income
families. For example, 25 percent of blacks who gradu-
ated from high school in 1980 and who are from fami-
lies in the top socioeconomic quartile have since
obtained bachelor's degrees. Only 8 percent of blacks
from the bottom quartile have completed college. II
,tudent, etirned kout 01 percent of ill ent.tineennt; di c TECHNICAL STUDENTS

iorate, in 1002. In the nAturil ene. litreien
tcchnlc,11 trtunin,2 ph\ An Import,int
e,trne,1 41 percent ot the di 4. torme.., And In the i Liii And
role in the A-dm the Limed :.-1.11e, tit Ithunt.un tnd
kehtivit-r.d tence,, thee etirned .2', percent. In non-.0-
.15Ivance it, economic ton in the %%odd (Collins.,
ence and .cnt2ineerinu itld. torewn ,tudent, e.trned only
(Intry, & Cruis ley. 100;1. The ino,t common types
17 percent ot the tioctortue,. 'The inmorltv Iitreittn
dents stud% ...ctence It Id enLtIncerul,2 In the 1..tuted
tate!.. tire from Ast.i. FIGURE 4- 25
The opportututtes It home kir i11.111V Ii recrl .Cience Science and engineering doctorates awarded,
And en,_tineerint2 ctord recipient..
i inct,tied Jttnin by citizenship of recipient: 1972 to 1992
the ra,t 20 \ ear, em, the economic-. 1 nun% l
000
ticularly those in Ala, Like exp inde.1 A- t reult, more of
them: -.tudent, Ire rerurnint2 hi tine th.tn \ Unknown citizenship
In 1070. l'rt tut 54 percent ot the tt.ret,,n ,cience :0 000

lictorme wciptents rimmed to ..1.1% in the l'tuted
St,Ites firer t...tr.idtitit ion, mostly tit .ic.deint,I to-
in,lustr.. In 1902, .11-out 44 penent pl,tnned to in (he 15.000
'lured tNSh 1')0;c

;- 10 000
FIGURE 4 - 24 5.000
Number of institutions awarding science and

engineering doctorates, by race or ethnic origin
of recipient: 1992 0
1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992
nstitutions awarding
366 , Jo. Na
doctorates
Hispanics 160 FIGURE 4 -26

Proportional distribution of science and
-
Institutions engineering doctorates awarded, by citizenship
awarding 142
of recipient: 1972 to 1992
one or more 100
doctorates to.
90
Native III
58
I Americans 80
In&
70
rttt
141soaniCS 113 60
50
Institutions
77
awarding 40
,.ICMT. 4
0!
10 or more
30
doctorates to'
'4,11 .e 20
Americans
10
1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992

Number or institutions
FIGURE .1-27
THE CARNEGIE CLASSIFICATION
Total number of engineering technology
degrees awarded, by degree level: 1975 to 1991
The Carnegie Classification, developed by the
yin 000
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching (1991), groups the 3,600 postsecondary
institutions into 11 categories, based largely on their
Associate
academic missions. The classification includes all col-
leges and universities in the United States that are
degree-granting and accredited by an agency recog-
nized by the U.S. Secretary of Education. Used as a
key resource for academe, it aids in assessing the
changing state of postsecondary education and as a
way for campus officials at the respective colleges and
.............................. universities to define a niche in relation to other post-
Bachelor's
secondary institutions.
Colleges and universities are divided into the fol-
" ................ lowing categories: research universities, doctoral uni-
Doctoral versities, master's (comprehensive) universities and
Masters
colleges, baccalaureate (liberal arts) colleges, associate
'975 1177 19 ;'9 1191 10113 1985 1987 1989 '991 of arts colleges, professional schools and specialized
.
institutions, and other specific groupings. Institutions
are classified according to the highest level of degree
they award, the number of degrees conferred by the
discipline, and, in some cases, the amount of Federal
tehnical degree awarded .ire in engineering technoll,-
research support they receive and the selectivity of
gtes. (See ticure 4-27 and appendix table 4-27.) Other
types of technical deree Ilklude science technologies, their admissions.
Lllmmunications technologies, and health technologies.
During the past 15 years, the number of students who POSTSECONDARY LEARNING
earned technical degrees and cert if Icates increased at all ENVIRONMENT
degree levels (NSF, 1994a).
In 1991, most students %silo studied engineering tech- In 1994, there '.yere 3,60C' postsecondary institutions m
nolowes received associate degrees, as opposed to any the United States. iSee sidebar tor definition of Carnegie
,,ther type of degree. Between 1975 and I QQ1, the num- (classification.) ThIS WA, a net increase of about 200 insti-
ber ot engIneering technology associate degrees increased tutions since 1957. (See appendix table 4-28.) The
by 46 percent, although the 1991 level is a drop from its Jeatest increase was among 2-year colleges, with a net
peak level in 1982. Bachelor's and master's degrees in this increase of more than 1,20 institutions. In 1994, 2-vear
held hay: doubled and tripled, respectively. (See sidebar institutions accounted for a full 40 percent of all p)stsec-
techn ians.) ondary institutions: this was the largest single institutional
category. (See figure 4-2S.) Doctoral-u,ranting institu-
TECHNICIANS ARE NOT tions, which make up tnlv 7 percent of the postsecondary
JUST JUNIOR SCIENTISTS schools, award the largest share or bachelor's, master'sind
doctoral st. icill c miii cmlincerirn; do..!ree, (NSB, I ÌO;
In a 1993 study of science technicians, Barley and
Bechky found that, while technicians often work with
FACULTY
scientists and engineers, they are not junior scientists
and engineers, nor do they perform routine tasks.
Instead, their work emphasizes skilled technical applica- The representatlon ot blacks and I lispdnic, i I,Iwer
tions, which require a significant understanding of the within the natural H.:lent:es and engineering fields than in
fundamental science and engineering underpinning of either dle social ,111,1 behavioral hcierlce1, or non-science
their trade. Because scientists and engineers, on one and -engineering helds. (See figure 4-29 and appendix
hand, and technicians, on the other, employ comple- table 4.21).) For e \ ample. blacks make up abtlut 5 percent
mentary sets of skills, the division of labor between the of all postsecondary taculty. but only il-out percent ot
two occupational groups is more collaborative than hier- natural suences toLult \ and less than percent of faculty
archical (Barley Cs( Bechky, 1993). in engineering. Females ,ire most underrepresented in
FIGURE 4 - 28 FiGURE 4-:

Institutions of higher education, Percent of full-time faculty
by institutional type: 1994 who are black. by field: Fall 1987 and Fall 1992
Doctorate-granting
institutions 7',
Master s -
TWO-year granting
colleges institutions
41% 15%
5J
52
4
36
3
Bachelor 5-
grantino 28
) , institutions
Z7, 18%
:14,17;
Tribal
colleges 1%
Specialized granting 1987 '992
institutions 19%
PiaineeiiN 1111 Ne4,3i or,cec
1111 No- ann ?-ci .ee, nu
eneaneei Althom1k the\ make up akiut i%ne-third ininoritY efoups, or disabled. Fiq- example. black,. and
po,tse,ondary tacultv they account t,1- .11'0111 I :1 per- Hispanics collectively account tor .1 'null percent.nz.e ot
L'ent 01 faculty in the natural science, and onk about all science and enwneerint.! docroral recipients. (See the
percent ot enwneerinil .acult k See litzure and sectiirn on deuce production on
.tprendi. tal,le 4-10.1 The difficult \ rai.ed underrepresentation doe, not
)11c.' ,111110.111V that riist,cdonddry instituti,n, have in end 11, Id) successful recruitment ot .1 s.aistactory candi-
liver,ityin,, their worktirce is the small pool ot appli, date. Instead. the hurden transterred to the shoulder, k
Int, 11ho are temale, members ot rakrial and ethnic the new recruit. Many vounu facult member. from
FIGURE 4-3 0
Percent of full-time instructional faculty who are female, by field: Fall 1987 and Fall 1992
36.5
15
29 1
24.8
17 0 16 7
16.6
15 4
25
59
'4*
-..i
Eiigireer â Sc ence and erioiree..,, Iatura, sc C^Ces Social and Non-science ana
cenai.iorai sciences eiigineering tolai
1987 II 1902
94 INDICATORS OF S CE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
underrupresented tre,luentk tind themselves er- .1nd behavioral sciences. (See appendix f able 4- I .1
\\ helmed n itli conunittec assiaunents, xi racurrk ular I {owe% er, SLIt hm natural sciences, the pr,Iportions I fac-
t \ It Ie.. and other responsibilities retleciiii heir ulty eni2.P..:ecl primarils vaned kidek, from
tion rok model,. In addition, limited u pectanous about 45 percent of Itle science faculty, to about 4 per-
alienathrn experienced durintt, collette year, somet Imes cent of mathenmtics. Ab,mt 24 percent ot facolty in the
reemer2es, persists. or crows 1.t.'t trC ,It I he factIlIv level natural sciences cited research as their principal activity,
11.inn.wa, I 002, and Ei:ko\\ ct al., 1904). Nlan\ compared with 16 percent in endineerintt. ,md only 1,2
experts belie\ e that these problems will exist until a criti- percent social and behavioral science,.
cal mass ot taculty trom tinderrepresented :Jour, is In doctorate-ttrant int; institutions. I., t v in science
aclueved qta. I LiL) 31. Ind endineerintt typically cli. and twi,
courses per semester. In master's- and bachelor's-de:tree-
TEACHING AND RESEARCH crantinc institutions. faculty in these tields teach
The strutzcle to priori f time and resources between between two and three courses in averace. In 2-year
teachirlit and research continues in postsecondary institu- in.titut ions, faculty teach between three and liur c,qirses.
tions today. In a 1902 stUdylbollt I ot LS. fac- tSee appendix table 4-12.1
ulty in all fields favored teachinu over research, compared Academic research as a primary Institutional mission is
ith less than halt ot taculty, about .ne-third most c,minonly found amony docti,rate-rantinc institu-
(.1erman taculty, and about one-cli arter of lapait's i.k1111\. tions, ssluch account tor onls percent ot postsccon.lan,
t See huure 4- 31.1 institution.. In 2 ear institutions and bachelor's-tJantinc
\lost postsecondary faculty in the United States. HI .111 institutions. which account for nearly 60 percent ot the
t ICUs. t_lled teachInt: their principal Job actn Ity. Tlt .600 postsecondary institutions in the United State.,
proportion, ot faculty v,ho indicated teachinc as their pri- faculty interests and the reward and tenure system tre-
mary respomtbility vaned amontt the science fields by quently reflect their :it-eater teachinc missions.
only about I c2 percentatze pointsfrom aktut 6 percent
in the natural sciences to about 7 1 percent in the social
FIGURE 4-32
FIGURE 4 -31
Percent of engineering departments
Percent of all faculty whose interest
(electrical, mechanical, and civil only)
lies pr;-narily in teaching versus research,
requiring or offering courses in communications
by country of faculty residence: 1992
to faculty and graduate students,
Russia caNIMINEIM IIIIMMEMENEMBENIMII by size of department: 1992
Courses offered
Chile LZEIMallESENIEMEIMMEMOMMININERE
53
Mexico -.Z11111611611111111111111.111.1111=1.1 Tr, faculty
32
0^.1e0 States '_Millinalnill.111111MMINIMOSEMINIMMI
Brazil ::440/111112aiMMOMINIMEMIEUMMINIM
Australia riMIMEIMEMIIIIIIIIIIMELMEMEI TO graduate
Hong Kong 2zma1.11.1fflECOMMIN students Milliff3 31

England _...Z.:11EMMEREMEIMMENMEME
Courses required
South Korea -Z111111SIMIMINEMEMIIIIII....10=11111.
Of faculty 111 6
Israel ":73116131111ES;211.1=111.1.1=1Martaill
9
''ermany -aliffilIMMENIELIMMINMEIM=MMIIN
S,,eden 39
Of graduate
Japan '21MEMMOMMEinnMMEMIMMEMBEI :tudents 24
The Netherlands -1IGEMEIMMEMIZMEMEMOIMIll

20 40 60 80 00 a 20 60 80 'JO
Percont of faculty Percent
Researcn Tent-r,0 Larder depanments

.more than 20 fac,,:t%
Smaller departments
.20 or fewer faculty,
10
POSTSECONDARY COLIC ATION 95
'nlyersit L ik IL I hl Prole, t
PROJECT KALEIDOSCOPE PROVIDES kaleidosc:ope I ,k.-e sidebar on Protect K.Ilehloscope), si
NEW PERSPECTIVES dents ha% e .maly:ed H ii chenustr% and hewht---kcieht
data iii i trier to establish the equations needed to deter.
Project Kaletdoscc,re (1991), which begm in 1989, mme the level it in deli\ err till' C.111cer patients under-
is a collaborative effort to analyze and reform the cur- Lhernot her.ipv.
rent structure of undergraduate science and mathemat- I it iWcyer, overall, ,,nk a small percenta,ie ot science
ics. Supported by the National Science Foundation and eneincerin classes make us,- itt a tb ,rat/iry or prob.
and various grants, the project is a consortium of presi- lem-solvm,2, format; instead, they rek most IY u 1-1 lectures.
dents, deans, and faculty in mathematics and the nat- 1),y neld, the laborator\ or problem-sok ift_t tonna( I, Mo.'
ural sciences from liberal arts colleges and other pre- likely to be used in ent:Aneerin,, and lea,r likeh to be used
dominately undergraduate institutions. The consor-
in the ',ILIA and l'ellavioral sciences. The tormat's use
tium recommends revitalizing introductory undergrad-
varies swilincantly by instirutkr1 type across fields. Rif
uate science and mathematics courses, supporting fac-
abollt 0 percent ot all science and
ulty in their role as teachers and scholars within the
enilmeerin. classes at bachelor's-rantine institutions
community of learners, and providing adequate science
used laboratories and problem-solvinQ 2S per-
facilities and equipment.
cent eni2.ineerin,2, classes at these institutions used the
luM111.1t.Sec figure 4-;; and appendix [Ale 4- 1 hi
PART-TIME INSTRUCTORS contrast, orth bout percent ot the eneineering cla-ses
,itne teaching at postsecondary institutions is per- doctorate-erantim, institutions used this tormat.
Iormed h a-aduate students and part-time instnictors. Still, many underraduate mathematics tnaiors have
Akita in IC inatheinat ics ,ourses at bachelor's-degree-
I opportunities to perform chscovery-based aLt [vales,
:Jawing institutions is taught by a Ilradt.hlte student. about including rese;irch protects and senior protect, or theses.
4 in IC ,it these .'oures at 2-vear Institut ton- are taught by (See figure 4-4 and appendix table 4-35.) Doctorate-
pan-time tacuh. Many ot these instructors have little t ir granting institutions are more likely than other types ot
no tormal preparation tor the classroom; moreo.er. m.mv institutions to allow undergraduate mathematics inaiors
eraduate teachine assistants are not native Enghsh speak-
ers. (See section (m foreign students on page 90.1 FIGURE 4-33
lowever, postsecondary institutions ,Ire taking steps to
enhance teaching by part-tune instructors and teaching Percent of classes that use a laboratory
or problem-solvine format, by type of institution
assistants. Today, 17 states require public ci illeee, and field of faculty: Fall 1992
,iniversities to certitY that their te.h.hing assistants are
competent in English (Chronicle ot Higher Education,
Bachelor s-granting
1994). Almi, some engineerm departments are requiring
Social and
that their taculty ,mdior graduate students take colurse, in terleen
TwO-near
communications. These courses may cover teaching tech- N Master s-granting
niques, academic or career advising, English language Doctorate-granting

skillsind American customs and hehaviiir. About 33
Non-science
percent of mechanical. electrical, and civil engineering and -engineering
departments require their graduate students to take com-
munications-related classes. 1See tieure 4-32 and ;ippen-
dix table 4- ; 3 .. _a rge departments, those eploying
m
more than 20 taculte members, are more likely than small Natural sciences
departments to otter and require these course,.
I NSTRUCTIONuL PRACTICES
Engineering
EtfeL t ice science and engineering education requires

hat pi istseci aidary institutions enable students to make
connections between in-class learning and real-world sit-
Pencent oasSes
nanons« hether in the laboran Ty or in the held. Some
postse(.ondarv are beginning to put this t% pe
ii hands-on approac h into pia, t RI instance, it the
FIGURE 4 - 3 4 \ )1 course. lain i-,itory or pras rrt Ibler0,5,1\ up,

Percent of mathematics departments experience is not, in itself, a ;_marantee that students will
offering research opportunities to undergraduate challeneed b\ and eneaeed in their sl ience and mei-
mathematics majors, by type of neerine studies. The sclentitic research society, Siema Xi
project and institution: 1990 (1990), reports that laboratory experiencesparticularly
at the introductory levelslack imaeination and are rou-
1 28
tine and dull. Ian\ laborah.ty mvestwations make ,jouw.
science seem like tollowme a recipe in a cookbook:
t :,rroiect 36 Students learn that it they repeat the stcp, outlined in
. thesis
the laborator\ manual. the\ _:el the proper ouRstme.
23 Instead, the laboratory tormat ,h,,uid Instill understand-
ine throueh discovery.
RIJ,den and TOhla 1`)L) I I found that class-
room atmosphere tends tit dampen the spirit ot intellec-
37
tual adventure. They sas that interactive, cot Terative
searcn 47
learnme experiences take distant hack seat to passive
,iiCts
instructismal formats. Introduityrs classes tend to feature
59 the pr,ressJ,r throueh .1 series ,t prisblem, that
students are expected to record in their notebooks and
20 40 60 intmic on homework prohlems. This approach. alone
Percent with the rapid pace ot the courses, laree class si:es, and a
5 Bacnelo-s-cirant.nq lack ot exchanee amont, students and with faculty, never
Mas..er sgrantiria allows students to see science and etwineennu as a
DOctorategrantinq
1111
process of discovery (Simpson & Anderson, 1Q921.
i RESOURCES
,pportunitie, ti eneasze in research. Nfaster's-erantine

Much of the storehouse of research equipment and
in,titutions are more likely to otter senior projects or the-
instrumentation owned by colleees and universities is not
ses than are other institutions. Bachelor's-usannni.: insti-
used for undereraduate instruction. Of all of the equip-
tutions are more likely than other Institutions to require
ment and instrumentation valued at between $10,000
,alculus sections to perform \mune activities. t4roup pro-
and Si million owned by doctorate-eranttne institutions
tects, ,ind csimputer assienments. k See appendix table -t-
in 1959. just under two-thirds was used only in research.
ill and the sidebar on calculus reform.)
See fieure 4- i5 and appendix talle 4-17.) Just ;- percent
REFORM IN CALCULUS CLASSES
In 1986, a national calculus reform effort was born at a conference at Tulane University. The conference empha-
sized three main ideas:
Courses should promote conceptual understanding and the application of calculus to open-ended problems
rather than focus on rote implementation of symbolic algorithms.
Calculus should be geared to the needs of average studentsstudents for whom some command of calculus is
necessary for further learning in their majors.
Students should be engaged in doing calculus as active learners.
To accomplish these goals, conference participants recommended a change in instructional techniques and the
active use of technologyparticularly computer technologyin learning (Leitzel & Tucker, 1994). Based on these
ideas, in 1988, the National Science Foundation began funding calculus reform efforts across the Nationefforts that
have begun to make an impact. In 1992, just 11 percent of all postsecondary institutions reported that they were
engaged in major reform of their calculus courses (Leitzel & Tucker, 1994). By 1994, however, that proportion had
doubled.
Yet, as of 1990, few calculus courses embodied the activities advanced by the calculus reform movement. Of all cal-
culus course sections offered in 4-year institutions, about 10 percent had some writing component, about 8 percent of
sections used computer-based projects, and just 3 percent used group projects. III
111
FIGURE 4-35 ment growth in the United States over the periodare in
Percent of college and university equipment and retail, clerical, and maintenance areas, requiring little or
instrumentation at doctorate-granting institutions no advanced preparation in science and technology.
used for instruction or research: 1988 to 1989 However, occupations requiring training in natural sci-
ences and engineering are expected to experience favor-
Instruction able growth between 1992 and 2000. Of course, projec-
only 3%
Predominantly tions must be interpreted with caution, because they are
instruction 5%
based on models that assume previous trends will continue.
Reviews and studies on the skills requirements of cur-
Predominantly
research 29% rent and future jobs reveal little overall change in the
skills required for particulai occupations and no dramatic
shifts in demand for skilled labor for the workforce of
2000 (Levin, 1993). However, some experts believe that,
in order to remain competitive, employers will need
workers with a greater depth and breadth of skills who
can rethink and reorgani:e the way that goods and ser-
Research
only 63% vices are produced (Levin, 1993; Commission on the
Skills of the American Workforce, 1990).
U.S. postsecondary science, engineering, and technical
education should be able to fulfill future demands for
foso',..mmtatoo ara onurelem 0,1,30 C.011C1 -; DC:C .- skilled workers. Despite some problems, the condition of
1339 399 reseaq.1.ue,10,o,o9 cokaqes ard ,so n 1,e nalaa. Scer,o,
ono aNneemq Irrxn 1988 to 1989 postsecondary science, engineering, and technical educa-
SOURCE Nat.c.nai Sc.orce i'ousoator, 991. CAvactonsics 0, soanay rxy-cer,g
KeVemc seams '989-90 !NSF 91.351 Aasrongim DC NSF tion in the United States is strong and is continuing to
Soo aooer.o.x 100.3
adapt to meet new pressures and needs. High school grad-
*offIfCafC,O.. ol Sc once aro MaleenoatK-, f.1...K.1,7, '395
uates have higher aspirations, and are better prepared, for
of the equipment and instrumentation (such as comput- postgraduate study. Total enrollment and the diversity of
ers, spectrometers, microscopes, and bioanalytical instru- enrollment, in terms of sex, race, and ethnic origin, have
ments) were used either solely or predominantly for increased, although somewhat slowly for blacks.
instruction:' Very high proportions of students are taking at least
one college course in mathematical or computer sciences,
physical or life sciences, and social and behavioral sci-
CONCLUSION ences. Mathematics college course enrollments have
increased, although a substantial part of that Increase is
Science, engineering, and technical education remains due to increases in remedial math enrollments.
vital in the United States. An analysis of median earn- Ongoing reforms are changing the way science and
ings of full-time workers with at least a bachelor's degree engineering are taught and learned at the undergraduate
shows that society places high value on those in natural level; however, very few college science and engineering
science and engineering occupations. In 1990, engineers courses are taught in a laboratory or problem-solving for-
earned 26 percent more than the median income of mat, and seldom do mathematics courses require, for
those holding bachelor's or higher degrees in any field, example, writing assignments, group projects, or comput-
physical scientists made 8 percent more, and computer er assignments. Policy makers and educators continue to
scientists earned 5 percent more than the median look for ways to reduce the high levels of student attri-
income. However, those with degrees in education and tion from majors in the natural sciences and engineering.
the social sciences made 32 and 23 percent less, respec- Although the numbers of bachelor's, master's, and doc-
tively, than the median (U.S. Department of Education, torate degrees earned by females and underrepresented
1994).The ranking of median income by occupation was racial and ethnic groups have increased, these groups
virtually the same in 1970. remain underrepresented in science and engineering, par-
Only one of the occupations that the Bureau of Labo; ticularly within the natural sciences and engineering, at
Statistics projected to grow fastest in absolute numerical the graduate level and among science and engineering
terms between 1992 and 2000 clearly required postsec- faculty. Of particular concern are degree trends for blacks.
ondary science or technical educations: systems analysis. The number of undergraduate- and graduate-level science
About half of the top 25 fastest growin, occupation, and engineering degrees earned by blacks have remained
which are expected to account ft qr half of the total employ- relatively flat over the past 10 years. Moreover, the num-
4'of
Ii2
ber of science and engineering doctorates earned by black local residents to job-related courses, adult education,
males has actually declined. technically based programs, and preparation for study at
More systematic research is needed on the quality of 4-year institutions. Tuition is generally lower -at 2-year
education received by students in college and universi- institutions than at 4-year colleges, and campuses are
ties, how curricula are being reformed, and ways of reduc- community-based, allowing students to pursue postsec-
ing student attrition. Reseuch is particularly needed on ondary education more easily while holding full- or part-
the proper education of students who will become ele- time jobs.
mentary and secondary schoolteachers of science and 1' One reason may be that these institutions draw stu-
mathematics. ln addition, research ought to consider dents from a wider geographic area than other schools
more fully the contributions that science, engineering, and combine an educational mission with a strong mis-
and technical education make to the economy and sion in fundamental research and discovery.
national well-being. me proportion of this fraction that was available for
undergraduate, rather than graduate, instruction is
unknown.
ENDNOTES
' The report was based on the findings from 30 round-

table sessions that brought together senior officers from
hundreds of colleges and universities across the United
States.
= Because these students provide diverse perspectives
that can potentially benefit science and technology
fields, science and engineering education must change to
accommodate new learning styles and fulfill new needs
(Wineke 6:- Certain, 1990).
' This is the first year for which complete enrollment
data by race and ethnicity exist.
`The extent to which this finding applies to various
subpopulationsincluding those who have historically
been underrepresented in science and engineeringis
unknown because of sample si:e.
The problem of student retention in science and
engineering is not confined to the undergraduate level.
At the graduate level, as many as half of science and
engineering graduate students fail to complete their stud-
leN (US Department of Education, 1988).
Some of this decrease can be attributed it, students
who graduate from high school and do not to pursue
postsecondary education of any kind.
For more information on trends in science and engi-
neering degrees, see NSB (1991).
People with disabilities arc also considered to be
underrepresented in science and engineering. although
no data on degrees by disability status exist.
Technicians apply science- and engineering-based
techniques using complex technologies in order to trans-
form materials into useful products. Technicians may also
be called upon to modify or repair equipment that is used
in the production of goods and services.
The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching last classified U.S. posu.econdary institution!, in
1957.
Two- year inst mut, ,ns pro \ educat ion.11 tor
1
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117
Wei S
INDICATORS IN THE CURRENT VOLUME 106
INDICATORS FOR ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION 106

Educatiniz Americans for the :.1st century 106
Indicator systems
Improvini: indican)rs 108
FUTURE DIRECTIONS 109
CONCLUDING REMARKS 109
DSFERENCES 110
118
4
106 INDICATORS OFSCIENCEANDMA:HEMATICSEDUCATION 1995
Postscrip[
This chapter reflects on the process of developing stoned education associations. For postsecondary educa-
statistical indicators of science and mathematics tion, the selection of indicators monitors the extent of
education. These indicators, which are statistics access to science and engineering postsecondary education
that shed light on important policy issues, inform policy by underrepresented minorities and females.
makers about the state of current science and mathemat- Many of these indicators were informed by three com-
ics education and recommend areas for future investiga missioned reports about science and mathematics educa-
non. The chapter reviews the frameworks for choosing tion. These reports followed the Commission on
the statistical indicators in this report. It also reflects on Excellence report of 1983 that brought renewed national
the status of data sources for the chosen indicators and attention to the need to reform the elementary and sec-
suggests areas that require greater attention in future vol- ondary school system. The following section reviews the
umes as well as additional research. recommendations of three of those reports in light of the
The selection of topics for this report reflects toe major topics addressed by this voIume.
issues that are important to the Directorate for Education
and Human Resources (EHR) of the National Science
Foundation (NSF). EHR is actively involved with con- INDICATORS FOR ELEMENTARY AND
ducting research and supporting projects that lead to SECONDARY EDUCATION
improvements in student achievement in science and
mathematics for all students in the United States. Thus, Three major reports were prepared during the 1980s to
the indicators in this volume reflect the concerns bout define issues of concern to NSF
how the current efforts to establish standards for science
and mathematics education are understood and imple- Educating Americans for the 21st Century: A Plan of
mented. They also reflect the changes that are occurring to Action for Improtmg Mathematics, Science and
establish greater equity among male and female students Technology Education for All American Elementary and
and students of all races and ethnic groups. Secondary Students so that Their Achievement Is the Best
in the World by 1995,
Indicator Sxstems foi Monitoring Mathematics and Science
INDICATORS IN THE CURRENT VOLUME Education, and
Improving Indicators of the QualitN. of Science and
The indicators presented in this volume are a synthesis Mathematics Education in Grades 1:--12.
ot avatlable statistics about science and mathematics edu-
cation. Authors selected them from existing national sur- These reports suggested means for developing indica-
veys. The authors of this report attemred to select indi- tor, of science and mathematics education.
cators ot evidence of change in the Nation's mathematics
and science education system. They examined sources of EDUCATING AMERICANS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
data ,q1 trends in student achievement, teacher knowl-
edge and practices, content of curriculum, high school The Cotninissuin on Precollege Education in
toursetaking, and changes in characteristics of postsec- Nlathematics, Science and Technology prepared a plan to
ondary students, graduatesind faculty. impriwe science, mathematics, and technolitgy education
The authors of this volume ',elected indicators of shifts and presented it to the National Science Board in
toward the standards of excellence and equity of the edu- September 1984. This report said that objective mea,iure-
cation system during the past 2 decades. Moreover, they ment of achievement and participation in mathematics
'elected indicators to monitor U.S. efforts to reform the and science was necessary and should he performed. It
entire education system by setting high expectations for recommended that the National Assessment of
all students' performance and obtaining a greater align- Educational Progress (NAP), which began in 1968, he
ment among components of the education system. For modified to include assessment of states and the Nation
elementary and secondary education, the selection ot indi- in order to monitor progress using the most up-to-date
cators monitors curriculum coverage, teacher practices, testing techniques. The report mann.' assumption was
and student achievement. This selection was influenced that the Nation's best students ranked equally with those
1" national standards, which were developed by protes- .in other nation, but that the average American stu,
1 9
POSTSCRIP/ 107
dent's achievement was low compared with other critical gaps in existing indicators and analytical meth-
advanced countries ot the wtirld. Thus, the report ods he identified;
encouraged efforts to measure the progress of ;ill students. t:ie
I amount and quahtv of data available on mathemat-
It recommended that certain skills he monitored, includ- ics and science education be expanded;
ing the ability to write for a purpose and apply high-let el studies he conducted to analyze the causes of observed
problem-solving skills to analyze and draw conclusions. changes and suggest alternative policy implications;
Many ot the policies that were implemented after the new measures on student achievement he developed to
report was released were consistent with these recom- measure knowledge such as the ability to think critical-
mendations. For example, in 1990, the NAEP began to ly and apply knowledge in solving problems;
include state-by-state comparisons on a trial basis. These new measures he developed on teacher quality, depth of
comparisons became a regular part of the survey in 1992. coverage, and scientific accuracy of the curriculum; and
In addition, new forms of national testing were developed procedures be developed to analyze and report indica,
to measure high-order thinking skills. Indicators' devel- tors that ensure that results are well reviewed and dis-
opment also extended into monitoring the changes in seminated appropriately.
student achievement levels for students at high and low The report suggested a general model for the specific
levels of achievement. elements of an indicator system. This model was orga-
No specific indicators have been developed for this vol- nized around inputs, processes, and outputs of school sys-
ume to measure writing skills or the ability to ,malyze tems. The system identified student achievement, atti-
information. Current performance assessment scoring tudes. and aspirations as the main outcomes of schooling.
methods recognize these goals, but in practice, national Process indicators were divided into curriculum, instruc-
data collection strategies were still under development at tion, teaching, and school quality. Inputs included fiscal
the time of writing the current report. Future reports resources, s, _]ent background, and teacher quality. For
should he able to include reliable indicators of trends in each of these areas, the report recommended 99 specific
student performance of thinking and writing skills consis- indicators that should be monitored, and it linked them
tent with the recommendations by the 1984 NSF to existing data sources. Additionally, RAND recom-
Commission from new survey information that is currently mended that NSF develop state-level information and
being cone( -ed by the NAEP. The future analyses should create comparisons of different natures (across time, with
maintain a focus on how such new indicators would mea- normative standards, with other countries, and with dif-
sure progress toward good practices, such as toward adopt- ferent populations). The report recommended that NSF
ing the standards of mathematics and science and achiev- not develop its own expensive surveys, but that it devel-
ing greater equity of performance among students. op new measures for existing data collection efforts and
develop new measures from them.
INDICATOR SYSTEMS Since the report's publication, many of the recommen-
dations have been implemented. For instance, NSF
In 1987, the RAND Corporatuin released Indicator adopted this biennial indicators report with a defined
SNstenis for Monitoring Mathematics and Science Education. review process. Also, cooperation between the
This report sought to identifY for NSF a set of indicator Department of Education and NSF has continued. This
systems that would allow monitoring of precollege sci- has increased the amount of information available about
ence and mathematics education. The report focused on science and mathematics. In addition, the number of
science and mathematics indicators since other agencies, state-level indicators has increased. However, these indi-
such as the National Center tOr Education Statistics, cators are not yet as well developed as the national indi-
have major responsibility for collecting information on cators because the sample sizes are too small to permit
all aspects of education. RAND's report suggested that a comparison of change over time for each state. Therefore,
"patchwork" of existing indicators be constructed from they cannot be reported regularly as evidence for change
existing data sources (such as NAEP) and that develop- within particular states. Finally, as the RAND report rec-
mental research be undertaken tu create better indicators ommended, researchers have performed some studies that
that could he used constructively by policy makers and explore the causes of student achievement (DeAngelis &
educators. Specific recommendations were that Talbert, 1995, April; Miller, 1992, April; Schiller, 1995,
an indicator system be developed both to describe and May 30; Schneider, Plank, & Wang, 1994, August; Sui-
to relate essential elements of the mathematics and sci- Chu & Willms, 1995, April). These studies provide alter-
ence education system; native strategies for education policies. They are written
key indicators he developed for both the national and for the purpose of describing correlations between school-
state levels; ing experiences and student achievement.
Since 1987, the amount of survey data for elementary teaching quality, curriculum quality, and financial sup-
curriculum, instructional techniques, and assessments port. It recommended that
increased substantially. Iris Weiss' (1987) surveys of an accelerated program of research and development
teachers have increased the amount of information avail- be carried out to construct free-response materials and
able on what teachers know and how they present mate- techniques that measure skills not measured with mul-
rials in class. (See also Weiss, Matti, & Smith, 1994.) tiple-choice teststhese materials would help in the
Additionally, surveys of students and teachers in several development of indicators of learning in science and
longitudinal studies have increased the information avail- mathematics;
able about the science and mathematics topics that stu- information be gathered on the number of minutes per
dents are exposed to in school. The general model sug- week that elementary students devote to science and
gested in RAND's report encouraged investigative models mathematics, as well as the number of semesters of sci-
of the effects of changes in curriculum and teacher expe- ence and mathematics that secoadary students take, to
rience to student performance. develop indicators of student behavior;
teachers be tested on the same content and skills that
IMPROVING INDICATORS their students are expected to master and that inforrna-
tion be gathered on teacher preparation, such as under-
Recommendations in Improving Indicators of the Quality graduate and graduate college coursework, in order to
of Science and Mathematics Education in Gra Af's 2 were develop indicators of teaching quality;
based on the premises that exemplary frameworks of science and mathematics
all students need to leave school with adequate knowl- content coverage be constructed for elementary and
edge and reasoning skills to be able to renew their secondary grades, with the highest priority given to
knowledge of science and mathematics throughout early elementary and middle schools, in order to devel-
their lives; and op indicators of curriculum qualitythe frameworks
student learning is determined by what teachers and would be used to match textbooks, state guidelines,
students do in schools. and materials, such as tests and exercises, to analyze
The report, written by the Committee on Indicators of the content of the implemented curriculum for indica-
Precollege Mathematics and Science for the National tors of co irent coverage; and
Academy of Sciences, reviewed the needs of the educa- a set of accounts be developed on the expenditures of
tion system and recommended a series of topics that science and mathematics education from departments
required further development and monitoring. It recom- and agencies of the Federal Government for indicators
mended seven key indicators and a set of supplementary of financial and leadership support.
indicators to expand the issues. This volume incorporated many of the recommenda-
The key indicators involved tions in Improving Inclicators of the Quality of Science and
learning among students, Mathematics Educanon in Grades K-1 2, including using
literacy among adults, indicators on learning among students, coursetaking,
enrollment in science and mathematics courses, nature of instruction, amount ot time spent on science and
nature of classroom instruction. mathematics, courses completed by teachers, teachers' use
teachers' knowledge, of time outside the classroom, materials used for instruc-
salaries of college graduates, and tion, and Federal financial support. However, some recom-
quality of curriculum content in state guidelines and mendations have not yet been developed into indicators.
materials. The areas involve advlt literacy. teachers' knowledge, and
The supplementary indicators involved the number of resources committed by scientific bodies.
amount of time spent on science and mathematics Some work is being done to remedy this situation. For
homework, instance, measures of adult literacy currently are being
college courses completed by teachers, developed by NSF. However, attempts to develop mea-
teachers' use of time outside the classroom for activi- sures of teachers' knowledge have been difficult because
ties related to teaching, ot objections by the teaching community that teacher
materials used for instruction, assessment should not he a concern of policy makers.
Federal financial support, and Studies of resources committed to science and mathe-
resources committed by scientific bodies for school matics education by government and nongovernment
impn ivement. sources have not vet been conducted. This is an impor-
The report recommended that these 13 indicators tant area for future study. Other areas for future study are
cover hve areas: student learning, student behavior, discussed below.
121
POSTSCRIPT 109
FUTURE DIRECTIONS Educational Research Association (AERA) to map out a

strategy for developing indicators of undergraduate mathe-
The publication of indicators of science and mathematics education. The project is developing a conceptual
matics education require reliable sources of data from ele- framework for indicators that will be useful in monitoring
mentary, secondary, and postsecondary institutions. the strus of undergraduate mathematics education, espe-
Typically, special data collection efforts are required for cially witi, respect to assessing effects of the various reform
specific subject areas of science and mathematics because initiatives of NSF. The project targets lower division pro-
these subjects represent small components of a large educa- grams for the entire population of students, not just those
tion system. The reports discussed in this postscript have majoring, io mathematics. Concern is for the broad spec-
suggested mechanisms for integrating the existing surveys trum of public and private institutions including commu-
of students and teachers into a systematic collection of nity colleges, liberal arts colleges, comprehensive universi-
data. Such efforts could enhance the amount of informa- ties, and research universities. A national panel of experts
tion available for science and mathematics education. in undergraduate mathematics education and assessment
This indicators report has shown the value of integrat- is expected to release a report in early 1996.
ing subject area topics into existing surveys, such as the Undergraduate indicators are proposed for
assessment of student learning, the measure of teacher curriculum and instructionthe content and pedagogy
practices in the classroom, and the relationships between of educational programs;
secondary school coursetaking with field choice in higher student outcomes and assessmentwhat students
education. However, the development of indicators that know about mathematics and how that knowledge is
measure the issues raised by reform efforts svlI require assessed;
new efforts with new types of survey techniques. For student participationthe characteristics of students
instance, monitoring of systemic reform efforts will served by mathematics programs; and
require indicators on educational institutions and systemsthe context
alignment among parts of the education system; within which the teaching and learning of mathemat-
changes in governance; ics takes place.
number ot community, business, and school partner- The recommendations of the AERA committee will
ships; and form a useful basis for restructuring the current data col-
integration of elementary and secondary school systems lection efforts for postsecondary education. New surveys
with postsecondary education. and strategies for expanding existing surveys may be
In addition, new indicators will be required to needed to provide a strong hasis for continued monit :w-
measure changes in student achievement, coursetaking, ing of undergraduate education.
and teaching practices for states;
show the relationship between planned anc' imple-
mented changes to elementary and secondary science CONCLUDING REMARKS
and mathematics curriculum, including adoption of
technology, as reform efforts continue; This biennial assessment of rends in science and
measure coursetaking and course content within post- mathematics education has found that significant
secondary institutions; progress has been made in the scope and analysis of
monitor the science and mathematics literacy of col- national surveys to rr.,,nitor significant changes in the
lege graduates; and educational sr Lems of the United States. Yet, as efforts
monitor the transition of graduates into the workforce. to reform the elementary and secondary system expand,
Indicators will need to he developed specifically for new indicator; of governance, partnerships, and align-
postsecondary education, because the sources of data con- meni among various parts need to be developed, and
cerning students and faculty in undergraduate institution: research on the measurement of learning of science and
are limited. The issues of the quality of teaching and mathematics must he extended into undergraduate educa.
learning in colleges and universities have been infre- tion. Future reports of trends in science and mathematics
quently addressed in national reports that review the education shall address the areas outlined in this post-
condition of science and mathematics education. Few script.
data sources inquire about teaching practices or the con-
tent covered by students. Also, the quality of teaching is
infrequently covered in national surveys of higher educa-
tion or faculty.
NSF has asked the Grants Board of the American
122
Chap[er References
DeAngelis, K., & Talbert, J.E. (1995, April). Social inequalities in high school mathe-
matics achievement: Cognitive dimensions and learning opportunities. Paper presented to the
annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Miller, J.D. (1992April). Persistence and success in mathematics: What it e are learn-
ing in the longitudinal study of American youth. Paper presented to the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Schiller, K.S. (1995, May 30). So, you want to go to college? The SAT as an
incentive system for mathematics achievement in high school. In Improving mathematics
and science learning: A school and classroom approach. Second 1;ear progress report, NSF
Grant RED-9255880.
Schneider, B., Plank, S., cSi. Wang H. (1994, August). Output-driven systems:
Reconsidering roles and incentives in schools. Paper presented to the annual meeting of the
American Sociological Association, Los Angeles, CA.
Sui-Chu, E.H., & Willms, J.D. (1995April). The effects of parental involvement on
eighth grade achievement. Paper presented to the annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Weiss, I.R. (1987). Report of the 1985-86 national survey of science and mathematics
education. Research Triangle Park. NC: Research Triangle Institute.
Weiss, I.R., Matti, M.C., & Smith, P.S. (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey
science and mathematics education. Chapel Hill, NC: Honzon Research, Inc.
123
APPENDIX TABLES 113
Iippeodix Tdb les
124
List of Appeoffix Tables
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
Appendix table 1-1. Summar) of NSF funding for the Directorate for
Education and Human Resources (EHR): 1956 to 1994 (dollars in millions) 120
Appendix table 1-2. Total budget obligations in fiscal year 1994 mathematics,
science, engineering, and technological education of 11 Federal agencies
(dollars in millions): 1995 121
Appendix table 1-3. Number and percent of students enrolled in

grades 1-12 and college, by race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993 122
Appendix table 1-4. Children ages 5-17 speaking a language other

than English at home, bv English proficiency level: 1980 and 1990 123
Appendix table 1-5. Education level of parents of elementary or secondary

school students, by student race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993 124
Appendix table 1-6. Number and percent of one- or rwo-parent families

with children under age 16, by race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993 125
Appendix table 1-7. Number and percent of white, black, and Hispanic
children ages (3--17 below the poverty level: 1970 to 1993 126
CHAPTER 2A CHI EVEM ENT IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

Appendix table 2-1. NAEP science proficiency: percent of students at or
above selected anchor points, by age and race or ethnic origin, 1977 to 1992 127
Appendix table 2-2. NAEP mathematics proficiency: percent of students

at or above selected anchor points, by age and race or ethnic origin. 1978 to 1992 128
Appendix table 2-1. Percent of eighth-grade mathematics students performing

at each proficiency level, by race or ethnic origin and socioeconomic status: 1968 129
Appendix [ANC 2-4. Average percent of questions answered correctly on the NAEP
mathematics ex:1111. by type of question, race or ethnic origin, and age: 199' 130
Appendix table 2-5. NAEP science prof iciencv, by percent ot students at or above
selected anchor points. sex, and age: 1977 to 1991 11C
Appendix table 2-6. NAEP mathemat ics proficiency, by percent of students at or

above selected anchor points, exInd a,,e, 1978 to 1992 111
Appendix table 2-7. 1AEP science score, tor selected countries at 5th percentile,
mean, and 95th percennle, by a,,e: 1991 132
Appendix table 2-6. IAEP mathematics scores tor selected countries at 5th
percentile, Mean, and 05th percentile, by age: 1991 133
CHAPTER 3THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Appendix table I- 1 Percent of states imposing graduation requirements in
.
mathemat 1974 to 1901 114
125
APPENDIX TABLES 115
Appendix table Average number ot minutes per day :pent teaching

each subject to self-contained classes, by grade range: 1977 to 1993 134
Appendix table 3-3. Mean number of credits earned by high school

graduates in each subject field: 1982 to 1992 135
Appendix table 3-4. Percent of high school graduates earning minimum credit,
in science courses, by sex and race or ethnic origin: 1982 to 1992 135
Appendix table 3-5. Percent of high (.-.hool graduates earning minimum credits
in mathematics courses, by sex and race or ethnic origin: 1982 to 1992 136
Appendix table 3-6. Percent of high school classes perceived as low and high
ability, by percent minority in class: 1993 137
Appendix tahle 3-7. Percent of grades 10-12 science and mathematics classes
where teachers report ability grouping: 1986 and 1993 137
Appendix table 3-8. Number of full-time and part-time teachers in science and
mathematics in the United States, by sex, race or ethnic origin, and teaching
assignment: 1988 and 1991 138
Appendix table 3-9. Percent of public school grades 9-12 science and mathematics
teachers who are female or minority, by state: 1991 139
Appendix table 3-10. Distribution of science and mathematics teachers,

by race or ethnic origin and grade range: 1986 and 1993 140
Appendix table 3-11. Percent of science and mathematics teachers with master's
degrees, by years of teaching experience and by grade range: 1993 140
Appendix table 3-12. Percent of science and mathematics classes about which
teachers report having strong control over various curriculum and instructior al
decisions, by grade range: 1993 141
Appendix table 3-13. Percent of 12th-grade science and mathematics students whose
teachers report haying "complete control" over particular decisions, by subject: 1992 142
Appendix table 3-14. Percent of 12th-grade science and mathematics students

whose teachers report haying "complete control" over particular decisions,
by region: 1992 142
Appendix table 3-15. Percent of 12th-grade science and mathematics students

whose teachers report having "complete control" over particular decisions,
by overall proficiency level: 1992 143
Appendix table 3-16. Percent of mathematics teachers who are familiar with
the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics' standards, by level of
familiarity and grade range: 1993 144
Appendix table 3-17. Percent ot science and mathematics teachers agreeing

with each of a number of statements related to curriculum and instruction,
Appendix table 3-18. Percent of mathematics teachers indicating that

various strategies definitely should be a part of mathematics instruction,
by strategy and grade range: 1993 146
Appendix table 3-19. Percent of classes using lecture and hands-on activities in most
recent lesson, by subject and grade range: 1977 to 1993 147
Appendix table 3-20. Percent of science teachers indicating that various strategies
definitely should be a part of cience instruction, by strategy and grade range: 1993 148
126
Appendix table 3-21. Percent of science teachers completing various

numbers of science courses, by :area, number of science courses completed,
grade range, and number of science areas: 1993 140
Appendix table 3-22. Grades 7-12 science teachers level of preparation in

field taught: 1993 150
Appendix table 3-23. Percent of mathematics teachers completing college courses in

mathematics and science, by grades taught: 1993 151
Appendix table 3-24. Percent of mathematics teachers completing college coursework

recommended by the National Council of Teachers of Ma.hematics: 1986 and 1993 152
Appendix table 3-25. Preparation of teachers of grades 7-12 science and

mathematics classes with low, medium, and high proportions of minority
students, by percent of classes: 1993 153
Appendix table 3-26. Percent of self-contained elementary teachers feeling

very well qualified to teach each subject: 1977 to 1993 153
Appendix table 3-27. Percent of mathematics teachers considering themselves will

qualified to teach specific topics, by grade range: 1993 154
Appendix table 3-28. Percent of mathematics teachers considering themselves well

prepared to do specific tasks, by grade range: 1993 155
.Appendix table 3-29. Percent of science teachers considering themselves well

prepared to do specific tasks, by grade range: 1993 156
Appendix table 3-30. Percent of 12th-grade students whose science and

mathematics teachers discuss curriculum issues, by type of person or group
with whom they discuss: 1992 157
Appendix table 3-31. Percent of science and mathematics teachers agreeing

with each of a number of statements related to teacher collegiality,
Appendix table 3-32. Amount of time science and mathematics teachers spent
on science or mathematics in-service education in the past 3 years, by subject
ot class taught and grade range: 1993 159
Appendix table ;.33. Year of most recent college coursework in field tor
e and mathematics teachers, by grade range: 1991 150
Appendix table 3-34. Percent of science and mathematics teacher,

participating in various professional activities in the pa.:t 12 months,
by subject and grade range: 1993 160
Appendix table 3-35. Percent ot inathematics classes never taking part

in various activities. by grade range: 1993, 161
Appendix table 3-36. Percent of science classes never taking part

in various acuvities, by grade range: 1993 162
Appendix table 3,37. Percent of silence and mathematics classes °covering- various
proportions of their textbooks, by grade range: 1986 and 1993 163
Appendix table 3-38. Percent of 12th-grade science teachers responding

to availability and condition ot science equipment and facilities: 199' 164
Appendix table 3-39. Median and mean studentcomputer ratios for

computer-using schools, by country and school level: 1Qu' 164
1 9 ';I
L.
A PPENDI X TABLES 1 17
Appendix table 3-40. Mean percent ot 16± Isit computers (80286 ;Ind
higher processors) in computer-using schools: 1989 and 1992 165
Appendix table 3-41. Percent ot external network use lw type of

external network: 1992 166
Appendix table 3-42. Average percentage of mathematics problems

correct on test items requiring the use ot a calculator, ages 9, 13,
and 17: 1978 to 199 166
CHAPTER 4-POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

Appendix table 4-1. Percent of high school sophomores aspiring to various levels of
postsecondary education, by race or ethnic origin and sex: 1980 and 1990 167
Appendix table 4-2. College enrollment rates of recent high school graduates,
by race or ethnic origin: 1976 to 199? 168
Appendix table 4-3. Total fall enrollment in postsecondary instttut ions,

by attendance status and age: 1970 to 1991 169
Appendix table 4-4. Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions.

by sex: 1970 to 1998 (projected) 170
Appendix table 4-5. Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions,

by race or ethnic origin of student, all institutions, and 2-year institutions:
1976 to 1993 171
Appendix table 4-6. Number of college courses outside their major that 1991
bachelor's degree recipients took, by field, sex, and race or ethnic origin: 1991 172
Appendix table 4-7. Students with a grade point average of 3.0 or higher,
by field of major and sex: 1991 174
Appendix table 4-8. Number and percent of high school graduates, college
enrollmentmd science and engineering degree attainment, by race or
ethnic origin: 1990 175
Appendix table 4-9. Number and percent of high school graduates,

college enrollment, and science and engineering degree atta:nment, by sex: 1990 176
Appendix table 4-10. Percent of high school seniors taking selected science and
mathematics courses, by sex and post-high-school plans: 1990 and 1993 177
Appendix table 4-11. Percent of all faculty who say that undergraduates
in their country are adequately prepared in selected skills,
by type of skill and country: 1992 178
Appendix table 4-12. Percent of 1987 first-year undergraduate students in 4-year

institutions who had staved in or switched to other (declared or intended)
majors by 1991, by field of major: 1991 179
Appendix table 4-13. Average undergraduate tuition and fees paid by students,
by type and control of institution: 1985 to 1993 180
Appendix table 4-14. Debt burden of 1990 bachelor's degree recipients,

by postgraduation occupation: 1991 180
Appendix table 4-15. Number and percent of science and engineering

doctorate recipients, by primary source of support, residency status,
and race or ethnic origin: 1992 181
Appendix 4-16. Participation rate of 22-vear-olds in first university

degrees in the natural sciences and engineering, by sex and country:
most current year (1989 to 1992 ) 182
Appendix table 4-17. Degrees awarded in all fields, science and engineering,
and science and engineering as a percent of all fields,
Appendix table 4-18. Number of bachelor's degrees awarded, by major field

group and by sex: 1971 to 1991 185
Appendix table 4-19. Number of master's degrees awarded, by major field group
and by sex: 1971 to 1991 186
Appendix table 4-20. Number of doctoral degrees awarded, by major field group
and by sex: 1971 to 1991 187
Appendix table 4-21. Science and engineering degrees awarded per hundred
U.S. population, by degree level and sex: 1971 to 1991 188
Appendix table 4-22. Number and percent of bachelor's degrees awarded

in science and engineering, by citizenship and race or ethnic origin: 1977 to 1991 189
Appendix table 4-23. Number and percent of engineering bachelor's degrees

awarded to blacks and Hispanics, by institution and sex: 1993 190
Appendix table 4-24. Number of doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens,

by selected racial and ethnic groups: 1982 to 1992 191
Appendix table 4-25. Number of science and engineering doctorates awarded

to U.S. citizens, by selected racial and ethnic groups and sex: 1962 to 1992 191
Appendix table 4-26. Science and engineering doctorates awarded,

by citizenship: 1972 to 1992 192
Appendix table 4-27. Engineering technology degrees awarded,

Appendix table 4-28. Number of institutions of higher education.

by Carnegie Institution classification type: 1987 and 1994 193
Appendix table 4-29. Total number and percent of full-nme instructional faculty,
by field and race or ethnic origin: Fall 1967 and Fall 1992 194
Appendix table 4;30. Number and percent of full-tune instructional faculty,

by field and sex: Fall 1987 and Fall 199 196
Appendix table 4-31. Principal activity of full-nme higher education faculty and
instructional staff. I)\ field: Fall 1991 197
Appendix table 4-32. Mean number of classes taught by full-time faculty, bv fide!,
institutional type, and sex: Fall 199' 198
Appendix table 4-33. Number and percent of academic

departments of engineering that require or offer coinniumcations courses
to faculty and graduate students, by size of department: 1992 199
Appendix table 4-34. Percent ot courses taught by full-nme instructional faculty

using different formats, by type of institution and instructor's field: Fall 1992 100
Appendix table 4-35. Percent of mathematics departments offering

selected acadenuc activities to undergraduate mathematics majors,
by activity and type ,)t institution: 1990 /01
APPENDIX TABLES 119
Appendix table 4-36. Number of calculus sections requiring

selected course activities, by type of institution: 1990 '01
Appendix table 4-17. Percent of college and university equipment
and instrumentation at doctorate-granting institutions used
for instruction and research: 1990 '0'
Appendix table 1-1

Summary of NSF funding for the Directorate for Education and Human
Resources (EHR): 1956 to 1994 (dollars in millions)
EHR K-12 Undergraduate Graduate Informal Other
Fiscal Total Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent
Year NSF Total of NSF Total of EHR Total of EHR Total of EHR Total of EHR Total of EHR
1956 16.0 3.5 22.0 09 24.1 06 15 9 21 59.1 00 00

1957 38.6 14 3 37 0 10.2 71.0 1 1 8.0 30 21.0 00 0.0 -
1958 50.0 19 2 38 4 12 7 66 0 2.5 13.0 42 22 0 00 00 -
1959 132 9 61 3 46.1 41 1 67.0 10 4 17.0 98 16.0 00 00 -
1960 158.6 63 7 40.2 41 4 65.0 11.5 18.0 10.2 16.0 0.3 05 -
1961 175 0 63 4 36.3 38.7 61.0 14 0 22 0 10.8 17.0 03 0.5 -
1962 260.8 83.6 32 1 52.7 63.0 15.9 19.0 14.2 17 0 03 04 -
1963 320.8 98.7 30.8 56.3 57.0 22.7 23.0 18 8 19.0 04 0.4 -
1964 354 6 111 2 31 4 60 1 54.0 23 4 21.0 26.7 24.0 0.4 0.4 - -
1965 416.0 120.4 28 9 53.0 44 0 31.3 26.0 36.1 30.0 04 03 - -
1966 466 4 124 3 26.6 52.2 42.0 32.3 26.0 39.8 32.0 01 01 - -
1967 465.1 125 8 27.1 50 3 40 0 30 2 24.0 45 3 36.0 04 03 - -
1968 500 3 134 5 26 9 53.8 40.0 35 0 26.0 44 4 33.0 03 0.2 -
1969 432 6 115 3 26 7 45 0 39 0 30 0 26.0 40 4 35 0 02 0.2 - -
1970 462.5 120.4 26.0 50 5 41 9 27.6 23.0 42 1 34.9 02 0.2 - -
1971 496 1 98 8 19.9 36.6 37 0 21 7 22.0 39.5 40.0 04 0.4 - -
1972 600.7 86 1 14.3 35.3 41 0 27.6 32 0 23 3 27.0 07 0.8 - -
1973 610.3 62 2 10.2 24.3 39.0 17 4 28.0 19 3 31 0 06 10 -
1974 645.7 80 7 12.5 30 7 38.0 29.1 36.0 19 4 24.0 24 30 - -
1975 693 1 74 0 10 7 28 1 38 0 21 5 29.0 22 2 30.0 15 2.0 -
1976 724 4 62.5 8.6 75 12 0 35.0 56.0 17 5 28.0 25 40 - -
1977 791.8 74 3 94 9.7 13.0 43 1 58.0 17 8 24.0 37 5.0
1978 857 3 74 0 86 14 1 19 0 35 5 48.0 18 5 25 0 52 70 -
1979 926 9 80.0 86 16 0 20 0 36.8 46 0 20 8 26.0 64 8.0
1980 975 1 77 2 7.9 16 9 21 9 32 3 41.8 20 3 26 3 76 99
1981 .015 3 70 7 68 26 1 36 9 26 0 36 8 14 8 21 0 38 5 :, -
1982 999 1 20 9 21 38 18 3 00 00 15 0 71.8 21 10 0
1983 1.101 7 30 0 2 12 6 42 7 00 0.0 15 0 50 0 22 73 -
1984 1.306 9 75 0 57 52 5 70 0 0, 00 20 3 27.1 22 29 - -
1985 1.507 1 82 0 54 42 5 51 8 50 61 27 3 33 3 72 88
1986 1 493 2 84 6 57 44 7 52 9 54 63 26 5 31 4 80 94
1987 1.627 6 99 0 61 50 8 51 3 95 96 27 3 27 6 11 4 11 5
1988 1 722 6 139 2 81 76 4 54 9 19 0 13 6 30 3 21 8 13 5 97 - -

1989 1.885 9 171 0 91 104 0 60 8 28 0 16 4 24 0 14 0 15 0 88 - -
1990 2,026 1 204.3 10 1 125 0 61 2 34 0 16 6 29 9 14 6 15 4 75
1991 2.343 5 322 0 13 7 194 3 60 3 47 fi 14 8 33 8 12 0 23 72 18 2 57
1992 2 571 3 441 5 17 2 269 9 61 1 68 7 15 i 50 2 11 4 34 5 7.8 18 1 41
1993 2 749 7 505 1 18 4 273 5 54 2 74.5 14 8 77 4 15 3 34 E 69 45 1 89

1994 3.017 8 569 0 18 9 323 6 56 9 98 2 17 3 59 9 10 5 34 6 61 52 6 9.2
Not applicable (not in EHR budget)

NOTES "K-12' excludes informal science, and includes the public science portion of Researcn on Teaching and Learning Other'
includes activities such as EPSCoR. Faculty Awards for Women Visiting Prof essorships for Women. and Minority Research Centers
SOURCES National Science Foundation 119921 EHR Directory ol awards Fiscal year 1990 (NSF 92.751 Washington. DC: NSF.
National Science Foundation lt994i Budget figures; Unpublished tabulations
mckators of Socha, one Mathematics Educatton 1995
3 1.
APPENDIX TABLES 121
Appendix table 1-2

Total budget obligations in fiscal year 1994 for mathematics, science, engineering,
and technological education of 11 Federal agencies (dollars in millions): 1995
Federal agency
National Dept. of
Total Science Dept. of Health & Dept. of Other seven
Level of school enacted Foundation Education Human Services Defense zgencies
Grand totat $2.612 $610 $524 $712 $540 $226
Kindergarten to 12th 771 339 333 21 26 52
Undergraduate 426 176 10 37 145 58
Graduate 999 88 27 449 369 66
Public understanding of science

(informal science) 416 7 154 205 - 50
Not available.
NOTES. Other Federal agencies include the Departments of Agriculture. Commerce. Energy, and Interior: Smithsonian
Institution. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and Environmental Protection Agency. Because of
definitional changes, these figures may not be compatible with previous analyses of this topic. Agency figures may be
different as result of evolving priorities for uses of funding.
SOURCE. National Science and Technology Council INSTC) Committee on Education and Training (CET) Budget
Working Group. (1995). [Budget figures from departmental budget offices]. Unpublished tabulations.
Indicators ot Science and Mathematics Education 1995
Appendix table 1-3

Number and percent of students enrolled in grades 1-12 and college,
Level of school Race or ethnic origin 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
Number (in thousands)
Grades 1-12 All races 48,665 46,129 42.005 40,845 41,984 44,126
White 41,361 38,636 34,566 32,971 33.520 34.900

Black 6.702 6.708 6,459 6,438 6,602 7,109
Hispanic NA 3,010 3,411 3,959 4,738 5,090
Other races 602 785 980 1,436 1,862 2,117
College All races 7.413 9,697 10,180 10.863 11,303 11,409
White 6,759 8.516 8,875 9,334 9,465 9,366

Black 522 948 1,007 1,049 1,187 1,261
Hispanic NA 411 443 579 617 867
Other races 132 233 298 480 (351 782
Percent
Grades 1-12 All races 100 100 100 100 100 100
White 85 84 82 81 80 79
Black 14 15 15 16 16 16
Hispanic NA 7 8 10 12 12
Other races 1 1 2 4 4 5
College All races 100 100 100 100 100 100
White 91 88 87 86 84 82
Black 7 10 10 10 11 11
Hispanic NA 4 4 5 5 8
Other races 2 2 3 4 6 7
NA. Not available.

NOTES- Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Totals may not equal 100 percent as a result of rounding.
SOURCES U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1990).School enrollment-social and economic characteristics of students 1989
(Current Population Reports. Population Characteristics Series P-20. No 4431 Washington. DC. U.S Government Printing Office.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1991). School enrollment-social and economic characteristics of students: October 1990 (Current
Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-20. No 460) Washington. DC: U S Government Printing Office. U S
Bureau of the Census (1994). School enrollment-social and economic characteristics of students- October 1993 (Current
Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-20. No. 479). Washington. DC. U.S. Government Printing Office
IncioisolScKinccannhialSercsEch1995
133
APPENDIX TABLES 123
Appendix table 1-4

Children ages 5-17 speaking a language other than English at home,
by English proficiency level: 1980 and 1990
Number Percent
Language proficiency level 1960 1990 1980 1990
All children ages 5.17 47,493,975 45.342.448 100 100
Children who speak a language

other than English 4,568.329 6.322,934 10 14
English proficiency level

Very well 2.670.957 3.934.691 59 62
Well 1.235.088 1,480,680 27 23
Not well 509.665 761.778 11 12
Not at all 125.161 145.785 3 2
NOTES: Includes only children in households and excludes children in group quarters. Proficiency levet reported by
the householder completing the census form.
SOURCES: U.S. Department of Commerce. (1980). 1980 Census of population, detailed population charactenstics:
United States summary (PC 80-1-D1-A). Washington. DC: U.S. Bureau oi the Census: U.S. Department of
Commerce. (1990). 1990 Census of population (CPH-L-96). Washington, DC. U.S. Bureau ot the Census.
Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education 1995
134
124 INDICATORS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1 9 95
Appendix table 1-5

Education level of parents of elementary or secondary
school students, by student race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993
Number (in thousands) Percent
Education level 1970 1980 1990 1993 1970 1980 1990 1993
Students of all races
Total 48,016 41,369 39,923 41,707 99 9 100.0 100 1 100 0
0-8 years of school 9,812 5.921 3,518 2.653 20.4 14 3 8.8 64
9-11 years of school 9.079 6,232 4,691 4,553 18.9 15.1 11 8 10 9
High school graduate 16,871 15.743 14 .894 14,094 35.1 38.0 37.3 33.8
College 1-3 years 5.107 6.127 7.930 10,813 10.6 14.8 19.9 25.9
College graduate or more 7,147 7,346 8.890 9,593 14.9 17.8 22.3 23.0
While students
Total 40.825 34.050 32.021 33,124 100 0 100 0 100.0 100 0
0-8 years of school 7.258 4,412 2,628 2,049 17.8 13.0 82 6.2
9-11 years of school 7,094 4,358 3,238 3,030 17.4 12 8 10 1 9.1
High school graduate 15,262 13,277 11,905 11.090 37.4 39.0 37.2 33.5
College 1-3 years 4.655 5.260 6,479 8,704 11.4 15.4 20.2 26 3
College graduate or more 6,556 6,743 7,771 8,250 16.0 19.8 24.3 24.9
Black students
Total 6.602 6.358 6,155 6,598 100.1 100.0 100 0 100 0
0-8 years et school 2.401 1.326 645 360 36.4 20 9 10.5 55
9-11 years of school 1.910 1.769 1.335 1.301 28 9 27.8 21.7 19 7
High school graduate 1.411 2,175 2.492 2,522 21.4 34.2 40 5 38 2
College 1-3 years 421 744 1 090 1,768 6.4 11 7 17 7 26 8
College graduate or more 459 344 593 650 70 54 96 99
Hispanic students
Total NA 3.347 4.420 4.704 NA 100 0 99 9 100 0
0-8 years of school NA 1.634 1.677 1.438 NA 48.8 37 9 30 6

9-11 years of school NA 493 735 943 NA 14 7 16 6 20 0
High school graduate NA 774 1,184 1.280 NA 23 1 26 8 27 2
College 1-3 years NA 293 539 728 NA 88 12 2 15 5
College graduate or more NA 153 285 315 NA 46 64 67
NA Not available.
NOTES Data not available for Hispanics before 1980 Persons of Hispanic origin may be ol any race Numbers may not equal totals as a result
of rounding
SOURCES U.S Bureau of the Census (1971) School enrollment. October 1970 (Current Population Reports. Population Characteristics Series
P-20. No. 2221 Washington, DC U S. Government Printing Office, U S. Bureau of the Census. (1981) School enrollment-social and economic
characteristics of students' October 1981 and 1980 (Current Population Reports. Population Characteristics Series P-20. No. 4001. Washington
DC U.S. Government Printing Office. U S Bureau ot the Census (1991). School enrollment-social and economic charactenstics of students'
October 1990 (Current Population Reports. Population Characteristics Series P-20. No 4601 Washington DC: U S Government Printing Office.
U.S Bureau of the Census 119931 School enrollment-social and economic characteristics of students October 1992 (Current Population
Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-20. No 474) Washington, DC- U S Government Printing Office. U.S Bureau of the Census (1994)
School enrollment-social and economic characteristics of students' October 1993 (Current Population Reports, Current Population Series P-20
No 479) Washington DC U S Government Printing Office
Inflica4w,o1SCWMOW,IMMOPrnatv,Educdhon1995
135
APPENDIX TABLES 125
Appendix table 1-6

Number and percent of one- or two-parent families with children
under age 18, by race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993
Number (in thousands) Percent

Family characteristic 1970 1980 1990 1993 1970 1980 1990 1993
All families. total 29.631 32.150 34.670 36.058 100 100 100 100
White 26.115 27 294 28.294 29.225 100 100 100 100

Black 3.219 4.705 5.087 5,364 100 100 100 100
Hispanic NA 2.194 3.429 3.838 100 100 100 100
One-parent families. total 3.808 6.920 9,749 10.901 13 22 28 30
White 2.638 4.664 6.389 7.167 10 17 23 25

Black 1.148 2,114 3 081 3 377 36 52 61 63
Hispanic NA 568 1,140 1.344 NA 26 33 35
Two-parent families. total 25,823 25.231 24.921 25.157 87 78 72 70
White 23,477 22.628 21,905 22,058 90 83 77 76

Black 2.071 1 961 2,006 1,987 64 48 39 37
Hispanic NA 1.626 2.289 2,494 NA 74 67 65
NA: Not available.

NOTES: Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Numbers may not equal totals as a result of rounding.
SOURCES. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1992). Household and family charactenstics: March 1991 (Current Population Reports,
Population Characteristics Series P-20, No. 458). Washingtcn, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office: U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1993).
Household and family characteristics: March 1992 (Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-20, No. 467).
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office: U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1994). Household and family characteristics: March
1993 (Current Population Reports. Population Characteristics Series P-20, No. 477). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Appendix table 1-7

Number and percent of white, black, and Hispanic children
ages 6-17 below the poverty level: 1970 to 1993
Race or Number (in thousands) Percent below poverty level

ethnic origin 1970 1980 1990 1993 1970 1980 1990 1993
Total 6.932 7,128 6.848 8.865 14.3 16.8 17.6 20.1
White 4,101 4,336 4,254 5.369 9.9 12.4 13 4 15.4
Black 2,708 2.544 2.206 2.999 41.3 40 4 39 8 42 6
Hispanic NA NA 1,545 2,117 NA NA 36.7 37.7
NA: Not available.

NOTES: Poverty status of 1970. 1980. 1990, and 1993 as surveyed on a sample in March of 1971, 1981. 1991. and 1994,
respectively. Persons of Hispanic ongio may be of any race.
SOURCES: U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1971). Characteristics of the low-income population: 1970 (Current Population Reports,
Population Characteristics Series P-60, No. 18) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Bureau of the Cersus. (1981).
Characteristics of the population below the poverty level. 1980 (Current Population Reports. Population Characteristics Series P-60,
No. 133). Washington. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; U.S Bureau of the Census. (1991). Poverty in the United Stales: 1990
(Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics Series P-60. No 175). Washington, DC. U.S Government Printing Office: U.S
Bureau of the Census. (1994). Official poverty statistics 1993 (Current Population Reports. Population Cnaractenstics Series P-60,
No. 188). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
137
APPENDIX TABLES 127
Appendix table 2-1

NAEP science proficiency: percent of students at or above selected
anchor points, by age and race or ethnic origin, 1977 to 1992
Age and race or Anchor Difference Difference

ethnic origin point 1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 1977.1992 1982-1992
Age 17 Total 300 41 7 (0 9) 37 3 (0 9) 41 3 (1 4) 43 3 (1 3) 46.6 (1 5) 49 (1 7) 9.3 (1 7)

White 47.5 (0 7) 43 9 (1 2) 48 7 (1 7) 51 2 (1 5) 55 4 (1 7) 79 (1.8) 11 5 (2 1)
Black 7.7 (1.0) 65 (1.1) 12.5 (2 2) 15.7 (4 0) 14.1 (2.5) 64 (2.7) 76 (2.7)
Hispanic 18.5 (2 1) 11 1 (2.0) 14 8 (2 9) 21.1 (3.3) 23.0 (3.8) 4.5 (4 3) 11 9 (4 3)
Total 250 81.6 (0.7) 76 6 (1.0) 80 7 (1 3) 81.2 (0 9) 83.3 (1.2) 17 (1.4) 67 (1 6)

White 88.2 (0.4) 84 9 (0 9) 87 3 (1.41 89.6 (0.8) 90.5 (1.0) 2.3 (1 1) 56 (1 3)
Black 40 5 (1 5) 35.0 (2.1) 52 2 (3 2) 51.4 (3.7) 55.7 (3.7) 15 2 (4 0) 20.7 (4 3)
Hispanic 61 5 11 7) 48.0 (2 71 60 0 (7 21 59 9 (5 0) 63.3 (6 6) 6.8 (6 8) 20.3 (7.1)
Total 200 97.1 (0 2) 95.7 (0 5) 97.1 (0.5) 96 7 (0 3) 97 8 (0.5) 0.7 (0 5) 2.1 (0 7)

White 99.2 (0.1) 98.6 10.21 98 8 (0.31 99 0 (0.2) 99 3 (0 3) 01 10 3) 07 (0 4)
Black 83.6 (1.3) 79.7 (1 9) 90.9 (2.1) 88.3 (1.9) 92.1 (1.8) 8.5 (2.2) 12.4 (2.6)
Hispanic 93 1 (1.7) 86 9 (2.91 93 3 (2 4) 91.9 (2.2) 94 6 (2.6) 1.5 (3.1) 7.7 (3.9)
Age 13 Total 300 11 1 (0 5) 96 (0 7) 91 (0.9) 11.2 (0.6) 12.0 (0.8) 0.9 (0.9) 2.4 (1.1)
White 13 4 (0.5) 11 5 (0 8) 1) 3 (1.2) 14.2 (0.8) 15.0 (1.0) 1.6 (1.1) 3.5 (1.3)
Black ..2 (0.4) 08 (0.3) 1 1 (0 4) 1.5 (0.5) 1.8 (0.8) 0.6 (0 9) 1.0 (0.9)
Hispanic 1.8 (0 8) 24 (0 9) 15 (0.7) 3.3 (0.8) 3.3 (1.31 1.5 (1.5) 0.9 (1.6)
Total 250 48.8 (1 1) 50 9 (1 6) 52.5 (1.6) 56.5 (1.0) 61.3 (1.1) 12.5 (1.6) 10.4 (1.9)
White 56.5 (0 9) 58.3 (1 4) 61 0 (1.7) 66.5 (1.2) 71.1 (1.3) 14.6 (1 6) 12.8 (1 9)
Black 14.9 (1.7) 17 1 (1.9) 19 6 (2.8) 24.3 (3.3) 26.2 (2.8) 11.3 (3.3) 9.1 (3.4)
Hispanic 18 1 (1.8) 24.1 (5.1) 24.9 (4.3) 30.0 (2.8) 36.5 (2.9) 18.4 (3.4) 12.4 (5.9)
Total 200 86.0 (0.7) 89.8 (0.8) 91 6 (1.0) 92.3 (0.7) 93.1 (0.5) 7.1 (0.9) 3.3 (0.9)
White 92.2 (0.5) 94.4 (0.6) 96 1 (0.8) 96.9 (0.4) 97.9 (0.4) 5.7 (0.6) 3.5 (0.7)
Black 57.3 (2.4) 68.6 (2 4) 73 6 (3.0) 77.6 (3.6) 73.8 (2.8) 16 5 (3.7) 5.2 (3.7)
Hispanic 62.2 (2.4) 75 5 (3 3) 76 7 (3 2) 80.2 (2.9) 86.2 (2 6) 24.0 (3 5) 10.7 (4 2)
Age 9 Total 300 3.2 (0.3) 23 (0.7) 30 (0.5) 3.1 (0.3) 3.4 (0.3) 0.2 (0.4) 1.1 (0.8)
White 3.9 (0.3) 29 (0.9) 3.8 (0.6) 3.9 (0.4) 4.3 (0 4) 0.4 (0.5) 1.4 (1.0)
Black 02 (0.1) 0.1 (0 4) 03 (0.2) 0.1 (0.2) 03 (0.3) 0.1 (0.3) 0.2 (0.5)
Hispanic 0.3 (0.4) 00 (0.0) 02 (0 2) 0.4 (0.4) 0.4 (0.4) 0.1 (0 6) 0.4 (0.4)
Total 250 25 7 (0 7) 24 3 (1 8) 27.5 (1.4) 31.1 (0.8) 32.8 (1 0) 71 (1 2) 8.5 (2.1)

White 3u.8 (0.7) 29.4 (2 1) 32 7 (1.5) 37.5 (1 1) 39 4 (1 1) 8 6 (1.3) 10.0 (2 4)
Black 3.5 (0.6) 39 (1 3) 8.3 (1.5) 8.5 (1 1) 9.2 (1.4) 5 7 (1 5) 5.3 (1.9)
Hispanic 8.8 (1 7) 4.2 (2 7) 10.7 (2 4) 11.6 (2.1) 11.7 (1.8) 2.9 (2.5) 7.5 (3.2)
Total 200 68 0 (1 1) 70 7 (1 9) 72 0 (1.1) 76.4 (0.9) 78.0 (1.2) 10 0 (1 6) 7.3 (2.2)

White 76.8 (0 7) 78.4 (2.0) 78 9 (1.0) 84.4 (0 7) 85.5 (0.9) 8.7 (1.1) 7.1 (2.2)
Black 27.2 (1 5) 38.9 (2 7) 46 2 (2 3) 46.4 (3.1) 51.3 (3 5) 24.1 (3.8) 12.4 (4.4)
Hispanic 42.0 (3 1) 40 2 (6.1) 50 1 (3.7) 56.3 (3.7) 55.5 (4.3) 13.5 (5.3) 15.3 (7 5)
NOTE. Standard errors appear in parentheses

SOURCE Mullis. I V S.. et al. (1994) NAEP 1992 trends in academic progress (Report No 23-TRO1 ) Washington. DC National Center for
Education Statistics
Indicators ol Scence and Mathematics Education 1995
138
Appendix table 2-2

NAEP mathematics proficiency: percent of students at or above selected anchor
points, by age and race or ethnic origin, 1978 to 1992
Age and race or Anchor Difference Difference
ethnic origin point 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 1978-1992 1982-1992
Age 17 Total 300 51 5 (1 1) 48 5 (1 3) 51 7 (1 4) 56 1 (1 4) 59 1 (1 3) 7.6 (1.7) 10.6 (1.8)

White 57.6 (1 1) 54.7 (1 4) 59.1 (1.7) 63.2 (1.6) 66.4 (1.4) 8.8 (1.8) 11.7 (2.0)
Black 16 8 (1 6) 17.1 (1.5) 20 8 (2 8) 32.8 (4.5) 29.8 (3.9) 13.0 (4.2) 12 7 (4.2)
Hispanic 23 4 (2.7) 21.6 (2 2) 26.5 (4.5) 30.1 (3.1) 39.2 (4 9) 15 8 (5.6) 17.6 (5.4)
Total 250 92 0 (0.5) 93.0 (0.5) 95.6 (0.5) 96.0 (0.5) 96.6 (0.5) 4.6 (0.7) 3.6 (0.7)
White 95.6 (0.3) 96.2 (0.3) 98.0 (0.4) 97.6 (0.3) 98.3 (0.4) 2.7 (0.5) 2.1 (0.5)
Black 70.7 (1.7) 76 4 (1.5) 85.6 (2.5) 92.4 (2.2) 89.6 (2.5) 18.9 (3 0) 13.2 (2.9)
Hispanic 78.3 (2.3) 81.4 (1.9) 89.3 (2.5) 85.8 (4.2) 94.1 (2.2) 15 8 (3.2) 12.7 (2.9)
Total 200 98.8 (0.1) 99.9 (0 0) 99.9 (0.1) 100.0 (0.1) 100 0 (0.0) 1.2 (0.1) 01 (0.0)
While 100.0 (0.0) 100 0 (0.0) 100.0 (0.1) 100.0 (0.0) 100 0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0 0)
Black 98 8 (0 3) 99.7 (0.2) 100.0 (0.2) 99.9 (0.2) 100 0 (0.1) 1.2 (0.3) 03 10 2)
Hispanic 99.3 (0.4) 99.8 (0.3) 99 4 (1.2) 99.6 (0.7) 100.0 (0 0) 07 (0 4) 0.2 (0.3)
Age 13 Total 300 18.0 (0.7) 17.4 (0.9) 15 8 (1.0) 17.3 (1.0) 18.9 (1.0) 0.9 (1.2) 15 (1.3)
White 21.4 (0.7) 20 5 (1.0) 18.6 (1.2) 21.0 (1.2) 22.8 (1.3) 1.4 (1.5) 2.3 (1.6)
Black 2.3 (0.5) 2.9 (1.0) 4.0 (1 4) 3.9 (1.6) 4.0 (0.7) 1.7 (0.9) 1.1 (1.2)
Hispanic 40 (1.0) 6.3 (1.0) 5.5 (1.1) 6.4 (1.7) 7.0 (1.2) 3.0 (1.6) 0.7 (1.6)
Total 250 64.9 (1.2) 71.4 (1.2) 73.3 (1 6) 74.7 (1.0) 77.9 (1.1) 13 0 (1.6) 6.5 (1.6)
White 72.9 (0.9) 78 3 (0 9) 78.9 (1.7) 82.0 (1.0) 84.9 (1 1) 12.0 (1.4) 6.6 (1 4)
Black 28 7 (2 11 37.9 (2.5) 49.0 (3 7) 48.7 (3.6) 51.0 (2.7) 22.3 (3 4) 13 1 (3.7)
Hispanic 36.0 (2.9) 52.2 (2.5) 56.0 (5.0) 56.7 (3.3) 63 3 (2 7) 27.3 (4.0) 11.1 (3.7)
Total 200 94 6 (0 5) 97.7 (0 4) 98 6 (0.2) 98.5 (0.2) 98.7 (0.3) 41 (0.6) 10 (0.5)
White 97 6 (0.3) 99 1 (01) 99 3 (0.3) 99 4 (0.1; 99 6 (0.2) 2.0 (0 4) 0.5 (0.2)
Black 79.7 (1.5) 90.2 (1 6) 95.4 (0.9) 95 4 (1 1) 95 0 (1 4? 15.3 (2.1) 4.8 (2.1)
Hispanic 86 4 (0.9) 95.9 (0 9) 96 9 (1 41 96.8 (1 1) 98 1 (0 7) 11.7 (1 1) 2.2 (1 1)
Age 9 Total 300 0.8 (0.1) 06 (0.11 0.6 (0.2) 12 (0.3) 1.2 (0 3) 04 (0 3) 0.6 (0.3)
White 09 (0 2) 06 (0 1) 08 (0 3) 15 (0 41 14 (0 3) 05 10 4) 08 (0 3)
Black 00 (0 1) 00 (0 1) 01 (0 11 01 (0 1) 01 (0.1) 01 (0 1) 01 (0 1)
Hispanic 02 (0.5) 0.0 (0.0) 01 (0.2) 0.2 (0.2) 01 (0 5) -0 1 (0.7) 01 (0.5)
Total 250 19 6 (0 7) 18.8 (1 0) 20 7 (0 9) 27 7 (0.9) 27 8 (0 9) 8.2 (1 1) 90 (1.3)

White 22 9 (0 9) 21 8 (1 11 24 6 (1 0) 32 7 (1 0) 32 4 (1 0) 95 (1.3) 10 6 (1 5)
Black 4.1 (0 6) 44 (0 8, 56 (0 9) 94 (1 7) 96 (1 4) 5.5 (1 5) 52 (1.6)
Hispanic 92 (2 5) 7.8 (1 71 73 (2 8) 11 3 (3 5) 11 7 12 51 25 (3.5) 39 (3.0)
Total 200 70 4 (0 9) 71 4 (1 2) 74 1 (1 2) 81.5 (1 01 81 4 10 8) 11 0 (12) 10 0 (14)

White 76.3 (1 0) 76 8 (1 21 79 6 (1.3i 86.9 (0 9) 86 9 (0 7) 10 6 (1.2) 10 1 (1 4)
Black 42 0 (1 4) 46 1 12 4) 53 4 12 5) 60 0 (2 8) 59.8 (2.8) 17 8 (3 1) 13 7 (3 7)
Hispanic 54.2 (2.8) 55.7 (2.3) 57 6 (2.9) 68 4 (3.0) 65.0 (2 9) 10 8 (4 0) 93 (3-71
NOTE' Standard errors appear in parentheses

SOURCE Mullis, I V S , et a) (19,, NAEP 1992 trends in academic progress (Report No 23-TF101) Washington. DC National Center tor
1-)licatcis of Science zinc MathernalCS Eaucation 1995
1 39
APPENDIX TABLES 129
Appendix table 2-3
Percent of eighth-grade mathematics students performing at each

proficiency level, by race or ethnic origin and socioeconomic status: 1988
Proficiency level and race Socioeconomic status

or ethnic origin of student Total Low Middle High
Percent performing below basic level

White 15 5 10 7) 25 8 (2.0) 16.1 (0 9) 8.2 (0 8)
Black 28.9 (1 9i 33.4 (3 1) 26.6 (2 7) 20.1 (4 8)
Hispanic 27.6 (1.8) 32.8 (2.8) 24 8 (2.8) 14.0 (4 3)
Asian 13.4 (2.0) 27.6 (6.01 13.0 (3.0) 6.4 (2.3)
Percent performing at basic level

White 37 9 (0 91 48 1 (2,2) 41.3 (1 3) 25 8 (1.3)
Black 49 4 (2.11 51.3 (3.3) 50.9 (3 I) 34 7 (5 6)
Hispanic 46.8 (2.0) 49.3 (2.9) 46.6 (3.2) 36 5 (5.9)
Asian 30 7 (2 7) 38.3 (6.5) 39.5 (4 3) 15.9 (3.4)
Percent performing at intermediate level

White 24.3 (0 8) 19.4 (1 8) 24.8 (1.1) 26.3 (1 3)
Black 16.5 (1.6) 13.0 (2.2) 18.0 (2.4) 24 2 (5.1)
Hispanic 16.9 (1.5) 13.5 (2.0) 18.9 (2.5) 24.2 (5 3)
Asian 21.2 (2.4) 15.7 (4.9) 21.4 (3.6) 23.8 (4 0)
Percent performing at advanced level

White 22.4 (0.7) 6.8 (1.1) 17.9 (1.0) 39.8 (1.5)
Black 5.3 (0.9) 2.3 (1.0) 4.6 (1.3) 21.0 (4.8)
Hispanic 8.7 (1 2) 4.3 (1.2) 9.7 (1.9) 25.4 (5.3)
Asian 34.7 (2.8) 18.5 (5.2) 26.0 (3.9) 53.9 (4.7)
NOTES Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Standard errors appear in parentheses.
SOURCE Rock. D.A . Pollack. J M.. & Hamner A (1991) The tested achievement of the national education longitudinal
study of the 1988 eighth grade class (NCES 91-460). Washington. DC. U.S. Department of Education.

Appendix table 2-4

Average percent of questions answered correctly on the NAEP mathematics
exam, by type of question, race or ethnic origin, and age: 1992
Type of question and race or ethnic origin Age 9 Age 13 Age 17
Extended constructed response

White 20 (0.8) 10 (0.6) 10 (0.5)
Black 5 (0.7) 2 (0.3) 4 (0.7)
Hispanic 7 (1.0) 3 (0.5) 4 (0.6)
Short constructed response

White 47 (0.6) 59 (0.6) 44 (0.6)
Black 24 (0.8) 36 (0.9) 26 (0.9)
Hispanic 31 (0.7) 42 (0.7) 32 (0.9)
Multiple choice
White 53 (0.5) 60 (0.5) 59 (0.4)
Black 38 (0.6) 42 (0.6) 46 (0.9)
Hispanic 42 (0.7) 46 (0.7) 49 (1.0)
NOTES: Standard errors appear in parentheses Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
SOURCE: Dossey, J.A., Mullis, I.V.S., & Jones, C.O. (1993). Can students do mathematical problem solving') Results from
constructed-response questions in NAEP's 1992 mathematics assessment Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education
Indicators tor Science and Mathematics Education 1995
Appendix table 2-5

NAEP science proficiency, by percent of students at or above selected
anchor points, sex, and age: 1977 to 1992
Anchor Difference
Sex and age point 1977 19 82 198 6 1990 1992 1977 to 1992
Age 17
Male 300 48 8 (1 1) 45 2 (1 2) 48 8 (2 11 48 2 (1 6) 50 9 (2.0) 21 (2 3)
Female 34 8 (1.0) 29 9 (1 2) 34 1 (1.5) 38 7 (1 7) 42.0 (1 7) 72 (2.0)
Male 250 85.2 (0 7) 81 2 11 2) 82 4 (1 4) 82 5 (1.2) 85 0 (1.4) -0 2 (1 6)
Female 78 0 11 01 72 2 (1 31 79 1 (1 7) 79 9 (1 4) 81 6 (1 4) 36 (1 7)
Age 13
Male 250 52.3 (1.31 56.2 (1.8) 57.3 (2 1) 59 8 (1.3) 62 9 (1 41 10 6 (1.9)
Female 45 4 (1 21 46 0 (1 6) 47 7 (1 7) 53.3 (1.4) 59 6 (1.4) 14 2 (1 8)
Age 9
Male 200 69 5 (1.2) 69 7 (2 0) 74 1 (1 4) 76 3 (1 2) 80.4 (1 4) 10 9 (1.8)
Female 66 5 (1 1 71 8 (2 2) 70 0 (1.3) 76 4 (1 1) 75 7 (1 2) 92 (1 6)
NOTE Standard errors appear in parentheses

SOURCE. Mullis. I V S . et al. (1994) NAEP 1992 trends in academic progress (Report No 23-TRO1) Washington.
DC National Center tor Education Statistics
Incticatc-s al Science aÎ Mathernalics Educal.)rl 1995
APPENDIX TABLES 131
Appendix table 2-6

NAEP mathematics proficiency, by percent of students at or above
selected anchor points, sex, and age: 1978 to 1992
Anchor Difference
Sex and ag point 19 78 1982 19 86 19 90 1992 1 9 7 8 -1 9 9 2
Age 17
Male 300 55.1 (1.2) 51.9 (1.5) 54 6 (1 8) 57.6 (1 41 60.5 (1.8) 5.4 (2.2)
Female 48.2 (1 3) 45.3 (1.4) 48 9 (1.7) 54.7 (1.8) 57.7 (1.6) 9 5 (2.1)
Male 250 93.0 (0.5) 93.9 (0.6) 96.1 (0 6) 95.8 (0.8) 96.9 (0.6) 3.9 (0.8)
Female 91.0 (0.6) 92.1 (0.6) 95.1 (0.7) 96 2 (0.8) 96.3 (0.8) 5 3 (1.0)
Age 13
Male 250 63.9 (1.3) 71.3 (1.4) 73.8 (1 8) 75.1 (1.8) 78 1 (1.6) 14 2 (2.1)
Female 65.9 (1.2) 71 4 (1.3) 72.7 (1.9) 74.4 (1.3) 77 7 (1.1) 11.8 (1.6)
Age 9
Male 200 68.9 (1.0) 68.8 (1 3) 74.0 (1.4) 80.6 (1.0) 81.9 (1 0) 13.0 (1.4)
Female 72.0 (1.1) 74.0 (1.3) 74.3 (1.3) 82.3 (1.3) 80.9 (1.1) 8.9 (1 6)
NOTE: Standard errors appear in parentheses.

SOURCE: Mullis. I.V.S., et al. (1994). NAEP 1992 trends in academic progress (Report No. 23-TR01). Washington, DC:
National Center for Education Statistics.

Appendix table 2-7
IAEP science scores for selected countries at

5th percentile, mean, and 95th percentile, by age: 1991
Age end country 5th Percentile Mean (average) 95th Percentile
Age 13
Ireland 36.1 (0.8) 63 3 (0.6) 88 9 (0.0)
United States 40.3 (4.9) 67.0 (1.0) 91 7 (0 0)
Spain 43.5 (0.7) 67.5 (0.6) 86.9 (0.0)
Scotland 38.9 (1.2) 67.9 (0.6) 91 7 (0.0)
France 40.3 (1.4) 68.6 (0.6) 91.7 (0.0)
Canada 43.1 (0.0) 68.8 (0.4) 90 3 (1.0)
Israel 42.4 (2.8) 69.7 (0.7) 91.7 (0 0)
Italy 44.4 (0.0) 69.9 (0.7) 91.7 (0.0)
Slovenia 44.4 (0.0) 70.3 (0.5) 91 7 (0.0)
Soviet Union 44.4 (2.2) 71 3 (1.0) 93 1 (3.1)
Hungary 45.8 (1.6) 73.4 (0.5) 94.4 (0 0)
Switzerland 50.0 (0.7) 73.7 (0.9) 94.4 (0.0)
Taiwan 43.1 (1.4) 75.6 (0.4) 95.8 (0.0)
Korea 50.0 (4.8) 77.5 (0.5) 95.8 (0.0)
Age 9
Ireland 29 3 (1.6) 56.5 (0.7) 81.0 (1.8)
Slovenia 35.1 (0.2) 57 7 (0.5) 79.0 (0.0)
Israel 36.2 (1.4) 61.2 (0.7) 86.2 (0.0)
Soviet Union 39.7 (1.5) 61.5 (1.2) 86.2 (2.4)
Spain 36.2 (0.0) 61.7 (0.7) 84.5 (0.0)
Hungary 38 5 (0 7) 62 5 (0.5) 84 2 (2.9)
Canada 37.9 (1.1) 62 8 (0.4) 84 5 (0.0)
United States 36 2 (1.7) 64 7 (0.9) 87 9 (0.0)
Taiwan 39 7 (0 0) 66.7 (0.5) 89 7 10 0)
Korea 44 8 (0.4) 67 9 (0.5) 87 9 (0.0)

SOURCE 3yDee. R W . et al (1994). Science Measuring U.S students' success Princeton. NJ Educational
Testing Service
indicators of Science arie Mathematics Eciucation 1995
1 13
APPENDIX TABLES 133
Appendix table 2-8
IAEP mathematics scores for selected countries at

5th percentile, mean, and 95th percentile, by age: 1991
Age and country 5th Percentile Mean (average) 95th Percenti le
Age 13
United States 24 0 (0 6) 55.3 (1 0) 90.7 (0.1)
Spain 28 6 (0 5) 55.4 (0 8) 84.7 (1 3)
Slovenia 27.1 (4 4) 57.1 (0.8) 88.0 (2 6)
Ireland 26.8 (1 7) 60.5 (0 9) 90.7 (0.0)
Scotland 29.0 (3 9) 60.6 (0.9) 90.7 (0.0)
Canada 32.0 (0 0) 62.0 (0 6) 91.8 (4 3)
Israel 30.7 (0.9) 63.1 (0 8) 90.7 (0.0)
Italy 32.4 (1 5) 64.0 (0.9) 91.8 (0.5)
France 30 7 (0 8) 64.2 (0.8) 92.0 (5 3)
Hungary 32.4 (2.31 68.4 (0.8) 96.0 (0.0)
Soviet Union 35.2 (1 4) 70.2 (1.0) 94.7 (0 0)
Switzerland 42.7 (0 8) 70.8 (1.3) 94.7 (0.0)
Taiwan 26.7 (0 6) 72.7 (0.7) 98.7 (0.0)
Korea 33.3 (2.81 73.4 (0.6) 97.3 (1.9)
Age 9
Slovenia 27.7 (1.8) 55.8 (0.6) 84.5 (0.0)
United States 24.6 (0.0) 58.4 (1.0) 90.2 (2.3)
Canada 28.3 (2.5) 59.5 (0.5) 88.5 (0.0)
Ireland 24.6 (0.4) 60.0 (0.8) 90.2 (0.0)
Spain 26.8 (1 8) 61.9 (1.0) 90.2 (2.4)
Israel 30.4 (2.8) 64.4 (0.7) 91.8 (0.0)
Soviet Union 30.8 (1.0) 65.9 (1.3) 93.4 (2.3)
Taiwan 32.1 (4.6) 68.1 (0.8) 95.1 (0.0)
Hungary 33.3 (1 5) 68.2 (0.6) 93.4 (0.0)
Korea 41.0 (2.8) 74.8 (0.6) 95.1 (0.0)

SOURCE Dossey. J A . et al. (1994). Mathematics: How do L/ S. students measure up? Princeton, NJ.
Erl-cational Testing Service.
Appendix table 3-1

Percent of states imposing graduation requirements in mathematics: 1974 to 1992
Years
required 1974 1980 1983 1985 1987 1989 1990 1992
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
None 29 27 24 12 12 10 12 14
0.5-0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0-1 9 55 55 18 4 4 2 2 0
2.0-2 9 14 16 51 67 65 65 65 61
3.0-3.9 2 2 8 18 20 22 22 25
4.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NOTES: All 50 states and the District of Columbia are included in this table. Totals may not equal 100 percent as a result of rounding. Some states
required an additional year of coursework in either science or mathematics. This table counts such a requirement as one-half year in each subject.
SOURCES: Stecher. B. (1991). Describing secondary curnculum in mathematics and science: Current conditions and future indicators (N-3406-
NSF) A RAND note presented to the National Science Foundation. Arlington, VA: Blank. R. K. & Gruebel, D. (1993). State indicators of science
and mathematics education 1993 Washington. DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.
Appendix table 3-2

Average number of minutes per day spent teaching each subject
to self-contained classes, by grade range: 1977 to 1993
Grade range Year Reading Mathematics Science
Grades 1-3 1977 95 (1.6) 41 (0 6) 17 (0.21

1936 84 (1.6) 46 (0.6) 20 (0 4)
1993 85 (2 1) 50 (0 7) 24 (0.71
Grades 4-6 1977 66 (1.3) 51 (0 4) 28 (0.6)

1986 63 (1.3) 52 (0 6) 29 (1.0)
1993 61 (1.8) 53 (1 1) 36 (2.1)
The survey used estimates for teachers of grades K-3

NOTES. Self-contained refers to teachers who ate responsible for teaching most or all of their academic subjects in one
class. Standard errors appear in parentheses.
SOURCES: Weiss. I.R. (1987). Report of the 1985-86 national survey of science and mathematics education
Research Triangle Park, NC. Research Triangle Institute: Weiss. I R . Matt. M C . & Smith. P S (1994) Report of the
1993 national survey of science and mathematics education ChapeI Hill NC Horizon Research. Inc
ino,cators ot Science and Mathematics Educat. if', 1995

APPENDIX TABLES 135
Appendix table 3-3

Mean number of credits earned by high school graduates in each
subject field: 1982 to 1992
Subject 1982 1987 1990 1992
English 3.8 (0.03) 4 0 (0 02) 4.1 (0.04) 4 2 (0 02)

History or social stuaies 3 1 (0.02) 3 3 (0.04) 3.5 (0.03) 3.5 (0.02)
Mathematics 2 6 (0 02) 3 0 (0.03) 3.1 (0.03) 3 3 (0 02)
Science 2 2 (0 02) 2.6 (0 051 2.9 (0.03) 3 0 (0.03)
Foreign language 1 1 (0.03) 1.5 (0.05) 1.6 (0.04) 1.8 (0.04)
Computer science 0.1 (0.01) 0.0 (0.02) 0.0 (0.02) 0 6 (0.01)
NOTES. Standard errors appear in parentheses. Credits are measured in Carnegie Units.
SOURCES: Legum. S . et al. (1993). The 1990 high scrw.-1 transcript study tabulations: Comparative data on credits
earned and demographics for 1990. 1987. and 1982 school graduate (NCES 93-423). Washington. DC. National
Center for Education Statistics: National Center for Education Statistics. 09921. National education longitudinal study
of 1988. Second teacher lollow-up study. Unpublished tabulations
Appendix table 3-4

Percent of high school graduates earning minimum credits in science
courses, by sex, and race or ethnic origin: 1982 to 1992
Course Year Total Male Female White Black Hispanic
Any science 1982 97.6 97.5 97.7 97.7 98.6 95.9

1987 98.7 98.4 (0.4) 99.0 (0.3) 98.7 (0.4) 98.7 (0.4) 98.5 (0.6)
1990 99.4 99.2 (0.3) 99.7 (0.1) 99.5 (0.2) 99.0 (0.7) 99.3 (0.3)
1992 99.6 99.5 99.7 99.5 100.0 99.7
Biology 1982 76.7 76.5 80.6 80.1 75.3 73.2

1987 88.3 (0.9) 87.0 (1 2) 89.7 (0 7) 89.2 (1 0) 86.2 (1 7) 85.4 (1.7)
1990 91.6 (0 9) 90.4 (1 0) 92.7 (0 9) 92.0 (1.0) 91.0 (2.3) 90.3 (1.4)
1992 93.0 91.9 94.2 93.5 92.2 91.2
Chemistry 1982 31.6 32.4 30 9 34 7 22.5 16.7
1987 44.8 (1.1) 45.9 (1.3) 43.7 (1 2) 47.7 (1 2) 29.8 (1 7) 29.4 (1.5)
1990 49.6 (1.3) 48.8 (1.4) 50.4 (1.4) 52.3 (1 4) 40.3 (2.2) 38 8 (2 8)
1992 55.5 54.2 55.8 58.0 45.9 42.6
Physics 1982 13.5 17.9 9.4 15.3 6.8 55
1987 19.5 (0.9) 24.6 (1 0) 14 8 (0 9) 20.9 (1.0) 10 1 (1.1) 9.8 (1 1)

1990 21.5 (0 8) 25.5 (0.9) 17.8 (0.9) 23.1 (0.91 14.5 (1.9) 13.0 (1.3)
1992 24.7 28.2 21.4 25.9 17.6 15.7
NOTES: Standard errors appear in parentheses. Standard errors are not available for 1982 and 1992. Because of the use of a
different editing procedure. the statistics shown for 1982 differ slightly from previously published figures. Credits are measured in
Carnegie Units.
SOURCES. Legum. S . et al (1993). The 1990 high school transcript study tabulations: Comparative data on credits earned and
demographics for 1990. 1987, and 1982 high school graduates INCES 93-4231 Washington. DC National Center for Education
Statistics: Smith, T M . et al. (1994) The condition of education. 1994 (NCES 94-149). Washington. DC. National Center for
Indicators 01 Soence dna Mathematics Education 1995 146
Appendix table 3-5

Percent of high school graduates earning minimum credits in
mathematics courses, by sex, and race or ethnic origin: 1982 to 1992
Course Year Total Male Female White Black Hispanic
Any mathematics 1982 99.0 99.4 98.7 99.1 99.6 98:6

1987 99.4 99.3 (0.2) 99.4 (0.1) 99.3 (0.2) 99.5 (0.2) 99.4 (0.2)
1990 99.6 99.4 (0.2) 99.7 (0.1) 99.7 (0.1) 98.7 (0.7) 99.8 (0.2)
1992 99 6 99.3 99.9 99.7 99 1 99.8
Algebra I 1982 68.4 66.4 70.4 71.1 61.1 59.9

1987 76 3 (0.8) 75.3 (0.9) 77.2 (0.9) 77.7 (1.1) 70 7 (1.2) 73.1 (1.6)
1990 77.3 (1.2) 75.6 (1.2) 78.8 (1.4) 77.2 (1.4) 77.6 (2.1) 81.4 (2.1)
1992 79.4 80.0 78.9 79.6 78.0 8.4.4
Geometry 1982 48.4 48.3 48.5 53.9 30 3 29.0

1987 61.5 (0.9) 61.2 (1.2) 61.7 (1.0) 65.1 (1.2) 44 0 (1.9) 40.2 (1.7)
1990 64.7 (1.3) 63.9 (1.5) 65.4 (1.3) 67.2 (1.4) 56.3 (2.7) 54 4 (2.8)
1992 70.4 69.0 71.7 72.6 60.4 62.9
Algebra II 1982 36.9 37.5 36.3 40.5 26.2 22.5

1987 47.1 (1.8) 45.8 (1.9) 48.4 (1.9) 51.9 (1.9) 32.4 (1.5) 30.2 (2.0)
1990 49.2 (1.4) 47.8 (1.5) 50.5 (1.5) 52.4 (1.7) 39.0 (2.9) 38.6 (2.7)
1952 56.1 54.0 58.1 59.2 40.9 46.9
Trigonometry 1982 12.2 13.3 11.2 13.8 6.3 6.8

1987 19.0 (1.5) 20.3 (1.8) 17.8 (1.4) 20.9 (1.8) 10.9 (1.1) 9.9 (0.9)
1990 18.4 (1.3) 18.4 (1.4) 18.3 (1.3) 19.6 (1.4) 14.1 (1.9) 11.0 (1.5)
1992 21 1 21 4 20.8 22 5 13 0 15.2
Calculus 1982 4.3 4.7 4.0 5.0 1.4 1.6
1987 6 2 (0.4) 7.7 (0.6) 4.7 (0.4) 5.9 (0.4) 2 3 (0 4) 3.6 (0.7)
1990 6.6 (0.5) 7 7 (0.6) 5.6 (0.4) 7.0 (0.5) 2 8 (0.5) 3 9 (0.7)
1992 10 1 10 3 9.8 10.7 6.9 4.7
NOTES. Standard errors appear in parentneses. Standard errors are not available for 1982 and 1992. Because of the use of a different
editing procedure, the statistics shown tor 1982 differ slightly from previously published figures. Credits are measured in Carnegie Units
SOURCES: Legum S.. et al. (1993) The 1990 high school transcript Study tabulations. Comparative data on credits earned and
demographics for 1990. 1987. and 1982 high school graduates (NCES 93-423). Washington. DC: National Center for Education
Statistics: Smith. T. M.. et al (1994). The condition of education. 1994 (NCES 94-149). Washington. DC. National Center for Education
Statistics.
Inthcators of Sc.ence and Mathematics Education 1995
I47
APPENDIX TABLES 137
Appendix table 3-6

Percent of high school classes perceived as low and high ability,
by percent minority in class: 1993
Low ability High ability
Percent minority Science Mathematics Science Mathematics
Less than 10% 9 (31) 6 (1.6) 31 (4.6) 28 (4.1)
10% to 39% 10 (19) 11 (2.4) 28 (3.4) 24 (2.9)
40% or more 15 (14) 24 (4.2) 14 (2.3) 11 (2.5)
NOTE: Standard errors appear in parentheses

SOURCE Weiss. I.R. (1994). 1993 National survey of science and mathematics education. Unpublished tabulations
irtaicators 01 Science ana Matnemaucs Education 1995
Appendix table 3-7

Percent of grades 10-12 science and mathematics classes
where teachers report ability grouping: 1986 and 1993
Science Mathematics
Ability grouping 1986 1993 1986 1993
Total 100 100 100 100
Homogeneous, low ability 10 (1.3) 7 (1.3) 19 (2.2) 10 (1.5)
Homogeneous, average ability 33 (1.9) 28 (2.8) 29 (2.5) 31 (1.9)
Homogeneous. high ability 35 (1 9) 29 (2.0) 34 (2.6) 25 (3.2)
Heterogeneous 22 (1.7) 36 (2.2) 18 (2.1) 34 (2.6)
NOTES: Standard errors appear in parentheses. Totals may not equal 100 percent as a result of rounding.
SOURCES. Weiss. I.R (1987). Report of the 1985-86 national survey of science and mathematics education.
Reseaich Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute; Weiss. I.R. (1994). 1993 National survey of science and
mathematics education. Unpublished tabulations.
indicators of Science and Mathematics Education 1995
Appendix table 3-8

Number of fuli-time and part-time teachers in science and mathematics in the
United States, by sex, race or ethnic origin, and teaching assignment:
1988 and 1991
Year and grade range Total Male Female White Black Hispanic Other
1 988
Total 2.592,673 742.710 1.839.119 2 244,888 189,849 75.142 49,589
Elementary grades K-6 1,256.132 145,529 1,105,024 1,076,667 99,102 41,188 24,472
Secondary grades 7-12
All secondary teachers 1.336.541 597,185 734,095 1,168,222 90,747 33,954 25,118
Science and mathematics specialists 476.600 230.016 245.021 415,865 33,486 10.280 10.265
Primary or secondary assignment
Biology 52,231 30,086 21,984 47,150 2,149 866 1,189
Chemistry 19,683 12.708 6.930 17,728 753 297 598
Earth science 21,143 12.671 8.413 18,210 1,892 442 338
Physics 8.908 6,817 2.091 8,343 161 95 220
General science 52.772 28.718 23.963 46,812 3,682 1,050 647
Mathematics 180,954 89,289 90,800 158,199 12,449 4,240 3,877
Other fields 140,908 49.726 90,840 119,423 12,399 3,291 3,396
Other teachers 859,941 362,558 481.444 742,467 55.744 23,241 14.637
1991
Total 2,882,547 797.836 2.084,712 2,516,238 216,132 97,491 52,686
Elementary grades K-6 1.418,958 163.643 1.255.315 1.218.898 116.602 53,076 30.383
Secondary grades 7-12
All secondary teachers 1 463,589 634.193 829.396 1.297.340 99.530 44,416 22.304
Science and mamematics specialis(s 461.120 225.986 235 134 411,135 29.989 12,101 7.896
Primary or secondary assignment
Biology 67.151 36.919 30.231 60,186 3.639 2.303 1,022
Chemistry 23.618 14.643 8.975 21,900 1.004 521 192
Earth science 19,074 10.935 8,139 17.221 1,090 601 162
Physics 10.022 8,105 1.917 9.635 102 53 233
General science 56,572 29.663 26.908 50.276 4.021 1.354 920
Mathematics 200.959 98,168 102,791 176.183 15.155 5.584 4.037
Other fields 83.724 27,552 56,172 75,734 4,977 1,683 1.330
Other teachers 1.002.469 408.207 594.262 886.205 69.54 1 32.315 14.408
SOURCE National Center for Education Statistics (1994) 7990-91 Scnools and staffing survey (SASS) Unpublished tabulations
Indica !ors booncr ano Mathemalcs Edecal.on 1995
APPENDIX TABLES 139
Appendix table 3-9

Percent of public school grades 9-12 science and mathematics teachers
who are female or minority, by state: 1991
Percent female Percent minority Percent female Percent minority
State science teachers science teachers mathematics teachers mathematics teachers
Total 35 (1 5) 10 (0 9) 45 (1.5) 13 (1.7)
Alabama 71 (4 8) 16 (4.7) 71 (5.9) 14 (4 7)

Alaska 15 (7 6) 8 (4 5) 27 (6.9) 4 (1 8)
Arizona 37 (7 6) 7 (3.5) 47 (7.3) 14 (4 1)
Arkansas 51 (8.6) 19 (6.7) 56 (9.0) 8 (3.0)
California 25 (7.3) 28 (6.1) 32 (6.8) 36 (8.2)
Colorado 33 (5.3) 5 (2.7) 27 (5.5) 2 (1 3)
Connecticut 40 (8.9) 9 (2.8) 59 (8.2)
Delaware - -
District of Columbia - - - -
Florida 42 (8.4) 24 (7 3) 64 (7.4) 9 (3 8)
Georgia se (9.1) 18 (5.5) 68 (7 2) 17 (5.2)
Hawaii - - -
Idaho 24 (5.5) 35 (4 3) 5 (1.9)
Illinois 41 (7 8) 4 (0 7) 36 (6.6) 13 (3.4)
Indiana 13 (4.0) 4 (2.3) 45 (6.3) 6 (2.1)
Iowa 25 (8.6) 36 (7.0)
Kansas 29 (8.0) 44 (6 7) (0.0)
Kentucky 51 (7.3) 65 (4.8) 3 (1.9)
Louisiana 41 (6 7) 24 (7.1) 51 (6.2) 27 (7.4)
Maine 22 (5.6) 0 (0.0) 31 (3.8)
Maryland 53 (11.2) 10 (5.8) 51 (8.3) 14 (5.5)
Massachusetts 27 (6.0) 1 (1.0) 40 (6.3) 5 (2.5)
Michigan 27 (5.6) 17 (5.5)
Minnesota 17 (4.8) 0 (0.0) 31 (5.4)
Mississippi 48 (6 1) 34 (6.7) 61 (5.9) 32 (5.9)
Missouri 30 (7.0) 47 (6.8)
Montana 19 (4 0) 21 (6.1)
Nebraska 18 (5.1) 33 (8.7) (0.0)
Nevada - 60 (11.8) 15 (9.5)
New Hampshire - - - -
New Jersey 32 (7.0) 5 (3.6) 47 (8.0) 5 (3.3)
New Mexico 40 (6.4) 33 (10.7) 48 (9.9) 28 (6.8)
New York 31 (7.4) 3 (1.9) 49 (7.1) 8 (3.4)
North Carolina 57 (6.3) 14 (5.4) 59 (7.1) 17 (5.0)
North Dakota 21 (4.4) 0 (0 0) 37 (4 9)
Ohio 32 (7.9) 0 (0.0) 31 (7.2) (0.0)
Oklahoma 25 (5.1) 6 (2.6) 50 (6.5) 13 (4.8)
Oregon 25 (6.0) 29 (5.6) 4 (1.9)
Pennsylvania 29 (5.6) 48 (7.9)
Rhode Island - - - -
South Carolina 47 (4.5) 29 (6.9) 70 (6 2) 11 (3.6)
South Dakota 25 (5.2) 43 (4.4) (0.0)
Tennessee, 48 (6 9) 14 (3.8) 62 (7.5) 9 (2 9)
Texas 43 (4.7) 17 (4.2) 54 (5.6) 17 (4.2)
Utah 27 (6 7) 32 (5.0) 6 (2.4)
Vermont - -
Virginia 46 (9.3) 63 (6.6) 18 (5.9)
Washington 25 (5 1) 4 (3.1) 24 (6.8) 6 (1.8)
West Virginia 55 (8 21 56 (6.5)
Wisconsin 16 (4.5) 30 (8.3)
Wyoming 19 (6.1) 28 (7.4)
Less thon 0.5 percent.

-- Too few sample cases for a reliable estimate
SOURCE: Blank, R.K., Matti. M.C., Weiss. I.R.. Broughman. S & Rollefson. M (1994) SASS by state, 1990-91 schools
and staffing survey: Selected state results (NCES 94-343) Washington. DC' National Center for Education Statistics.
150
Appendix table 3-10

Distribution of science and mathematics teachers, by race
or ethnic origin and grade range: 1986 and 1993
Grade range
Year Race or ethnic origin 1-6 7-9 10-12
1986 Total 100 100 100
White 86 ( 1.0) 93 (1 1) 94 (0.8)
Black 10 (0.8) 6 (1.0) 4 (0.6)
Hispanic 3 (0.5) 1 (0 4) 1 (0 3)
Other 1 (0.3) 1 (0.4) 1 (0.3)
1993 Total 100 100 100
White 89 (1 3) 91 (1.2) 93 (0.7)

Black 5 (0.8) 6 (0 6) 3 (0.5)
Hispanic 4 (1.1) 2 (0 4) 1 (0.3)
Other 1 (0.3) 2 (0.7) 2 (0.5)
SOURCES: Weiss. I.R. (1987). Report of the 1985-86 national survey of science and mathemahcs nducation. Research
Triangle Park, NC: Research *Mangle institute; Weiss, I R. (1994). 1993 National survey of science and mathematics
education. Unpublished tabulations.
4icators ot Smence and Mathematics Education 1995
Appendix table 3-11

Percent of science and mathematics teachers with master's degrees,
by years of teaching experience and by grade range: 1993
Grade range
Years of teaching experience 1-4 5-8 9-12
0 to 2 8 (1.9) 11 (2 7) 21 (4.4)
3 to 5 19 (3.5) 17 (4.2) 31 (3.7)
6 to 10 39 (4 4) 34 (5.8) 45 (4 7)
11 to 20 40 (3 9) 50 (4.31 62 (2.4)
21 or more 47 (4 3) 58 (3.9) 72 (2.4)

SOURCE Weiss. I.R. (1994). 1993 National survey of science ano m,-ithematics education Unpublished tabulations
Inclsatnrs t Soe,%;CI and MaMemuks Educahon 1995
15
APPENDIX TABLES 141
Appendix table 3-12
Percent of science and mathematics classes about which teachers

report having strong control over various curriculum and instructional
decisions, by grade range: 1993
Grade range
Field and decision 1-4 5-8 9-12
Science
Selecting teaching techniques 66 (2 1) 72 (3.0) 79 (3.0)
Determining amount of homework to be assigned 72 (2.1) 75 (3 1) 81 (2.5)
Setting pace for covering topics 56 (2.5) 63 (2.8) 71 (2.6)
Choosing criteria for grading students 60 (3.4) 66 (3.1) 69 (2.5)
Selecting sequence in which topics are covered 56 (2.0) 62 (3.0) 68 (2 7)
Selecting other instructional matenals 30 (2.01 42 (2.8) 55 (3 8)
Determining goals and oblectives 32 (1.9) 40 (3.0) 53 (3.71
Selecting content, topics, and skills to be taught 27 (2.5) 36 (2.6) 50 (3.3)
Selecting textbooks 11 (1.5) 25 (2.3) 45 (4.2)
Mathematics
Selecting teaching techniques 69 (2.7) 71 (2.7) 76 (1.4)
Determining amount of homework to be assigned 68 (3.1) 72 (2.9) 79 (1.8)
Setting pace for covering topics 60 (3.3) 55 (3.1) 56 (2.4)
Choosing criteria for grading students 53 (2.7) 63 (2.7) 66 (2.3)
Selecting sequence in which topics are covered 52 (2.1) 52 (2.9) 54 (2.4)
Selecting other instructional materials 36 (2.3) 40 (2.1) 52 (2.2)
Determining goals and objectives 29 (3.1) 33 (1.8) 41 (2.4)
Selecting content, topics, and skills to be taught 22 (2.0) 27 (2.2) 39 (2.4)
Selecting textbooks 12 (1.4) 20 (2.0) 35 (2.6)
NOTES: Teachers were given a five-point scale for each decision, with 1 labeled as ''no contror and 5 labeled 'strong control
Standard errors appear in parentheses.
SOURCE. Weiss, I.R., Matti, M.G.. & Smith, P.S. (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics
education. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc.

Appendix table 3-13
Percent of 12th-grade science and mathematics students whose teachers

report having "complete control" over particular decisions, by subject: 1992
All science
Decision Science Mathematics and mathematics
Determining amount of homework 70 71 71
Selecting teaching techniques 68 69 69
Selecting content, topics, and skills to be taught 45 24 32
Disciplining students 37 41 40
Selecting textbooks and other instructional materials 37 19 27
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics (1992). National education longitudinal study of 1988: Second teacher follow-up
study Unpublished tabulctions
Appendix table 3-14

Percent of 12th-grade science and mathematics students whose teachers
report having "complete control" over particular decisions, by region: 1992
Area Midwest Northeast South West
Determining amount of homework 69 72 71 74
Selecting teaching techniques 69 76 64 71
Selecting content, topics, and skills to be taught 39 34 24 37
Disciplining students 38 48 36 41
Selecting textbooks and other instructional materials 32 36 18 27
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics (1992) National education longitudinal study of 1988. Second teacher follow-up
study Unpublished tabulations.
APPENDIX TABLES 143
Appendix table 3-15
Percent of 12th-grade science and mathematics students whose teachers report

having "complete control" over particular decisions, by overall proficiency level: 1992
Proficiency level
Below
Sublect and area Level 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
Science
Determining amount of homework 73 71 72 70
Selecting teaching techniques 68 66 68 71
Selecting content, topics, and skills to be taught 26 29 33 36
Disciplining students 41 38 40 41
Selecting textbooks and other instructional materials 20 21 28 32
Mathematics
Determining amount of homework 70 74 72 73 70 69
Selecting teaching techniques 64 66 67 69 69 73
Selectina content, topics, and skills to be taught 25 27 29 33 35 36
Disciplining students 35 38 38 42 40 44
Selecting textbooks and other instructional materials 15 20 21 28 30 35
-- Not applicable.
NOTES: Science levels of proficiency as defined by the NELS:88 Second follow-up student component data file user's manual are as follows:
Science Level 1: Understanding of everyday science concepts. "common knowledge" that can be acquired in everyday life.
Science Level 2: Understanding of fundamental science concepts upon which more complex science knowledge can be built.
Science Level 3: Understanding of relatively complex scientific concepts, typically requiring an additional problem-solving step.
Mathematics levels of proficiency as defined by their NELS:88 Second follow-up student component data file user's manual are as follows:
Math Level 1: Simple arithmetical operations on whole numbers, essentially single-step operations that rely on rote memory.
Math Level 2: Simple operations with decimals, fractions, powers, and roots.
Math Level 3: Simple problem solving, requiring the understanding of low-level mathematical concepts.
Math Level 4: Understanding of intermediate-level mathematical concepts or having the ability to formulate multistep solutions to work problems.
Math Level 5: Proficiency in solving complex multistep word problems or the ability to demonstrate knowledge of mathematics material found in
advanced mathematics courses.
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. (1992). National education longitudinal study of 1988: Second teacher follow-up study.
Appendix table 3-16
Percent of mathematics teachers who are familiar with the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics' standards, by level of familiarity and grade range: 1993
Grade range
Standard and level of familiarity 1-4 5-8 9-12
Curriculum and evaluation standards
Total 100 100 100
Well aware of them 18 (1 6) 28 (2.2) 56 (2.6)

Heard about them, but
don't know much about them 39 (1.8) 41 (3.0) 33 (2.7)
Not aware of them 30 (2.9) 22 (2.6) 8 (1.4)
Not sure 13 (1.2) 9 (2 1) 3 (0.3)
Professional standards for teaching
Total 100 100 100
Well aware of them 12 (1.3) 19 (1.7) 40 (2.0)

Heard about them, but
don't know much about them 38 (2.0) 48 (3.0) 44 (2.7)
Not aware of them 38 (2.8) 25 (2.8) 13 (1.8)
Not sure 12 (1.3) 8 (1.4) 3 (0.4)
SOURCE: Weiss. 1.8 . Matti. M C.. & Smith. P.S (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education. Chapel Hill. NC:
Horizon Research, Inc
Indicators of Science and Mathernancs Education 1995
155
APPENDIX TABLES 145
Appendix table 3-17

Percent of science and mathematics teachers agreeing with each of a number
of statements related to curriculum and instruction, by grade range: 1993
Grade range
Field and statement 1-4 5-8 9-12
Science
Students learn best when they study science in the context of 94 (1.4) 94 (2 2) 86 (4.5)
a personal or social application
Vinually all students can learn to think scientifically 80 (2.4) 84 (3.3) 76 (2.6)
Laboratory-based science classes are more effective than
nonlaboratory classes 78 (2 .1) 87 (1 5) 90 (1 2)
It is important for students to learn basic scientific terms and
formulas before learning underlying concepts and
principles 31 (2.2) 44 (3.7) 55 (2.6)
Students learn best in classes with students of similar abilities 23 (2.3) 33 (3.3) 68 (2.0)
Mathematics
Students team best when they study mathematics in the
context of a personal or social application 94 (1.3) 91 (1.7) 84 (1 7)
Virtually all students can learn to think mathematically 76 (2.0) 76 (2.6) 72 (2 3)
Students must master arithmetic computation before going on
to algebra 70 (2.2) 77 (3.1) 81 (1.7)
Students learn mathematics best in classes with students of
similar abilities 41 (1 9) 62 (3.8) 76 (2.9)
Students should be able to use calculators most of the time 24 (1 9) 39 (3.1) 73 (1.7)
NOTES: Includes teachers who indicated "Strongly Agree" and "Agree" to each statement. Standard errors appear in parentheses.
SOURCE: Weiss. I R Matti, M C.. & Smith, P S (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education. Chapel
Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc.
indicators of Science anO Mathematics Education 1995
156
Appendix table 3-18
Percent of mathematics teachers indicating that various strategies definitely

should be a part of mathematics instruction, by stategy and grade range: 1993
Grade range
Strategy 1-4 5-8 9-12
Hands-on or manipulative activities 82 (2.2) 49 (3.2) 26 (2.2)

Concrete experience before abstract treatments 81 (2.0) 55 (2.7) 33 (2.5)
Applications of mathematics in daily life 81 (1.6) 75 (3.1) 50 (2.8)
Emphasis on solving real problems 80 (1.9) 78 (1.9) 57 (2.9)
Every student studying mathematics each year 76 (2.7) 69 (3.5) 38 (2.5)

Emphasis on mathematical reasoning 69 (2.0) 64 (2.6) 58 (3.0)
Emphasis on connections among concepts 68 (1.7) 62 (2.4) 52 (2.2)
Students working in cooperative learning groups 58 (1.8) 41 (2.8) 27 (2.2)
Use of computers 52 (2.9) 39 (3.3) 34 (2.3)

Emphasis on arithmetic computation 49 (2.4) 36 (2.4) 22 (1.8)
Coordination of mathematics with science 34 (2.1) 27 (3.4) 22 (2.6)
Taking student preconceptions about a topic into
account when planning curriculum or instruction 34 (2.9) 26 (2.8) 18 (2.5)
Use of calculators 33 (3.2) 37 (3.7) 50 (2.5)

Inclusion of pertormancE -based assessment 33 (1 9) 29 (2.9) 18 (1.6)
Deeper coverage of fe-,er mathematics ideas 33 (3.6) 31 (3.4) 16 (2.6)
Emphasis on writing about mathematics 32 (2.0) 23 (2.6) 20 (2.8)
Integration of mathematics subjects all taught

together each year 26 (1 7) 25 (3.2) 20 (2.8)
Coordination of mathematics with vocation or
technology eCucation 25 (2 5) 23 (2.8) 190.71

SOURCE: Weiss.I R . Matti. M.C., & Smith, P S (1994) Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education Chapel
Hill. NC. Horizon Research. Inc
frW,catorsolSoeneandMathernat.csEduc
APPENDIX TABLES 147
Appendix table 3-19

Percent of classes using lecture and hands-on activities in most
recent lesson, by subject and grade range: 1977 to 1993
Sclence Mathematics
Year Grades Lecture Hands-on Lecture Hands-on
197T 1-3 60 (3.41 67 (3.3) 58 (3.4) 58 (3.4)

4-6 69 (3.3) 54 (3.6) 68 (3.3) 38 (3.5)
7-9 72 (2.3) 59 (2.5) 83 (1.9) 23 (2.1)
10-12 76 (2.1) 53 (2.4) 89 (1.5) 24 (2.2)
1986
1-3 71 (2.3) 52 (2.5) 69 (2.3) 60 (2.5)
4-6 78 (2.9) 45 (3.3) 82 (2.4) 31 (2.9)
83 (2 2) 43 (3.0) 89 (1.9) 18 (2.3)
10-12 84 (2.0) 39 (2.7) 90 (1.2) 10 (1 2)
1993
1-3 75 (4.1) 62 (0.7) 79 (2.6) 79 (1.9)
4-6 82 (2.5) 50 (3.3) 90 (2.0) 51 (4.1)
7-9 BO (2.9) 50 (3.9) 93 (1.4) 26 (2.7)
10-12 88 (1.5) 43 (2.3) 94 (2.1) 26 (3.1)
' The 1977 survey includes kindergarten.

SOURCES: Weiss. I.R. (1987). Report of the 1985-86 national survey of science and mathematics education. Research Triangle
Park, NC: Research Triangle Institiute; Weiss. I.R (1994). 1993 National survey of science and mathematics education. Unpublished
tabulations.

Appendix table 3-20

Percent of science teachers indicating that various strategies definitely
should be a part of science instruction, by strategy and grade range: 1993
Grade range
Strategy 1-4 5-8 9-12
Hands-on or laboratory activities 78 (2.3) 78 (2.8) 76 (2.1)

Applications of science in daily life 73 (2.5) 69 (4.3) 60 (3.6)
Concrete experience before abstract treatments 70 (2.6) 51 (4.4) 35 (3.1)
Every student studying science every year 63 (2.0) 61 (2.9) 37 (2.6)
Students working in cooperative learning groups 57 (2.5) 50 (3.0) 30 (2.0)

Emphasis on connections among concepts 52 (2.7) 54 (4.4) 53 (2.5)
Coordination of sciences with mathematics 47 (2.8) 43 (3.5) 47 (3.8)
Coordination of sciences with language arts 46 (2.7) 35 (3.7) 20 (3.0)
Coordination of sciences with social science 43 (2.9) 34 (3.6) 19 (3.8)
Taking student conceptions about a natural phenomenon

into account when planning curriculum or instruction 39 (2.2) 34 (4.0) 22 (1.4)
Coordination of sciences with vocational or technology
education 37 (2.5) 33 (4.2) 29 (1.7)
Use of computers 30 (3.6) 37 (4.3) 36 (2.3)
Coordination of science disciplines 30 (3.4) 37 (3.3) 35 (2.7)

Revisiting science topics, each time in grea ar depth 29 (2.6) 21 (2.4) 19 (1.6)
Deeper coverage of fewer science concept 28 (2.8) 30 (3.1) 20 (1 6)

Applications of scientific methods in addressing
societal issues 28 (2 3) 33 (3.3) 35 (3.1)
Inclusion of performance-based assessment 22 (2.4) 26 (3 5) 18 (1 8)

SOURCE Weiss. I.R.. Matti. M C., & Smith, P.S. (1994) Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education
Chapel Hill. NC: Horizon Research. Inc.
153
APPENDIX TABLES 149
Appendix table 3-21
Percent of science teachers completing various numbers of science courses,

by area, number of science courses completed, grade range, and number of
science areas: 1993
Gm 4e range
Area and number of courses 1-4 5-8 9-12
Number of science areas completed
Total 100 100 100
None 1 (0 5) 0 (0.2) 0 (0.1)
1 9 (1.4) 7 (1.9) 4 (1 0)
2 28 (2.2) 25 (3.2) 20 (2 2)
3 63 (2.9) 68 (2.9) 77 (2 3)
Area of study
Life science
Total 100 100 100
None 8 (1.2) 6 (1.6) 6 (1.1)
1 to 3 courses 68 (3.5) 47 (4.6) 17 (2.6)
4 to 7 courses 20 (3.2) 28 (3.2) 20 (3 0)
8 or more courses 4 (1.2) 18 (2.1) 57 (1.9)
Physical science
Total 100 100 100
None 25 (2 2) 19 (3.1) 1 (0.2)
1 to 3 courses 58 (3.2) 44 (3.8) 13 (3.0)
4 to 7 courses 14 (1.9) 23 (2.8) 29 (2.3)
8 or more courses 4 (0 9) 14 (2.5) 57 (2.0)
Earth science
Total 100 100 100
None 15 (1 6) 14 (2 2) 20 (2.3)
1 to 3 courses 66 (2.8) 53 (3.4) 43 (2.2)
4 to 7 courses 16 (2.0) 24 (2.1) 25 (1.6)
8 or more courses 2 (0.9) 8 (1.8) 11 (1.2)
NOTES: Standard errors appear in parentheses Totals may not equal 100 percent as a result of rounding
SOURCE. Weiss. l.R. (1994). 1993 National survey of science and mathematics education. Unpublished tabulations.
Indicators ot Science and Mathematics Education 1995
I30
Appendix table 3-22

Grades 7-1'; science teachers' level of preparation in field taught: 1993
Number of courses taken In same field taught
Fewer than 6 courses
Field of class taught 6 or more courses Fewer than 6 courses
and grade range Total 6 or more courses in another field In another field
Life scisnce, 7-12 100 82 (5.6) 3 (1.2) 14 (5.7)
Earth science, 7-12 100 45 (5.3) 34 (8.2) 21 (8.2)

Physical science, 7-12 100 75 (4.2) 11 (2.5) 14 (3.9)
Biology, 9-12 100 94 (1.9) 3 (1.6) 3 (1.1)
Chemistry, 9-12 100 82 (3.4) 18 (3.6) 1 (0.4)
Physics, 9-12 100 74 (6.0) 22 (5.7) 4 (`::
SOURCE. Weiss, I.R , Matti. M.G., & Smith, P.S (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics
education. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc
161
APPENDIX TABLES 151
Appendix table 3-23
Percent of mathematics teachers completing college

courses in mathematics and science, by grades taught: 1993
Grade range
College course completed 1-4 5-8 9-12
Mathematics for elementary schoot teachers 98 (1 2) 80 (2.2) 20 (2.8)

Mathematics for miadle school teachers 14 (1.7) 41 (3.6) 30 (1 9)
Geometry for elementary or middle school teachers 30 (2.21 35 (3.2) 24 (1 7)
College algebra or trigonometry or elementary functions 42 (2.3) 57 (3.7) 89 (1.0)

Calculus 12 (1.8) 32 (2.2) 95 (1.3)
Advanced calculus 4 (1.3) 17 (2.1) 72 (2.9)
Differential equations 2 (0.7) 12 (1 3) 62 (3.3)
Geometry 22 (2 3) 39 (3 0) 84 (2.6)
Probability and statistics 27 (3.0) 44 (3 1) 81 (2.7)
Abstract algebra or number theory 10 (1 5) 22 (2 2) 75 (2.9)
Linear algebra 6 (1.4) 20 (2.0) 78 (2.6)
Applications of mathematics or problem solving 24 (1.8) 28 (2.5) 45 (2.7)
History of mathematics 8 (1.5) 13 (1.6) 42 (2.6)
Discrete mathematics 2 (1.2) 6 (1.2) 26 (2.0)
Other upper-division mathematics 6 (1.7) 18 (1.9) 57 (3.3)
Biological sciences 74 (2.3) 72 (2.9) 55 (2.9)
Chemistry 28 (2.2) 37 (2.4) 51 (2.8)
Physics 17 (1.6) 27 (1.9) 59 (3.0)
Physical science 49 (2.8) 48 (3 6) 31 (2.6)
Earth or space science 45 (2.8) 45 (2.4: 28 (2.8)
Engineering 2 (1.1) 3 (0.9) 10 (0 8)
Computer programming 21 (1 9) 30 (2.4) 65 (2.5)
Other computer science 21 (2 2) 24 (2.6) 33 (2.6)
Supervised student teaching in mathematics 50 (2 6) 41 (3.3) 65 (2.9)
Methods of teaching mathematics 99 (0.4) 91 (2.1) 84 (2.7)
Instructional use of computers or other technologies 35 (3 4) 32 (2.7) 43 (2.3)

SOURCES Weiss. I.R , Matti, M C . & Smith, P S (1994). Report of the 1993 nation6: of science and mathematics education. Chapel
Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc.: Weiss, I.R (1994). 1993 National survey of science ana 1",:hematics education. Unpublished tabulations.
Indicators ot Soence and Mathematics Education 1995
162
Appendix table 3-24
Percent of mathematics teachers completing

college coursework recommended by the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics: 1986 and 1993
Grade range and course 1986 1993
Grades 7-9
Calculus 71 (2.7) 73 (3.8)
College geometry 69 (2.8) 70 (3.8)
Probability or statistics 61 (2.0) 69 (3.9)
Abstract algebra or number theory 49 (3.0) 55 (5.1)

Applications of mathematics or problem solving 36 (2.9) 40 (2.1)
Grades 10-12
Calculus 89 (1.3) 95 (1.5)
College geometry 80 (1 6) 84 (3.1)
Probability and statistics 76 (1.7) 85 (1.8)
Abstract algebra or number theory 69 (1.9) 80 (2 5)
Linear algebra 69 (1 9) 82 (1.6)
Advanced calculus 63 (1.9) 73 (3.3)

Other upper-division mathematics 63 (1.9) 62 (3.8)
Differential equations 61 (2.0) 66 (3.1)
Applications of mathematics or problem solving 39 (2.0) 49 (2.7)
History of mathematics 37 (1.9) 46 (2.8)
NOTE Standard errors appear in parentheses.

SOURCES: Weiss. I.R. (1987) Report of the 1985-86 national survey of science and mathematics
education Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute. Weiss. I R (19941 1993 National
survey of science and mathematics education. Unpublished tabulations.

APPENDIX TABLES 153
Appendix table 3-25

Preparation of teachers of grades 7-12 science and mathematics
classes with low, medium, and high proportions of minority students,
by percent of classes: 1993
Proportion of minority students
Field of class taught and field of study Low Medium High
Science or science education

Undergraduate major in science 60 (3.9) 61 (2 7) 62 (3.2)
Undergraduate or graduate major in

science or science education 72 (3 7) 72 (3.0) 6 3.7)
Undergraduate or graduate major or
minor in science or science education 94 (1.7) 89 (2.8) 85 (2.7)
Mathematics or mathematics education

Undergraduate major in mathemat.cs 37 (3.1) 37 (2.8) 31 (2.3)
Undergraduate or graduate major in

mathematics or mathematics education 62 (3.7) 54 (3.3) 47 (2.7)
Undergraduate or graduate major or

minor in mathematics or mathematics education 78 (3.7) 73 (3.7) 67 (2.6)
NOTES Low indicates a proportion of less than 10 percent minority. Medium indicates a proportion between 10 percent
and 39 percent minority. High indicates a proportion of at least 40 percent minority. Standard errors appear in
parentheses.
SOURCE. Weiss, I R. (1994). 1993 National survey of science and mathematics education. Unpublished tabulations.
Appendix table 3-26

Percent of self-contained elementary teachers feeling
very well qualified to teach each subject: 1977 to 1993
Subject 1977' 1986 1993
Rear'in c: language arts 63 (1.7) 86 (1.0) 76 (1.9)
Math imatics 49 (1.8) 69 (1.3) 60 (2.4)
Social studies 39 (1.7) 51 (1.4) 61 (1 7)
Life sciences - 27 (1.2) 26 (2.0)
Science 22 (1.5) - -
-- Not applicable
The survey used estimates for teachers of grades K-3.
NOTES: Self-contained refers to teachers who are responsible for teaching most or all of their
academic subjects in one class. Standard errors appear in parentheses.
SOURCES: Weiss. I.R (1987). Report of the 1985-86 national survey of science and
mathematics education. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute: Weiss, I R..
Matti. M C.. & Smith. P.S. (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey of science and
mathematics education. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Reaa,ch. Inc.
164
Appendix table 3-27

well qualified to teach specific topics, by grade range: 1993
Grade range
T )134c 1-4 6-8 9-12
Emimation 50 (2.7) 64 (3.3) 72 (2.2)
Ivanber sense and numeration 66 (2.6) 71 (3.0) 78 (2.3)
Number systems and number theory 44 (2.3) 58 (2.8) 67 (2.9)
Measurement 54 (2.6) 60 (3.2) 79 (2.2)
Fractions and decimals 47 (2.1) 81 (3.0) 93 (1.6)
Geometry and spatial sense 42 (2.3) 50 (3.0) 69 (3.3)
Functions 36 (2.1) 49 (2.5) 75 (2.2)
Patterns and relationships 58 (3.1) 52 (3.3) 71 (2.8)
Algebra 17 (2.0) 44 (3.1) 95 (0.8)
Trigonometry 5 (1.3) 13 (1.6) 60 (2.7)

Probability and statistics 11 (1.6) 28 (3.0) 33 (2.3)
Discrete mathematics 5 (0.8) 10 (2.0) 20 (1.7)
Conceptual foundations of calculus 2 (0.5) 4 (0.8) 29 (1.8)
Mathematical structure 7 (1.8) 14 (2.1) 30 (2.0)

SOURCE: Weiss, I.R., Matti, M.C., & Smith, P.S. (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics
education. Chapel Hill. NC: Honzon Research, Inc.
Indicators or Science and Matnematics Education 1995
16
APPENDIX TABLES 155
Appendix table 3-28

well prepared to do specific tasks, by grade range: 1993
Grade range
Task 1-4 5-8 9-12
Present the applications of mathematics concepts 93 (1.6) 93 (2 0) 87 (2.7)

Use cooperative learning groups 87 (1.7) 82 (2.6) 66 12.9)
Take into account student preconceptions about
mathematics when planning curriculum and
instruction 81 (2.6) 73 (3.3) 66 (2.3)
Use computers as an integral part of mathematics
instruction 51 (2.7) 48 (3.7) 43 (2.2)
Use calculators as an integral part of mathematics
instruction 55 (2.8) 71 (2.2) 81 (2.4)
integrate mathematics with other subject areas 78 (2 8) 70 (2.9) 50 (2.9)

Manage a class of students who are using manipulatives 90 (1.5) 79 (2.5) 62 (2.8)
Use a variety of assessment strategies 77 (2 5) 73 (3.2) 67 (2.1)
Use the textbook as a resource rather than as the
pnmary instructional tool 79 (1.1) 67 (3.8) 62 (3 0)
Use performance-based assessment 61 (2.8) 63 (2.6) 58 (2.4)
Teach groups that are heterogeneous in ability 89 (1.8) 85 (2.5) 71 (2.3)

Teach students from a variety of cultural backgrounds 70 (2.5) 73 (2.7) 63 (3.0)
Teach students who have limited English proficiency 28 (3.1) 33 (3.3) 25 (2.4)
Teach students who have learning disabilities 52 (3.6) 43 (3.6) 28 (2.8)
Encourage participation of females in mathematics 95 (1.6) 95 (1.1) 92 (1.5)

Encourage participation of minorities in mathematics 84 (2.9) 84 (2.6) 83 (1.6)
Involve parents in the mathematics education of their
children 67 (2.6) 57 (2.6) 49 (2.3)
NOTE. Standard errors appear in parentheses.

SOURCE: Weiss, I.R., Math, M.C., & Smith, P.S. (1994) Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics
education. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc

Appendix table 3-29

Percent of science teachers considering themselves
well prepared to do specific tasks, by grade range: 1993
Grade range
Task 1-4 5-8 9-12
Present the applications of science concepts 74 (2.3) 80 (3.5) 92 (3.1)
Use cooperative learning techniques 83 (2.2) 83 (2 5) 64 (3 4)
Take into account student preconceptions about

natural phenomena when planning curriculum ana
instruction 70 (2,2) 63 (3.8) 62 (3.0)
Use computers as an integral pan of science instruction 30 (3,4) 31 (2.7) 40 (2.4)
Integrate science with other subject areas 76 (2.3) 67 (3.0) 62 (2.5)
Manage a class of students who are using hands-on or

laboratory activities 78 (2.6) 83 (2.1) 91 (3.1)
Use a variety of assessment strategies 70 (3.0) 78 (3 2) 85 (1.5)
Use the textbook as a resource rather than as the

primary instructional tool 77 (3.1) 70 (3.0) 80 (3.0)
Use performance-based assessment 60 (2.9) 65 (3.3) 64 (2.7)
Teach groups that are heterogeneous in ability 89 (2.3) 90 (1.9) 71 (2.9)
Teach students from a variety of cultural backgrounds 73 (2.7) 69 (3.7) 62 (2.3)
Teach students who have limited English proficiency 32 (2.7) 25 (3.4) 23 (2.1)
Teach students who have learning disabilities 50 (3.5) 46 (3.1) 27 (1.8)
Encourage participation of females in science 92 (2.0) 94 (1 7) 90 (3.0)

Encourage participation of minorities in science 87 (2 3) 86 (2 4) 80 (3.3)
Involve parents in the science education of their

children 57 (3.6) 56 (3 1) 43 (3.0)

SOURCE- Weiss. I R . Matti. M C . & Smith. P S (1994i Report of Me 1993 national survey or science dm/ mathematics eoucation
Chapel Hill, NC- Horizon Research, Inc
Inatcators of Science and Mathematics Education 1995

APPENDIX TABLES 157
Appendix table 3-30

Percent of 12th-grade students whose science and
mathematics teachers discuss curriculum issues,
by type of person or group with whom they discuss: 1992
Science Mathematics Science and
Person or group students students mathematics students
Teachers in the department 95 97 96

Department chair 82 86 86
Principals 60 59 59
Teachers outside the department 58 59 58

Other teachers outside the school 57 60 59
Other school administrators 45 49 47
Parents 41 42 42
Others in the community (business

leaders, university staff, etc ) 36 32 33
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. (1992). National education longitudinal study of 1988:
Second teacher lollow-up study. Washington. DC. NCES.

Appendix table 3-31
Percent of science and mathematics teachers agreeing with each of a

number of statements related to teacher collegiality, by grade range: 1993
Grade range
Field and statement 1-4 5-8 9-12
Science
I feel supported by colleagues to try out new ideas in
teaching science 74 (2.3) 76 (3.1) 87 (1.6)
I feel that I have many opportunities to learn new things in
my present job 74 (2.2) 68 (3.9) 66 (2.0)
Science teachers in this school regularly shaie ideas and
materials 55 (2.5) 56 (3.1) 72 (2.1)
Most science teachers in this school contribute actively to
making decisions about the science curriculum 44 (2.8) 47 (3.8) 66 (2.3)
I receive little support from the school administration for
teaching science 21 (2.3) 23 (3.5) 23 (2.6)
I have time during the regular school week to work with my
peers on science curriculum and instruction 14 (1.6) 14 (2.4) 16 (3.6)
Science teachers in this school regularly observe each other
teaching classes as part of sharing and improving
instructional strategies 11 (1.8) 11 (1.8) 14 (3.1)
Mathematics
1 feel supported by colleagues to try out new ideas in
teaching mathematics 84 (2.0) 83 (3.3) 80 (2.3)
I feel that I have many opportunities to learn new things in
my present job 76 (2.3) 72 (2.5) 57 (3.0)
Mathematics teachers in this school regularly share ideas and
materials 65 (2.3) 52 (3.2) 67 (2.8)
The testing program in my state or district dictates what
mathematics I teach 60 (3.0) 52 (3.3) 40 (2.6)
Most mathematics teachers in this school contribute actively
to making decisions about the mathematics curriculum 47 (1.8) 46 (2.8) 69 (2.6)
I receive little support from thc. school administration for
teaching mathematics 14 (1.5) 19 (3 1) 20 (2 6)
I have time during the regular school week to work with rny
peers on mathematics curriculum and instruction 21 (1.9) 17 (1 8) 16 (1.6)
Mathematics teachers in this school regularly observe each
other teaching classes as part of sharing and improving
instructional strategies 12 (1.8) 10 (2.1) 11 11 8)
NOTES Includes leachers indicating -.Strongly Agree" and "Agree" to each statement Standard errors appear in parentheses
SOURCE. Weiss. I R.. Matti, M.C.. & Smith, P.S. (1094) Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education Chapel Hill.
NC Horizon Research, Inc.
Indfcalors of Sounce and Mathemahcs Educahon 1995
6
APPENDIX TABLES 159
Appendix table 3-32

Amount of time science and mathematics teachers spent on science or
mathemathics in-service education in the past 3 years, by subject of class
taught and grade range: 1993
Grade range
Subject of class taught Amount of time 1-4 5-8 9-12
Science None 26 (2.8) 17 (1.9) 12 (1.5)

Fewer than 6 hours 30 (1 8) 22 (2.6) 14 (1.8)
6 -15 hours 22 (2.1) 27 (4.2) 18 (3.0)
16 - 35 hours 14 (1.9) 14 (2.8) 19 (1 4)
More than 35 hours 9 (1.8) 20 (2.4) 38 (3.1)
Mathematics None 17 (1 5) 15 (1.5) 10 (1.8)

Fewer than 6 hours 22 (2.0) 22 (3.5) 14 (2.8)
6 -15 hours 29 (2.4) 23 (2.5) 21 (1 8)
16 - 35 hours 18 (2.4) 24 (2.5) 24 (2.6)
More than 35 hours 15 (2.0) 17 (2.0) 31 (2.5)

SOURCE: Weiss. I.R.. Matt M.C.. & Smith. P S. (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education Chapel
Hill. NC. Honzon Research. Inc.
Appendix table 3-33

Year of most recent college coursework in field for science and mathematics
teachers, by grade range: 1993
Grade range
Field and year of most recent course 1-4 5-8 9-12
Science, total 100 100 100
Before 1983 53 (2.5) 41 (3.0) 24 (3.8)
1983 - 1988 20 (2.1) 18 (1.6) 21 (1.5)
1989 1993 26 (3.0) 41 (2.8) 55 (3 2)
Mathematics, total 100 100 100
Before 1983 41 (2.3) 39 (3.8) 31 (1.8)
1983 - 1988 22 (1 9) 22 (3.1) 26 (2.7)
1989 1993 37 (2.6) 40 (3.3) 43 (2.2)
SOURCE: Weiss, I R.. Math. M C., & Smith, P S (1994) Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education. Chapel
Hill. NC Horizon Research, !nc
Indicators ol Science and Mathematics Education 1995

Appendix table 3-34

Percent of science and mathematics teachers participating in various professional
activities in the past 12 months, by subject and grade range: 1993
ra e range
Field and activity 1-4 5-8 9-12
Science
Served on a school or district curnculum committee 17 (3.4) 26 (2.3) 40 (2.7)
Served on a school or district textbook selection committee 14 (2.0) 19 (2.1) 37 (2.9)
Attended any national or state teacher association meetings 7 (1.0) 20 (3.0) 37 (3.3)
Taught any in-service workshops or courses in science or science teaching 5 (1.1) 9 (1.2) 16 (2.0)
Received any local, state, ational grants or awards for teaching 3 (0.7) 8 (1.3) 17 (1.9)
Mathematics
Served on a school or district curriculum committee 18 (1.9) 25 (2.6) 51 (2.5)
Served on a school or district textbook selection committee 16 (2.0) 31 (2.7) 47 (2.9)
Attended any national or state teacher association meetings 9 (1 4) 19 (2.1) 39 (2.6)
Taught any in-service workshops or courses in mathematicS
or mathematics teaching 6 (14) 6 (0.8) 13 (1.2)
Received any local, state, or national grants or awards for leaching 3 (0.7) 3 (0.8) 8 (0.6)

SOURCE: Weiss, I.R., Matt:, M.G., & Smith, P.S. (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education. Chapel
Hill. NC. Horizon Research, Inc.
171
APPENDIX TABLES 161
Appendix table 3-35

Percent of mathematics classes never taking part in various activities,
Grade range
Activity 14 5-8 9-12
Work at home on mathematics projects that take a

week or more 72 (2.3) 53 (2.8) 66 (2.01
Listen and take notes during presentation by teacher 63 (3 2) 12 (2.7) 1 (0.2)
Watch films, filmstrips, or videotapes 51 (2.2) 51 (2 4) 54 (2 4)
Work in class on mathematics projects that take a

week or more 48 (1 8) 41 (2.7) 58 (2.11
Write their reasoning about how to solve a problem 31 (1 9) 14 (1 51 20 (1 6)
Use computers or calculators to develop an

understanding of mathematics concepts 21 (1 6) 14 (2.3) 19 (2 2)
Use computers or calculators to do computations 17 (1.3) 8 (3.1) 7 (1 4)
Use computers or calculators to explore problems 17 (1 3) 10 (3.0) 15 (1.5)
Make conjectures and explore possible methods to

solve a mathematics problem 16 (2.1) 8 (1.3) 14 (1.9)
Do mathematics problems from textbooks 11 (2.1) 1 (0.4) 1 (0.3)
Participate in dialogue with the teacher to develop

an Idea 8 (1.7) 5 (1.3) 4 (0.7)
Learn about mathematics through real-life

applications 3 (1.2) 3 (1.1) 8 (1.2)
Do matnematics problems from worksheets 2 (0 7) 2 (0.4) 3 (0.6)
Use manipulative materials or models 1 (0.3) 7 (1.3) 19 (1.6)
Work in small groups 1 (0.3) 2 (0.6) 4 (0.6)

SOURCE: Weiss, I.R Matt, M.C., & Smith, P S. (1994). Report of the 1993 national survey ot science and mathematics
education. Chapel H111, NC: Horizon Research. Inc.
172
Appendix table 3-36

Percent of science classes never taking part in various activities,
Grade range
Activity 1-4 5-8 9-12
Listen and take notes during presentation by teacher 52 (1.8) 6 (1.0) 0 (0.2)
Work at home on science projects that take a week or more 51 (1.9) 27 (2.3) 49 (2.3)
Use a computer 38 (3.0) 44 (3.0) 54 (3.2)

Prepare written science reports 36 (2.1) 10 (1.1) 12 (2.3)
Work in class on science projects that take a week or more 28 (2.5) 22 (2.1) 43 (3.4)
Read a science textbook in class 23 (2.4) 9 (1.4) 21 (1.2)

Take field trips 23 (2.7) 35 (2.9) 62 (2.3)
Watch films, filmstrips, or videotapes 6 (1.9) 2 (0.5) 8 (1.5)
Watch the teacher demonstrate a scientific principle 3 (0.8) 4 (1.6) 1 (0.4)
Participate in dialogue with the teacher to develop an idea 3 (1.0) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.4)
Do hands-on or laboratory science activities 2 (0.7) 2 (0.6) 1 (0.3)
Work in small groups 2 (1.0) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.1)
NOTE: Standara errors appear in parentheses.

SOURCE: Weiss. I.R.. Math. M.C., & Smith, P.S. (1994) Report ol tho 1993 national survey of science and mathematics education.
Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc.
11/3
Appendix table 3-37
Percent of science and mathematics classes "covering" various proportions of their textbooks,
by grade range: 1986 and 1993
1986 1993
Subject and
Grades 1-6 Grades 7-9 Grades 10-12 Grades 1-6 Grades 7-9 Grades 10-12
textbook coverage
CD
100 100 100 IOC 100 rn

S. total 100
4 2 (0 8) 1 (0.5) 11 (1 7) 4 (0 7) 4 (1 2)
Less than 25°. (0 8)
11 (1 9) 12 (1 8) 18 (1 9) 16 (1 9) 18 (2 3)
25'. to 49°. 11 (1 3)
27 (2 8) 38 (3 7) 23 (1 8) 32 (3 0) 37 (2 6)
50 to 74' 24 (1 2)
41 (2 9) 34 (2 6) 29 (1 7) 40 (4 5) 34 (2 2)
to 90',. 30 (1 8)
(3 4) 15 (2 0) 19 (2 0) 8 (1 )5) 8 (1 0)
(ater than 9000 31 (( 9) 20
(at 100 100 100 100 100

fa,Ittrt filatiCs 100
1 (0 4) 0 (0 11 1 (0 2)
1.,r5s than 0 (0 0) 1 (0 6) 3 (0 7)
(1 5) 6 (1 0) 4 (0 7) 5 (1 1) 6 (0 7)
20'c. to 49", 2 (0 6) 7
17 (2 3) 23 (1 7) 22 (1 6) 20 (2 0) 24 (2 3)
to 74' 8 (1 1)
41 50 (3 0) 45 (2 0) 47 (2 1) 47 (2 5) 49 (3 2)
.
lo 90 (1 9)
23 (1 7) 26 (2 0) 27 (2 2) 20 (1 7)
(neater thdn 48 (3 0) 26 (2 6)
NOTES Standard errors appear in parentheses. Totals may not equal 100 percent as a result of rounding.
Research Triangle Park NC Research Triangle Institute. Weiss I R
SOURCES Weiss I R (1987) Report ot (he 1985-86 national survey of science and mathematics education
11994) 1993 Nabonal survey of science and mathematics education Unpublished tabulations
,ma lie. Ed..,c,-11,1n 1995
174 175
164 I N D I C A T O R S O F S C I E N C E ANC* M A T H E M A T I C S E D U C A T I O N 1995
Appendix table 3-38

Percent of 12th-grade science teachers responding to availability
and condition of science equipment and facilities: 1992
Availability of Condition of science Availability of
Description consumable supplies equipment used facilities (lab equipment)
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
None 3.3 2.7 4.7

Poor 11.8 12.4 12.7
Fair 26.4 32.0 24.9

Good 40.8 41.3 36.7
Excellent 17.7 11.7 21.0
NOTE: Totals may not equal 100 percent as a result of rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. (1992). National education longitudinal study of 1988: Second teacher follow-up study.
Washington, DC: NCES.
Appendix table 3-39

Median and mean studentcomputer ratios for computer-using schools,
by country and school level: 1992
Studentcomputer ratio*
Total
Education level Country schools Median Mean
Elementary Japan 82 24 110 (16.7)

Netherlands 175 16 24 (1.7)
United States 171 6 7 (0.5)
Lower secondary Austria 261 11 11 (0.3)

Germany 134 15 17 (0.8)
Japan 129 31 88 (14.4)

Netherlands 285 14 15 (0.5)
Upper secondary Austria 162 4 5 (0 4)

Japan 136 23 38 (4 5)
Studentcomputer ratio is calculated using grade-specific enrollment for three grades at each school level ii -ither than full
school enrollment) the thrget grade. the grade immediately before the target grade, and the grade immediate after it.
NnTE: Standard errors appear in parentheses
SOURCE: Pelgrum. W.J . Janssen Reinen, I.A.M.. & Plomp. T. (Eds.) (1993) Schools, teachers, students and
computers: A cross-national perspective (IEA COMPED Study Stage 2) Netherlands. [EA
indicators Of SCience and Mathamat.cs Education 1995
G
APPENDIX TABLES 165
Appendix table 3-40

Mean percent of 16+ bit computers (80286 and higher
processors) in computer-using schools: 1989 and 1992
Education level Nation 1989 1992
Lower secondary Japan 77 92

Austria 23 67
Germany 12 38
Netherlands 1 22
United States 1 17
Upper secondary Japan 72 85

Austna 19 77
Slovenia 17 76
United States 3 29
NOTE: Standard errors are not available.

SOURCE: Pelgrurn. W J.. Janssen Reinen. I.A.M., & Plomp. T. (Eds.). (1993). Schools. teachers.
students and computers: A cross-national perspective (lEA COMPED Study Stage 2). Netherlands.
lEA.

166 I N D I C A T O R S OF S C I E N C E A N D M A T H E M A T I C S E D U C A T I O N 1 9 9 5
Appendix table 3-41

Percent of external network use by type of external network: 1992
Percent of Percent of schools that
Education level and type of network all schools use external networks
Elementary, total number of schools 163 37

AT&T ID Learning 3 13
Dialog or other databases 5 24

National Geographic Kids Network 6 24
CompuServe or other e-mail 11 46
Other 11 43
Lower secondary, total number of schools 142 33

Dialog or other databases 3 15
National Geographic Kids Network 3 15
CompuServe or other e-mall 12 52

Other 8 36
Upper secondary. total number of schools 141 61
Dialog or otner databases 13 30

Naiional Geographic Kids Network 1 3
CompuServe or other e-mail 15 34
Other 15 34
NOTE. Standard errors are not available.

SOURCE Anderson. R.E. (Ed ) (1993). Computers in American schools 1992. An overview MInneapolls. MN
University of Minnesota
inocalors of Science and Mainemat,cs .995
Appendix table 3-42

Average percentage of mathematics problems correct on test items
requiring the use of a calculator, ages 9, 13, and 17: 1978 to 1992
Tested age Items on test 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992
9 years 8 74 11 0) 75 (0 8i 75 10 7) 78 (0 9( 80 (0 5)
1 j years 8 55 (1 4, 52 (1 41 55 (1 4) 60 11 0) 62 (1.31
17 years (1 63 (1 0) 59 (1 2) 65 (1 2) 66 11 0) 67 (0 8)
NOTE Standard errors aPPear in parentheses

SOURCE. Mullis. I V S . et ai (1994) NAEP 1992 trend !. in acadermc proyfess iHepon Nn 23-TRO1 Washington. DC National
Center for Education Statistics
.Sc.pnce Matnemai.cs E 19,4",
Appendix table 4-1
Percent of high school sophomores aspiring to various levels of postsecondary
education, by race or ethnic origin and sex: 1980 and 1990
Two years or fewer of
Sex. race. High school college or College Graduate
diploma or less vocational school graduate degree

or ethnic
1990 1980 1990 1980 1990 1980 1990
origin 1980
10 2 32 9 30 22 7 32 1 17 9 27 4
Al: ;.,!-,omores .0, 5
28 0 11 0 31 7 32 3 22 4 32 9 18 0 23 8
Male
23 4 94 34 2 28 3 23 8 31 4 18 7 30 9
Fema:e
1 1 7 82 21 5 21 7 32 4 31 4 34 3 38 7
33 7 14 3 33 7 38 5 17 0 25 5 15 6 21 7
HispanIc
26 3 It 1 32 7 30 2 21 8 28 2 19 2 30 5
fil:1( k
25 9 94 33 1 29 5 23 4 33 9 17 7 27 3
Virle
18 8 32 3 43 0 17.2 21 8 14 2 15 5
tt,,i,e Arr ricnri i' '
HI,par trion may be of lily race Totals may not add to 100 percent as a result ot roundiny
SOURCE National Center for Education Stati..lics (19,.:2) High school and beyond study. 1980 to 1992 Washington. DC NCES
180
179
Appendix table 4-2

College enrollment rates of recent high school graduates,
Recent high school graduates' Enrolled In college' Percent of high school

(numbers in thousands) (numbers in thousands) graduates enrolled In college
Year Total White Black' Hispirtic' Total White Black' Hispanic' Total White Blacks Hispanic'
1976 2,987 2,640 320 152 1.458 1,291 134 80 48.8 48.9 41.9 52.6
1977 3,140 2,768 335 156 1,590 1,403 166 80 50.6 50.7 49.6 51.3
1978 3,161 2,750 352 133 1,584 1,378 161 57 50.1 50.1 45.7 42.9
1979 3,160 2,776 324 154 1,559 1,376 147 69 49 3 49.6 45.4 44.8
1980 3,089 2,682 361 129 1,524 1,339 151 68 49.3 49.9 41.8 52.7
1981 3,053 2,626 359 146 1,646 1,434 154 76 53.9 54.6 42.9 52.1
1982 3,100 2,644 384 174 1,568 1,376 140 75 50.6 52.0 36.5 43.1
1983 2,964 2,496 392 138 1,562 1,372 151 75 52.7 55.0 38.5 54.3
1984 3,012 2,514 438 185 1,662 1,455 176 82 55.2 57.9 40.2 44.3
1985 2.666 2,241 333 141 1,539 1,332 141 72 57.7 59.4 42.3 51.1
1986 2,786 2.307 386 169 1,499 1,292 141 75 53.8 56.0 36.5 44.4
1987 2,6-47 2.207 337 176 1,503 1,249 175 59 56.8 56.6 51.9 33.5
1988 2,673 2,187 382 179 1,5 /5 1,328 172 102 58.9 60.7 45.0 57.0
1989 2,454 2,051 337 168 1,463 1,238 178 93 59.6 60.4 52.8 55.4
1990 2,355 1,921 341 112 1.410 1,182 158 53 59.9 61.5 46.3 47.3
1991 2,276 1,867 320 154 1,420 1,207 146 88 62.4 64.6 45.6 57.1
1992 2,398 1,900 353 199 1,479 1,204 169 109 61.7 63.4 47.9 54.8
NOTES: Persons of Hispanic ongin may be of any race. Data are based upon sample surveys of the civilian population.
' Individuals agsd 16 to 24 who graduated from high school during the preceding 12 months.
2 Enrollment in college as of October of each year for individuals aged 16 to 24 who graduated from high school or r.treived the GED during the
preceding 12 months.
' As a result of the small sample size, black and Hispanic data are subject to relatively large sampling errors
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics (1994). Digest of educational statistics 1994 (NCES 94-115). Washington, DC: U S.
Government Printing Office.
inclicaiors ol Scrance anO Matnemabcs Eclucabon 1495
131
APPENDIX TABLES 169
Appendix table 4-3

Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions,
by attendance status and age: 1970 to 1991
Age 1970 1975 1980 1985 1987 1990 1991
Full-time students (in thousands)
Total 5.815 6.841 7,098 7,075 7,231 7,821 8,115
14-17 years 242 242 216 203 142 141 114
18 and 19 2.406 2.510 2.580 2.322 2,463 2.479 2,408

20 and 21 1.647 1 854 2.060 1,975 2,024 2,121 2.299
22-24 881 1,008 1,174 1,227 1,223 1,387 1,496
25-29 407 692 610 695 693 802 868

30-34 100 279 264 310 293 403 401
35 and older 134 256 193 345 367 487 528
Percent 21 years and younger 73 9 67.3 68.4 63.6 64.4 60.6 59.4
Part-time students (in thousands)
Total 2,766 4,344 4,999 5,172 5,536 5,998 6,244
14-17 years 17 36 31 32 95 26 7
18 and 19 194 276 320 278 359 321 305

20 and 21 233 390 364 408 480 498 469
22-24 576 746 815 705 766 779 790
25-29 668 1,082 1,261 1,258 1,237 1,261 1,266
30-34 388 687 979 951 972 957 1,067
35 and older 689 1,127 1,229 1,540 1,626 2,157 2,339
Percent 21 years and younger 16.1 16.2 14.3 13.9 16.9 14.1 12.5
NOTES: Distribution by age is based on samples of the civilian noninstitutional population. Numbers may not add to totals as a result of
rounding
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. 11994). Digest of educational statistics 1994 (NCES 94-115). Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.

Appendix table 4-4

Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions,
by sex: 1970 to 1998 (projected)
Enrollment (in thousands) Percent
Year Total Men Women female
1970 E 581 5,044 3,537 41.2

1975 11.185 6,149 5,036 45.0
1980 12.097 5.874 6,223 51 4
1985 12.247 5.818 6.429 52.5
1987 12.767 5.932 6.835 53 5
1990 13.820 6.284 7,535 54.5
1991 14,359 6.502 7,857 54.7
1998* 15.111 6,811 8,300 54.9
Projected
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. (1994). Digest of educational
statistics 1994 (NCES 94-115) Washington, CC: U.S Government Printing Office.
Indicators of Soence and Mathematics Education 1995
APPENDIX TABLES 171
Appendix table 4-5

Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions, by race or ethnic
origin of student, all institutions, and 2-year institutions: 1976 to 1993
Race or ethnic origin 1976 1980 1984 1988 1990 1991 1993
All institutions
Students tin thousands)
Total 10,986 12.087 12.233 13,043 13,820 14.359 14 306
White 9.076 9.833 9.815 10.283 10.723 10.990 10.604

Black 1.033 1.107 1.076 1.130 1,247 1.335 1,410
Hispanic 384 472 535 680 783 867 989
Asian 198 286 390 497 573 637 724
Native American 76 84 84 93 103 114 122
Nonresident alien 219 305 335 361 392 416 457
Percent (U S. citizens onlyi
Total 100.0 100 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100 0 100.0
While 84.3 83 5 82.5 81.1 79 9 78.8 76 6

Black 9.6 94 9.0 8.9 9.3 9.6 10.2
Hispanic 3.6 4.0 4.5 54 58 6.2 7.1
Asian 1.8 2.4 3.3 3.9 4.3 46 5.2

Native American 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9
Nonresident alien - - - - -
Two-year institutions
Students (in thousands)
Total 3,879 4,521 4,527 4.868 5,240 5,652 5,566
Wh;te 3.077 3.556 3,514 3,702 3.954 4.199 3,961

Black 429 473 459 473 524 578 599
Hispanic 210 255 289 484 424 484 557
Asian 79 124 167 199 215 256 295
Native American 41 47 46 50 55 74 63
Nonresident alien 42 64 53 60 67 63 91
Percent (U.S. citizens only)
Total 100.0 100 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100 0 100.0
White 80.2 79 8 78 5 77.0 76.4 75 1 72.3

Black 11 2 10.6 10 3 9.8 10 1 10 3 10.9
Hispanic 5.5 5.7 65 8.0 8.2 8.7 10.2
Asian 21 28 37 4.1 42 46 54
Native American 1 1 1 1 1.0 10 1.1 13 12
Nonresident alien - _ _ _
-Distribution fri U S citizens only.

NOTES: Numbers may not add to totals as a msull of rounding Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
OURCES National Center for Education Statistics 11994) Digest of educational statistics 1994 (NCES (14-115) Washington. DC U S
Government Printing Office: National Center for Education Statistics (1995). Fall enroii::rent in colleges and universities. Unpublished
tabulations
inokators of Sconce and MalhematiCs Educdlinn 19,45,
Appendix table 4-6

Number of college courses outside their major that 1991 bachelor's degree
recipients took, by field, sex, and race or ethnic origin: 1991
Race or ethnic origin
Other race
Courses Total Male Female Black Hispanic Asian or ethnic origin
Mathematics and computer science coursetakin by non-mathematics and non-computer-science majors
Total, nonmajors 1.008,018 449,784 557,512 59,496 40.653 37,019 55,246
None 196,601 75,274 119,952 10,934 6,983 7,684 12,551

1-4 647,586 268,780 .376,358 37,311 24.748 21,153 31.319
5 or more 163,831 105,730 61,202 11,251 8,922 8,181 11,376
Percent
Total. nonmajors 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
None 19.5 16.7 21.5 18.4 17.2 20.8 22.7

1-4 64.2 59.8 67.5 62.7 60.9 57.1 56.7
5 or more 16.3 23.5 11.0 18.9 21.9 22.1 20.6
Engineering coursetaking by non-engineering majors
Total, nonmajors 978,503 417,450 558,376 59,214 39,361 33,355 53,151
None 908,211 370,072 533,972 56,113 37.768 28,147 50.918

1-4 57,112 35,436 22,559 2,739 1,362 4,465 1,293
5 or more 13,180 11,942 1,845 362 231 743 940
Percent
Total. nonma ors 100.0 100 0 100.0 100.0 100 0 100.0 100 0
None 92.8 88.7 95.6 94.8 96.0 84.4 95.8

1-4 5.8 85 4.0 4.6 3.5 13.4 2.4
5 or more 1.3 29 0.3 0.6 0.6 2.2 18
Continued
A PPENDI X TABLES 173
Appendix table 4-6

Number of college courses outside their major that 1991 bachelor's degree
recipients took, by field, sex, and race or ethnic origin: 1991, continued
Other race
Courses Total Male Female Black Hispanic Asian or ethnic origin
Life and physical sciences coursetaking by non-lite and non-physical-sciences majors
Total, nonmajors 984.866 441,116 543.238 57.595 40,175 35,837 54,378
None 211,507 93.301 118.223 11,992 10.807 6,855 13,391
1-4 609.855 263.147 345.009 36.500 21,820 18,792 30,526

5 or more 163,504 84,668 80,006 9.103 7,548 10,190 10,461
Per,ent
Total. nonmajors 100 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
None 21.5 21.2 21.8 20.8 26.9 19.1 24.6
1-4 61.9 59.7 63.5 63.4 54.3 52.4 56.1
5 or more 16.6 19.2 14.7 15.8 18 8 28.4 19.2
Social sciences coursetaking by non-social-sciences majors
Total, nonmajors 860,673 386,976 473,24 48,297 34,676 33,293 49,258
None 51,791 22,078 29,340 2,176 2,502 2,028 4,957
1-4 338.265 158.003 180,885 18,284 13,935 13,815 21,656

5 or more 470,617 206,895 263,014 27,837 18,239 17,450 22,645
Percent
Total. nonrnaprs 100 0 100.0 100.0 100 0 100.0 100.0 100.0
None 6.0 5.7 6.2 4.5 7.2 1 10.1
1-4 39.3 40.8 38.2 37.9 40.2 41.5 44.0
5 or more 54.7 53.5 55.6 57.6 52.6 52.4 46.0
NOTES: Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Numbers shown are population estimates from a weighted sample.
SOURCE: University ot Pennsylvania Institute for Research on Higher Education and the Association of American Colleges and Universities. (1994).
Estimates of student curricular activity from a national survey of colleges and universities. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.

174 INDICATORSOFSCIENCE ANDMATHEMATICS EDUCATION 1995
Appendix table 4-7

Students with a grade point average of 3.0 or higher, by field of major and sex: 1991
Number of
Total students with Percent of
Major and sex students GPA 3.0 or higher students
Ail students
All fields, total t 044,267 562.741 53 9
Science ana engineering. total 345.009 185,907 53 9
Mathematical and computer sciences 36.249 19,751 54.5
Life and physical sciences 59,401 36.659 61.7
Engineering 65,764 34.087 51.8
Social sciences 183,595 95,410 53.9
Males
All fields. total 473,851 221,271 46 7
Science and engineering. total 200.077 98.532 49.2
Mathematical and computer sciences 24.067 11,693 48 6
Life and physical sciences 32.734 19,500 59 6
Engineering 56.401 27.706 49.1
Social sciences 86,875 39.633 45 6
Females
All fields. total 570,416 338.047 59 3
Science and engineering. total 149,298 88.610 59.4
Mathematical and computer sciences 12.904 8.373 64.9
Life and physical sciences 27.178 17.364 63.9
Engineering 12.040 7,532 62.6
Social sciences 97.176 55,341 56.9
SOURCE University of Pennsylvania Institut. tor Research on Higher Education and the Association cf American Colleges and Universities
11994) Estimates of student curricular activity from a national survey of colieges and universities Philadelphia University of Pennsyivania
t-1Sc.enre a^n Matnemapcs Educa. nn 1995
5.
Appendix table 4-8 -t1
Number and percent of high school graduates, college enrollment, and science and engineering
degree attainment, by race or ethnic origin: 1990 -
x
High school graduates Science and Science and
High school
enrolled in college engineering earned engineering earned
U.S. population graduates
doctorates co
(18-24 years old) (18-24 years old) (18-24 years old) bachelors degrees
Number RI
Ut
7,964,000 379.392 14 014

1.4 ai 24.852 000 20 311.000
6.635.000 296 140 12.560

\,',,:,ter 20 393.000 16.823.000
894,000 21,274 285
Black 3 520 000 2.710,000
435.000 15 680 382
2 749 000 1,498.000
l', -,0,trtic
Percent
100 0 100 0 100 0

lii 100 0 100 0
83 3 78 1
89 6
Wh,le 82 1
82 8
11 2 5 6 20
iilai I, 14 2 13 3
4 1
27
11 1 7 4 5 5
Hisi.ianic
NOIES Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race Totals may not add to 100 percent because not all races and ethnic groups are shown
of recipients. 1977-1991 (NSF 94-306) Arlington. VA NSF. U S Bureau of the
-,011FICES National Science Foundation (1994) Science and engineering degrees. by race/ethnicity(Current Population Reports Series P-20 No 400) Washington, DC U S
Ceni,us ;1992) School enrollment -social and economic characteristics of 5tudents October 1990
0t,,Prfurnent Printing Office
18 189
Appendix table 4-9
Number and percent of high school graduates, college enrollment, and science and engineering
degree attainment, by sex: 1990
High school High school graduates Science and Science and
U.S. population graduates enrolled In college engineering earned engineering earned
Sex (18-24 years old) (18-24 years old) (18-24 years old) bachelor's degrees doctorates
Number
1
Total 24.852 000 20.311.000 7,964,000 329,094 22.763 0
n
189,082 16,447 D
Male 12.134.000 9,778.000 3.922,000 -I
Female 12,718.000 10.533,000 4,042,000 140,012 6,316 0
x
In
Percent
o
il
Toil, 100 .. 100 0 100 0 100.0 100.0 1.11
Male 48 8 48.1 49.2 57.5 72.3 nt
51 9 50.8 42.5 27.7 z

Female 51 2 n
m
SOURCES National Science Foundation t19941 Science and engineering degrees 19661991 (NSF 94-305). Arlington, Vk NSF: U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1992). School
enrollment soc,a! anG economic characteristics of students. October 1990 (Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No.460). Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing Office 0
nndcatnr< of sonnce and mainernancs Educanon 199s
I50
wrar.Vammlememla.11.1!,264,11I.e4,
Appendix table 4-10
Percent of high school seniors taking selected science and mathematics courses, by sex and
post-high-school plans: 190 and 1993
Post-high-school plans
Intended major In the natural Other college Non-college-
Course area Year All students Male Female sciences or engineering major bound
Mathematics
88 89 98 97 77
Algebra 1990 89
91 91 92 98 98 79
1993
11 70 71 93 89 48
(eometry 1990
74 73 75 94 89 46
1993
31 27 67 38 6
Trigonometry 1990 28
36 37 74 42 8
1993 36
8 10 6 26 11
Calculus 1990
1993 11 13 9 33 8
1,225 276 474 752

Number in sample 1990 2,332 1,107
1,071 975 229 464 579
1993 2,046
Science
74 76 62 73 84
Low-level science 1990 75
74 72 52 73 90
1993 73
92 98 98 86
Biology 1990 92 93
90 93 96 96 83
1993 91
54 53 84 73 27
Chemistry 1990 53
60 59 62 85 75 29
1993
52 27 6
1990 23 27 19
Physics
64 30 7
1993 32 32 27
1.201 276 486 748
Number in sample 1990 2 296 1,096
959 229 464 578
1993 2,016 1,057
l ess than 1 percent

SOURCE National Science Board. (1993). Science and enginoenng Indlcalors - 1993 (NSB 93-1). Washington, DC: U S Government Pnnting Office.
indtcators ol Science and Mattematcs Education 1995
193
9 '2
Appendix table 4-11

Percent of all faculty who sa,/ that undergraduates
in their country are adequately prepared in selected
skills, by type of skill and country: 1992
Mathematics Written
and quantitative and oral
Country reasoning communication
Hong Kong 39 19
South Korea 31 59
Sweden 32 32
Russia 27 26
Mexico 23 24
Japan 22 30
Chile 22 17
Israel 19 1E
Australia 18 20
United States 15 20
NOTE: Includes faculty of all disciplines and depattments.

SOURCE: Mooney, C.J. (1994. June 221. The sham concerns of scholars. The Chronicle of
Higher Education. XL (42), pp. A37-A38.
Indicators of Science and Matnematics Education 1995
194
APPENDIX TABLES 179
Appendix table 4-12

Percent of 1987 first-year undergraduate students in
4-year institutions who had stayed in or switched to other
(declared or intended) majors by 1991, by field of major: 1991
Remained in same Moved to other
Field of major or like major group of majors
All natural sciences and engineering 56 0 44 0
Engineering 61 9 38.1
Natural sciences
Biological sciences 49.1 51 0
Computer sciences 46 4 53.6
mathematical sciences 37 3 62 7
Physical sciences 48.8 51.2
Social and behavioral sciences 72.0 28.0
Non-science and -engineering

Business 59.5 40 5
Education 67.7 32.3
English 84.9 15.1
Fine ads 70.1 29.9

History or political science 65.2 34 8
NOTE. Like malors are defined as follows- Group onebiological sciences, physical sciences, engineering, and
mathematical sciences. Group twohistory or political science, social and behavioral sciences, line arts. and English.
Computer sciences, business, and education were defined to be separate majors, without other like majors
SOURCE. Seymour. E , & Hewitt. N.M. (1994). Talking about leaving: Factors contributing to high attrition rates among
science. mathematics & engineering undergraduate majors. Final report to the Allred P. Sloan Foundation on an
ethnographic inquiry at seven institutions. Boulder. CO: University ot Colorado.

Appendix table 4.13

Average undergraduate tuition and fees paid by students,
by type and control of institution: 1985 to 1993
Public institutions Private institutions
Year 4-year 2-year 4-year 2-year
1985 $1.657 $788 $7,497 $4,703

1986 1,717 835 7,973 4,785
1. 87 1,809 844 8,516 4,713
1988 1,897 871 8,782 5,135
1989 1,961 865 9,152 5.709
1990 2,012 854 9,492 5,875
1991 2.025 884 9,743 5,975
1992 2,181 965 10,062 5,921
1993 2,352 1,018 10,393 6.101
NOTES: 1993 data are preliminary. Public institution tuition and fees are shown for in-state residents.
Amounts represent real 1993 dollars.
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). Digest of educational statistics 1993
(NCES 93-292). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,
Appendix table 4-14

Debt burden of 1990 bachelor's degree recipients,
by postgraduation oc%;upation: 1991
Percent Median Median Median debt as a percent
Occupation with debt debt Income of median first-year income
Engineers, surveyors. architects 51.5 $6,900 $31,200 22.1

Elementary & secondary teachers 51.0 $6,500 .018.200 35.7
Science tecnnicians 46 9 $4,000 $20,500 , 9.5
Engineering technicians 46 2 $8.000 527.900 28 7

Social scientists & urban planners 45 3 $8,000 $20,500 39.0
Natural scientists & mathematicians 44.6 $5,000 $23,900 20.9
Computer scientists 40 2 $8,000 $30.000 26.7
NOTES: Median debt includes only those with debt Median income includes only those with debt and first-year income.
SOURCE. U.S Department of Education. Office of Policy and Planning (1993). Debt burden The next generation Rockville
MD: Westat, Inc.
Appendix table 4-15
Number and percent of science and engineering doctorate recipients, by primary source of support,
residency status, and race or ethnic origin: 1992
Noncitizens U.S. citizens
Permanent Temporary Native
Primary source
Total residents residents Total Whites Blacks Hispanics Asians Americans
of support
Number
11,199 10,042 205 285 480 51

otal 17.823 918 5,681
645 4,347 5,970 5,380 75 126 277 27

University 10,976
523 3,599 3,271 77 99 109 17
Personal 4,320 192
68 1,113 975 24 39 61 3
Federal 1.206 26
744 516 421 29 21 33 4
Other 1.325 55
Percent
100 0 100.0 100 0 100.0 100 0 100 0 100 0

Total 100 0 100 0
10 2 76 5 53.3 53 6 36.6 44.2 57.8 52.9

University 61 6
20 9 92 32.1 32.6 37.6 34 8 22.7 33 3
Personal 24 2
1.2 9.9 97 11.7 13 7 12 7 59
Federal 66 28
13.1 4.6 4.2 14.1 74 69 78
Other 74 60
under Federal research grants, as well as other

NOTES- Persons of Hispanic ngin may be of any race. University sources include research and teaching assistantships funded
sources available to unitiersitte Personal sources include ioans (Federal and non-Federal), recipients' own earnings, and contributions from family and spouse. Federal sources
include Federal agency fellowsf.'p and traineeship programs. Other support includes U.S. nationally competitive fellowships, business or employer funds, foreign government, state
government, and other nonspecified sources. Numbers represent only those doctorate recipients with known primary support. Percents are based on these numbers Data also
include health sciences which are not included in other doctoral data in this report
SOURCE Ries, P , & Thurgood, D (1994). Summary report 1992* Doctorate recipients from United States universities. Washington, DC. National Academy Press.
11,011 tli. 101 11.,1101 and Mathematics Education 1995
197 198
Appendix table 4-16

Participation rate of 22-year-oids in first university degrees in the natural sciences and
engineering, by sex and country: most current year (1989 to 1992)
?ercent 22-year-olds
All first With NS&E dogrees
With
university Natural Social Persons first univ. NS&E earned as a percent
Region/ country degrees sciences sciences 22-years-old degree
Engineering devee' of all 22-year-olds
Male
Asia
Japan ' 290,253 20 221 138.708 78.705 915,800 31 7 10 8 55
South Korea 104.627 15.953 7,579 26.763 447.600 23 4 95 50
Taiwan 23,556 4.723 1,167 8.110 190,800 12 4 67 35
Europe
Austria 5.996 1,071 301 978 62.272 9.6 3.3 17
Bulgaria 10,296 1.047 201 3,337 61.046 46 9 7.2 37
France 55,637 10.416 3.925 13.394 435,915 12 8 55 28
Germany 111.894 18.475 20.829 34.634 660.000 16 1 76 41
Greece 8,600 1.731 969 1.547 78.932 10 9 42 21
rtaly 46,519 6.779 10.447 7.278 455.783 10 0 30 15
Poland 24,525 3.309 752 6.100 265.441 92 35 18
Spain 51,208 7,390 1.495 5.996 338,000 15 2 40 20
Sweden 7,203 897 262 2.018 60,871 11 8 48 25
Switzerland 5.893 1,088 429 751 47,859 11.5 3.6 20
United Kingdom ` 46,888 12.963 6,536 8,647 437.232 10 7 49 25
North America
Canada 56.157 8.235 7,929 7,738 205.200 27 4 73 4.0
United States 508.952 62.341 74.900 68.851 1.896.959 26 8 69 35
Female
Asra
Japan ' 109.750 4.932 18.519 2.650 871.600 12.5 0.9 04
South Korea 61.289 7.242 2.632 1.308 411.400 14 9 21 10
Taiwan 19 396 1 810 2.007 840 180.200 10 8 15 07
Europe
Austria 4 573 481 457 70 59 590 '7 8 09 05
Bulgaria 13.590 1.341 259 3.211 57.259 23 7 7.8 38
France 48.200 5 484 3.419 3.195 417,947 11 5 21 10
Germany 69.751 11.425 16.297 4.218 627.400 10 6 24 12
Greece 9 832 1.228 998 450 73,717 13 3 23 1 1
diary 49.706 6.369 8.864 622 450.470 11 0 16 08

Poland 30.835 3.551 1.329 1.340 252.900 12 2 19 09
Spain 70 69, 5.912 4.024 648 322.400 2, 9 20 10
Sweden 9 859 595 938 529 57.994 17 0 19 09
Switzerland 3.272 375 495 26 45.940 71 09 04
United Kingdom 38,005 7.368 6 855 1.398 416.872 91 21 10
Nhon America
Canada 74 007 5.272 13,811 929 193 200 34 2 31 15
United States 599 045 50.542 95.205 11.630 1.829.155 32 8 34 17
NOTES NS&E Natural sciences and engineering Data for Bulgaria Germany. Italy Poland Switzerland and tne United Kingdom are from 1992
Data tor Austria France. Greece. Japan Sweden and the United Slates are lor 1991 All other data are from 1990
Includes degrees in math and computer scrences and agricultural sciences Includes degrees in engineerina technolog, Social science degrees are
not included in this proportion Japanese social sciences data are adrusled to delete business Average age of German degree recipient is 27 years
c. alc Population (liven is for all 27-yearioras In united German', United Kingdom data do not include open unrversitrei
SOURCE Natrona: Science Foundation 11994r ;Special tabulations of statistics ol international degrees; UnpubliShed data
kr,onernarrris Enurioron 1991:
Appendix table 4-17
Degrees awarded in all fields, science and engLaering, and science and engineering as a percent
of all fields, by degree level: 1971 to 1991
1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 '1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982
Degree
1:0
Ad fields. total
NA N/A NA NJA NA NA NA NA NA
Associate NA NA NA
930.272 931,663 934,443 928.228 930.201 931 340 940,251 946,877 964.043
Bachelor s 846.110 894.110 954,376
231 486 252.774 264.525 293,651 313,001 318.241 312.816 302,075 299,095 296,798 296 580
Master s 278,259
33.755 33.047 32 952 32.946 31,716 30,875 31 239 31 020 31 357 31.111
'0,c:twat 31 867 33.041
S, ,, ri, e and engineering total

NIA N/A N/A N/A NA NA NA N/A N/A
Associate N/A N/A NA
294 357 306.459 321,085 326,230 313,555 309,491 303,798 303,555 303.162 304.695 306.792 315.023
Bar he lor s
62.046 62,239 63,198 65,007 67,397 67,264 64.226 64.089 64,366 66.568
Ma:0er,, 56.454 60,049
18,711 18.364 17.892 17.539 17.753 11.668 18.143 18 190
Ductoral 19 363 19.324 19.352 18,694
ieuce and engineering as a percent ot all fields

N/A N/A NA N/A NA NA NA NA NA
AV>socklie NA NA N/A
34 2 33 7 33 1 32 7 32 6 32 6 32 4 32 4 32 7
Bochehr:. -14 8 34 3 34 5
22 4 21 5 20 8 21 2 21 5 21 3 21 4 21 7 22 4
Master s 24 4 23 8 23 5
56 6 56 8 55 7 56 4 56 8 56 8 57 0 57 9 58 5
Dournal 60 8 58 5 57 3
Continued
201
200
0)
(.4
Appendix table 4-17
Degrees awarded in all fields, science and engineering, and science and
engineering as a percent of total, by degree level: 1971 to 1991, continued
Degree 1983 1sa4 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
All fields. total

As-.0ciate 461,888 457.851 459.087 451.258 440,816 441.093 440.375 459,048 486,297
Bac nroors 980.679 986.345 990,877 1.000.204 1,003.532 1,006,033 1.030,171 1,062.151 1,107,997
2
Master s 290.931 285.462 287.213 289,829 290,532 300,091 311,050 324,947 338,498 0
DorliDi ii 31,782 31.337 31.297 31.895 32,363 33,490 34,318 36,057 37,451
n
>
-1
co 'once ,ii,ii engineering. Mal 0
Associate 23.901 28.183 26 580 25.359 23.130 21.520 19,733 19,810 19,352 z
0
13.1cheior s 317.875 324.483 332 422 335 460 331,526 322,482 322,821 329,094 337,675
0
Master s 67 716 68 564 70.562 71 831 72,603 73,655 76,425 77,788 78,360
1
floctoral 18 506 18,641 18,824 19,339 19,784 20,832 21,625 22,763 23,854
0
n
_
S( ionce ,ind engineering as a percent of all fields m
A--,seciate 52 62 58 56 5.3 49 4.5 43 4.0 Z

n
Bachelor's 32 4 'IT! 9 33 5 33 5 33 0 32 1 31.3 31 0 30.5
m
Mdslei s 23 3 ...1 0 74 6 24 8 25 0 24 5 24 6 23 9 23 2
D
Doctotal 59 2 59 5 60 1 60 8 61.1 62.2 63.0 63 1 63.7 Z
a
3
N,A Not available D
NOTE Data on science and engineering associate degrees are not available before 1983. -4
SOURCE National Soence Foundation. (1954). Science and engineering degrees. 1966-91 (NSF 94-305). Arlington, VA: NSF. x
m
,
11.4,,,, c)I Science and Mathematics Educatmn 1955 3
D
-4
_
n
m
m
o
A. )3 c
4
0
Z
...
W
10
1.11
APPENDIX TABLES 185
Appendix table 4-18

Number of Lachelor's degrees awarded, by major field group and by sex: 1971 to 1991
Total Female
Natural Social e id Total S&E Natural Social and
Year Total S&E Engineei ing sciences behav. sci. Number Percent Engineering sciences behav. sci.
1971 294.357 45 248 94.544 154.565 8.039 28.9 361 23.848 60,830
1972 306.459 45.711 96.410 164,338 90,037 29 4 492 '09 64,836
1973 321 .085 46,779 103.004 171.302 95,995 29.9 576 2u.o;35 68,534
1974 326.230 43.248 109.752 173,230 102,578 31 4 698 29,986 71,894
1975 313.555 39,824 110,584 163.147 102,814 32.8 845 31.878 70,091
1976 309,491 38.790 113.296 157,405 103,921 33 6 1.317 33.653 68,951
1977 303.798 41,357 113.908 148.513 134,993 34.6 2.044 35,289 67,660
1978 303,555 47.251 112,286 144.018 107.667 35 5 3,482 36.457 67.728
1979 303,162 53.469 110.790 138.903 109,915 36.3 4.881 37.494 67,540
1980 304,695 58,:110 i 10 253 135,632 113,480 37.2 5.952 38,905 68.623
1981 306.792 63.717 11C.468 132,607 115,815 37.8 7,063 40,366 68,386
1982 315,023 67.460 113,998 133,565 121,399 38.5 8,275 42,819 70,305
317,875 72,670 116.554 128,651 123,337 38.8 9,652 45,426 68,259

1983
1984 324,483 76.153 122,252 126,078 125,221 38.6 10,729 47,973 66,519
1985 332.422 77,572 129,817 125,033 128,958 38.8 11.246 51,449 66,263
335,460 76.820 131,082 127,558 130,689 39 0 11,138 51,836 67,715

1986
331.526 74.425 125,166 131,935 131,545 39 7 11,404 49,706 70,435
1987
70,154 115,611 136,717 130,933 40.6 10,779 46,569 73,585
1988 '322.482
322,821 66,947 109,137 146.737 133,483 41 3 10,188 43,446 79.849
1989
1990 329,094 64,705 105,021 159,368 140,012 42.5 9,973 42,680 87,359
337,675 62,187 105,383 170,105 148,347 43.9 9,665 43,477 95,205

1991
NOTE: S&E is science and engineering.

SOURCE. National Science Foundation. 09941. Science and engineenng degrees: 1966-91 (NSF 94-305). Arlington. VA: NSF.
Appendix table 4-19

Number of master's degrees awarded, by major field group and by sex: 1971 to 1991
Total Female
Total Social and Total Social and
science -md Natural behavioral science and Natural behavioral
Year engineering Engineering sciences sciences engineering Engineering sciences sciences
1971 56.454 16,367 20.735 19.352 10,338 186 4.598 5.554

1972 60,049 16.764 21.658 21.627 11,328 271 4.851 6.206
1973 62,046 16.545 21.899 23,602 11,813 278 4,683 6,852
1974 62,239 15,205 22.040 24.994 12.711 347 4.913 7,451
1975 63.198 15.167 21,468 26.563 13,788 372 4.888 8,528
1976 65,007 16.045 21,150 27,812 15.015 568 4,986 9.461

1977 67,397 16.012 21,856 29,529 16,498 698 5.493 10.307
1978 67,264 16,080 21.967 29.217 17.230 843 5.680 10.707
1979 64.226 15.279 21,544 27.403 17,612 937 5.852 10,823
1980 64.089 15.943 21.347 26.799 18.085 1.123 5.903 11,059
1981 64.366 16,451 21.136 26.779 18,861 1,329 5,975 11,557

1982 66.568 17,557 22.368 26.643 20.011 1.575 6,722 11,714
1983 67,716 18.886 22,540 26,290 20.998 1,755 7.054 12,189
1984 68,564 20,145 23,170 25.249 21.531 2.100 7,483 11.948
1985 70,562 20.972 23.961 25.629 22.320 2,244 7.730 12.356
1986 71.831 21.096 25.151 25,584 23.220 2.400 8.305 12,515

1987 72.603 22.070 25,208 25,325 23.844 2.770 8.545 12,529
1988 73.655 22,726 25.784 25.145 23.835 2.808 8.463 12.564
1989 76.425 23.743 26.047 26.635 25.580 3.082 8,831 13.667
1990 77.788 23.995 26.255 27.538 26.558 3,269 9.027 14.262
1991 78.368 24.013 25.638 28.717 27.927 3.357 9.135 15.435
SOURCE National Science Foundation (1994; Science and engineering degrees 1966-91 INSF 94-3051 Arlington VA NSF
incpcalo,s of Sc.ence and rvi!,,ernahci, Educann 1995
APPENDIX TABLES 187
Appendix table 4-20

Number of doctoral degrees awarded, by major field group and by sex: 1971 to 1991
Total Female
Total Social and Total Social and
science and Natural behavioral science and Natural behavioral
Year engineering Engineering sciences sciences engineering Engineering sciences sciences
1971 19.363 3.514 10.280 5 569 1.990 16 1.000 974

1972 19.324 3 509 9 986 5.829 2.142 22 1 040 1.080
1973 19.352 3.374 9.804 6 174 2.510 46 1 171 1,293
1974 18.694 3.161 9.266 6 267 2.662 34 1.163 1.465
1975 18.711 3.011 9.250 6.450 2.905 52 1.252 1 601
1976 18 364 2.838 8.866 6 660 3.060 55 1.272 1.733

1977 17 892 2.648 8.640 6 604 3.185 74 1 273 1 838
1978 17.539 2 425 8.560 6 554 3,410 53 1.397 1 960
1979 17.753 2.494 8.796 6.463 3.703 62 1,527 2.114
1980 17 668 2.479 8.826 6 363 3.915 90 1.652 2.173
1981 18,143 2.528 3,956 6.659 4.143 99 1.724 2.320

1982 18.190 2 646 9.135 6.409 4.307 124 1,868 2.315
1983 18,506 2.781 9,182 6.543 4.650 124 1.983 2,543
1984 18.641 2.913 9.329 6.399 4,739 151 2.005 2.583
1985 18,824 3,166 9.435 6.223 4,840 198 2.123 2,519
1986 19,339 3,376 9.612 6.351 5,114 225 2,316 2,663

1987 19.784 3,712 9,845 6.227 5,253 242 2.361 2.650
1988 20,832 4,188 10.437 6.207 5,606 286 2,570 2.750
1989 21,625 4,544 10,656 6.425 6,044 375 2,799 2.870
1990 22,763 4,893 11.363 6.507 6,316 415 2,932 2.969
1991 23,854 5.212 11.989 6.653 6,789 452 3,122 3,215
SOURCE. National Science Foundation. (1994) Science and engineering degrees. 1966-91 (NSF 94-305) Arlington. VA NSF
Appendix table 4-21

Science and engineering degrees awarded per hundred
U.S. population, by degree level and sex: 1971 to 1991
Bachelor's degree Master's degree Doctoral degree

Year Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female
1971 8.4 11.9 4.9 15 2.4 0.5 0.7 1.3 0.2

1972 8.7 12.3 5.1 1.7 2.7 0.6 0.7 12 0.2
1973 8.8 12.2 5.3 17 2.8 0.7 0.6 1.1 0.2
1974 8.7 11.8 5.5 1.7 2.8 0.7 06 1 1 0.2
1975 8.1 10.8 5.4 1.7 2.7 0.7 0.6 1.1 0.2
1976 7.8 10.3 5.3 1.7 2.6 0.8 0.6 1.1 0.2
1977 7.5 9.7 5.2 1.7 2.6 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.2
1978 7.4 9.5 5.3 1.7 2.5 0.9 0.5 0.8 0.2
1979 7.1 9.0 5.2 1.6 2.3 0.9 0.5 08 0.2
1980 7.1 8.9 5.3 1.5 2.2 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.2
1981 7.2 8.9 5.4 1.5 2.1 0.9 05 0.7 0.2

1982 74 9.0 5.7 1.5 2.1 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.2
1983 7.3 8.9 5.7 1.6 2.1 1.0 0.5 07 02
1984 7.6 9.3 5.9 1.6 2.2 1.0 04 0.7 0.2

1985 7.9 9.6 6.2 1.6 2.2 1.0 , 04 0.7 0.2
1986 81 9.7 6.4 17 2.2 1.1 0.4 0.7 0.2
1987 8.3 9.8 66 1.7 2.3 1.1 0.4 0.7 0.2
1988 8.4 9.9 7.0 17 23 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.3
1989 8.7 10.0 7.3 1.9 2.5 1.3 0.5 0.7 0.3
1990 9.0 10 1 7.8 2.0 2.6 1.4 0.5 0.7 0.3
1991 90 9.9 8.1 21 2.6 1.5 0.5 0.8 0.3
NOTE: Bachelors degrees. per hundred 22-year-olds: masters, per hundred 24-year-olds. doctorates, per hundred 30-year-olds
SOURCE. National Science Foundation (1994) Science and engineenng degrees* 1966-91 (NSF 94-305) Arlington. VA: NSF.
Widicalorsol6oemeanclMathemasEchicalion1995
27
APPENDIX TABLES 189
Appendix table 4-22

Number and percent of bachelor's degrees awarded in science and
engineering, by citizenship and race or ethnic origin: 1977 to 1991
Citizenship 1977 1979 1981 1985 1987 1989 1990 1991
Number
Total, all recipients 374,579 373,431 374,693 375,786 376,450 371,248 379,392 389,952
Total. U S. citizens and permanent residents 365.907 363.308 361.362 356.256 351.607 350.242 355.032 366.945
White 323,845 318.819 313.486 307,061 298,129 293,262 296,140 303,532

Black 23,134 23.324 23.767 20,223 20,224 20.481 21.274 23.170
Hispanic 11,002 12.163 13,107 13.373 13.846 14,811 15.680 17.021
Asian 6,558 7,591 9.572 13,996 17,921 20.222 20.453 21,628
Native American 1,368 1,411 1.430 1,603 1,487 1,466 1,485 1.594
Nonresident alien 8,486 10.039 13.282 15.526 14,824 13,138 13,216 13.591
Unknown 186 84 49 4,004 10,019 7.868 11,144 9.416
Percent
Total, all recipients 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Percent of all recipients.
U.S. citizens and permanent residents 97.7 97.3 96.4 94.8 93.4 94.3 93.6 94.1
Total, U S. citizens and permanent residents 100.0 100 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
White 88.5 87.8 86.8 86.2 84.8 833 83.4 82.7

Black 6.3 6.4 6.6 5.7 5.8 5.8 6.0 6.3
Hispanic 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.8 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.6
Asian 1.8 2.1 2.6 3.9 5.1 5.8 5.8 5.9
Native American 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Nonresident alien - - - - - - -
Unknown - - - -
-- Figures are percentages of total U.S. citizens and permanent residents only.
NOTES: Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Percentages may not add to 100 as a result of rounding
SOURCE: National Science Foundation (1994) Science and engineering degrees, by race/ethniciP/ of recipients 1977-91 (NSF 94-
306). Arlington, VA. NSF.

Appendix table 4-23

Number and percent of engineering bachelor's degrees awarded to
blacks and Hispanics, by institution and sex: 1993
All
engineering Percent
State or bachelor's awarded Blacks
Academic institution territory degrees to blacks All Male Femalo
North Carolina A&T State University NC 173 88 4 153 90 63

Tuskegee University AL 125 96.0 120 72 48
Prairie View A&M University TX 138 81.9 113 71 42
Georgia Institute of Technology. Main Campus GA 1.218 7.8 95 59 36
Howard University DC 123 71.5 88 5:5 35
Southern University and A&M College LA 78 91 0 71 42 29
North Carolina State University at Raleigh NC 1.041 61 64 52 12
CUNY City College NY 211 25 1 53 44 9
Pratt Institute NY 90 47 8 43 40 3
Massachusetts Institute of Technology MA 587 7.0 41 33 8
Percent
awarded Hispanics
to Hispanics All Male Female
University of Puerto Rico Mayaguez PR 529 100 0 529 379 150

Universidad Politécnica de Puerto Rico PR 147 100.0 147 118 29
Florida International University FL 195 53.8 105 80 25
Texas A&M University. Main Campus TX 938 92 86 66 20
University of Texas at Et Paso TX 153 49 7 76 59 17
California Polytechnic State UniversitySLO CA 700 9.6 67 59 8
University of Texas at Austin TX 751 85 64 57 7
Massachusetts Institute of Technology MA 587 92 54 41 13

New Mexico Slate University All Campuses NM 229 23 6 54 43 11
University of Miami FL 144 31 3 45 33 12
NOTES Persons of Hispanic origin may he of any race Universities listed are the ones that award the largest number of
engineering bachelor s degrees to blacks or Hispanics
SOURCE National Center for Education Statistics Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System Special tabulations
by Science Resources Studies Division National Science Foundation
inthcatcrs ol Soence and Mathematics Education 1995
20j
APPENDIX TABLES 19I
Appendix table 4-24

Number of doctorates awarded to U.S. citizens,
by selected racial and ethnic groups: 1982 to 1992
Science and engineering total Non-science and -engineering total
Year Black Hispanic Native American Black Hispanic Native American
1982 285 226 38 762 309 39

1983 283 237 27 639 302 54
1984 299 254 31 654 282 43
1985 278 244 41 634 317 55
1986 254 276 52 569 295 47
1987 234 305 52 534 313 63
1988 260 327 41 554 270 53
1989 284 310 52 537 273 42
1990 285 382 41 613 335 55
1991 349 405 55 652 325 75
1992 300 414 69 651 341 79
NOTE Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race

SOURCE National Science Foundation (1993) Selected data on science and engineering doctorate awards
1992 (NSF 93-315) Washington, DC NSF
Indicators of Soence and Mathematics Education ¶995
Appendix table 4-25
Number of science and engineering doctorates awarded

to U.S. citizens, by selected racial and ethnic groups
and sex: 1982 to 1992
Black Hispanic Native American

Year Male Female Male Female Male Female
1982 159 126 160 66 27 11
1983 150 133 140 97 22 5
1984 156 143 173 81 26 5
1985 152 126 148 96 21 20

1986 124 130 177 99 33 19
1987 115 119 179 126 31 21
1988 143 117 199 128 28 13
1989 142 142 180 130 33 19
1990 151 134 232 150 24 17
1991 180 169 238 167 36 19
1992 151 149 253 161 42 27
NOTE Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race

SOURCE National Science Foundation 119931 Selected data on science and engineering doctorate amards
1992 (NSF 93-315) Washington. DC NSF
"licalors of Srencn and Mathematics EducaUon 1995
210
Appendix table 4-26

Science and engineering doctorates awarded,
by citizenship: 1972 to 1992
U.S. Unknown Percent
Year Total citizens Noncitizens citizenship noncitizen
1972 19,324 15,144 3,860 320 20.0

1973 19,352 14,971 4,044 337 20.9
1974 18,694 13,750 4,092 852 21.9
1975 18.710 14,288 4.056 366 21.7
1976 18,268 14,082 3,839 347 21 0
1977 17.723 13.636 3,651 436 20.6

1978 17,383 13.331 3,557 495 20.5
1979 17,589 13,524 3,602 463 20.5
1980 17,523 13,410 3,662 451 20 9
1981 17,996 13,544 3,855 597 21.4
1982 18,017 13,292 3,981 744 22.1

1983 18.393 13,403 4,298 692 23.4
1984 18,514 13,250 4,527 737 24.5
1985 18,712 12,947 4,957 808 26.5
1986 19,251 12,869 5,128 1,254 26.6
1987 19.706 12,819 5,536 1,351 28.1

1988 20,739 13,217 6,047 1,475 29.2
1989 21.528 13,311 6,498 1,719 30.2
1990 22,672 14,014 7,739 919 34.1
1991 23.780 14,225 8.882 673 37 4
1992 24.432 14,262 9,372 798 38.4
SOURCES National Science Foundation (1993). Science and engineering doctorates:

1960-91 (NSF 93-301) Washington, DC NSF. National Science Foundation. (1993).
Selected data on science and engineering doctorate awards: 1992 (NSF 93-315)
Washington. DC: NSF.
Indicators of Science and Maincrnatics Education 1995
211
APPENDIX TABLES 193
Appendix table 4-27

Engineering technology degrees awarded,
by degree level: 1975 to 1991
Degree
Year Associate Bachelor's Master's Doctoral
1975 30,906 8.589 371 5
1976 36,263 9.180 493 10
1977 38.588 9.864 505 12
1978 41,708 10,314 579 15
1979 41,716 10,906 496 16
1980 43.696 12.180 510 16
1981 52.478 13.567 532 21
1982 58.574 14.778 636 33

1983 51.332 18,663 622 18
1984 50.718 20.22', 694 6
1985 53,693 20.33 816 15
1986 49,904 20.928 925 21
1987 49.813 20,577 883 13
1988 49,640 20,447 980 14
1989 48,342 20,098 1,135 18
1990 46,931 19.150 1,194 18
1991 45,104 18,294 1,188 25
SOURCE: National Science Foundation. (1994). Science and engineenng degrees:

1966-91 (NSF 94-305). Arlington, VA: NSF.
Indicators et Science and Mathematics Education 1995
Appendix table 4-28

Number of institutions of higher education, by Carnegie
Institution classification type: 1987 and 1994
Typo 1987 1994
Total 3,389 3.600
Doctorate-granting institutions 213 236

Master's-granting institutions 595 532
Bachelor's-granting institutions 572 633
Specialized-degree-granting inst.tutions 642 690
Tribal colleges 29
Two-year colleges 1.367 1,480
Unavailable because the tribal colleges category did not exist in 1987.
NOTE: Data use 1994 Carnegie classification system
SOURCE. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of leaching (1991. MayiJune) Research-intensive
vs. teaching-intensive institutions. Change. 23-26.
Indicators et Science and Mathematics Education 1995

91 )
Appendix table 4-29
Total number and percent of full-time instructional faculty, by field and race or ethnic origin:
Fall 1987 and Fall 1992
1987 1992
Native Native
Field Total White Asian Black Hispanic American Total White Asian Black Hispanic American
Number
1 319.741 354 811 20 814 12.637 8.570 2.909 365.348 319.217 20.092 17.089 7.613 1,337
(.1.c;1[q.erni8J 32 965 118 :`75 8 262 2 978 2.689 561 142,685 122,161 11 673 5,530 2,903 418
N itorar 72.043 34 767 4 591 861 1.484 341 78.016 67.282 6.494 2.606 1.430 204
(: s( rem ee 41.974 37.637 1 087 2.018 1 011 221 45.082 40.041 1.493 2.375 1,008 165
(1.,leporlg 18 948 15 871 2 584 100 394 0 19,587 14.838 3.686 549 465 49
Non .:.(,epre criginoennq total 266.776 236 536 12.552 9.659 5,681 2,347 222.663 197.056 8,418 11.559 4,710 920
25.02? 21 r,30 2.198 690 171 435 28,162 25.195 1,633 944 230 .59
E Irrr 25 674 2? 720 365 1.606 718 265 28,099 24,775 354 2.209 607 154
26 072 1'3 675 436 798 1.012 151 25.637 22.613 697 1,526 670 132
114..110, om, 85.763 75.079 6.649 2,348 976 711 44.883 39.738 2,359 2.134 528 125
}10,1,i(1001., 4') 585 44 862 998 1 200 2 195 330 51,831 46,039 1,724 1.996 1,925 147
OtPer programs 54.661 48 670 1.909 3.017 610 455 44.052 38,697 1,653 2,751 749 202
Contmued
2jj
Appendix table 4-29
Total number and percent of full-time instructional faculty, by field and race or ethnic origin:
Fall 1987 and Fall 1992, continued
1967 1992
Native Native
03
Total White Asian Black Hispanic American Total White Asian Black Hispanic American
Field
Percent
81 4 5 5 4 1 2 1 0 4
100 0 88 8 5 2 3 2 2 1 0 7 100 0
1,0,11
6 2 2 2 2 2 0 4 100 0 85 6 8 2 3 9 2 0 03
Suunce and engineering. total 100 0 89 0
86 2 8 3 3 3 1 8 03
89 9 64 1 2 2 1 05 100 0
Natural sciences 100 0
4 2 4 0 5 100 0 88 8 3 3 8 3 2 2 04
f;ocial and behavioral sciences 100 0 89 7 2 6 8
2 1 0 0 100 0 75 8 18 8 2 8 2 4 0 3
f nuineelinii 100 0 83 8 13 6 05
88 5 3 8 5 2 2 1 0 4
8E1 7 4 7 3 6 2 1 0 9 100 0
N.i..,. 'once .1m1 omprint:fing total 100 0
8 8 2 8 0 1 1 7 100 0 89 5 5 8 34 0 8 0 6
(1,.,.me,-, 100 0 86 0
1 4 63 28 1 0 100 0 8132 1 3 7 9 22 06
I do( ,Itkirf 100 0 88 5
1 7 3 1 3 9 0 6 100 0 88 2 2 / 1, 0 7 6 05
E me ,irls 100 0 90 8
5 4 8 1 2 03
7 8 2 7 1 1 0 8 100 0 88 5 3
f ledith science,, 100 0 87 5
2 0 2 4 4 4 0 7 100 0 88 8 3 3 3 9 3 7 03
Humanities 100 0 90 5
3 8 6 3 1 7 05
3 5 5 5 1 1 08 100 0 87 8
Othei progi,im,, 100 0 89 0
NOT f- S Numbers may not equal totals as a result of rounding Asian includes Pacific Islar rs Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race
postsecondary faculty) Unpublished dale
;(.)Uf4C,E. National Center lor Education Statistics (1994) !Special tabulations from lhe u93 national study of
.1 ArAlMothernal.,... dtkatIhn 1!.Y35
2t5 216
is
UI
Appendix table 4-30

Number and percent of full-time instructional faculty, by field and sex:
Fall 1987 and Fall 1992
1987 1992
Percent Percent
Field Total Male Female female Total Male Female female
Total 399,853 300.121 99,732 24 9 365.348 259.670 105,678 28.9
Science and engineering, total 133.069 111.025 22.045 16 6 142.685 118,360 24,325 17.0
Natural sciences 72.043 60.028 12,015 16 7 78,016 66,023 11,993 15.4
Social and behavioral sciences 41,974 32,415 9,559 22.8 45,082 33,900 11,182 24.8
Engineering 19,053 18,582 471 2.5 19,587 18.437 1,150 5.9
Non-science and -engineering. total 266,783 189.096 77.687 29.1 222.663 141.310 81,353 36 5
Business 25,C23 19,835 5.188 20.7 28.162 21.777 6,384 22 7
Education 25,f 73 15.610 10,063 39 2 28.099 15.212 12.887 45 9
Fine arts 26.0', 9 19.745 6,327 24.3 25,637 17,641 7,996 31.2
Health sciences 85.762 59.724 26.038 30.4 44.883 24.098 20,784 46.3
Humanities 49,594 34,717 14,877 30.0 51.831 32.479 19,352 37.3
Other programs 54,660 39.465 15,195 27.8 44,052 30,102 13.949 31.7
NOTE: Numbers may not equal totals as a result of rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics (1994) [Special tabulations from the 1993 national study of posf.econdary faculty). Unpublished
data
Inthcatars 01 Science and mathemalics Education 1 995
21.7
APPENDIX TABLES 197
Appendix table 4-31

Principal activity of full-time higher education faculty
and instructional staff, by field: Fail 1992
Number Percent
Field of faculty Total Teaching Research Other
Total 595.340 100 0 66 8 11 5 21 7
Engineering 26 588 100 0 68 9 16 5 14 ,
Natural sciences. tota: 121.989 100 0 63 3 23 6 13 1
Life science 50.652 100 0 45 2 38 8 16 0
Physical science 29.884 100 0 68 6 19.0 12 4
Computer science 14 .439 100 0 77 4 10 5 12.0
Mathematical science 27.014 100.0 83 7 73 90
Social and behavioral sciences 62.422 100 0 73 3 9.6 17.1
Non-science and -engineering. total 384.341 100.0 66 7 76 25 7
Health sciences 91.280 100.0 48.2 13.0 38.8
Education 41.304 100 0 71.1 3.1 25.8
Business 41 .552 100.0 80.1 67 13.3
Humanities 79,875 100 0 82.1 29 15.0
Fine arts 33.328 100 0 85.2 1.1 13.7
Other 97.002 100.0 57 5 10.8 31.7
NOTES. Other activity includes clinical service, administration, community or public service, technical activities, on sabbatical
from institution, or other unclassified activities. Totals may not equal 100 percent as a result of rounding.
SOURCE National Center for Education Statistics. (1994) (Special tabulations from the 1993 national study of postsecondary
faculty). Unpublished data.
ineicators of Science ana Mathematics taucation 1995

Appendix table 4-32
Mean number of ciasses taught by full:time faculty, by field, institutional type, and sex: Fall 1992
Type of Institution
Doctoral Master Bachelor 2-year college
Field Total All Male Female All Male Female All Male Female All Male Female
Arc,111urt. "3 1B 18 13 29 30 27 50 50 - 38 38 37
Pi.ii.,eleni t '2 1 7 16 18 26 27 25 26 25 26 34 34 3.2
Ph,,,r,ii senco 23 1 7 17 18 27 27 25 29 31 23 3.1 3.0 31
maihninatics 32 20 20 22 33 33 31 32 3.3 3.2 40 41 39

.3 4 *? 1 21 1 9 29 28 32 38 36 42 4.4 a3 4.6
Ciimpi itor r ionce
ci Ft science ?9 71 21 -2 32 32 32 30 30 28 40 40 39
F. tiginering 24 18 18 14 28 28 30 25 26 10 35 3.6 3.1
H,J!,1111`.SS 33 23 23 24 30 30 31 40 39 41 45 46 44
f 1* at,on 31 2 ri 2? 74 33 34 3.2 32 3.0 34 3.8 39 3.7
34 ,' 0 "? 7 2a 34 34 35 34 35 3.1 43 44 40
14,,,illn s wneo ::' 4 ;:' 1 :` 1 "," 1 27 26 2.7 25 37 2.4 27 3.2 26
Hu,. 1,t,.., 12 24 24 24 32 32 31 31 31 31 41 42 40
1 1 7. 23 22 32 33 30 3.2 32 31 37 3.7 3.6
1 boy, ases (or a rehablo eslimdle

1111.13.1. National Center for Educal.on i1 q371 ISpC( rat iaoultthons from the 1993 national study of postsecondary faculty]. Unpublished data
, in,u o Ma[hArrdIu Edo, (0,11
-.( 2i9
APPENDIX TABLES 199
Appendix table 4-33

Number and percent of academic departments of engineering
that require or offer communications courses to faculty and graduate
students, by size of department: 1992
Smaller departments Larger departments
Total (20 or fewer faculty) (more than 20 faculty)
'4,1rnoer of departments 744 523 221
Percent of academic departments

Course offered to
Faculty 39 32 53
Graduate students 40 31 60
Course required of
Faculty 9 6
Graduate students 33 24 39
Areas covered by course

Teaching techniques 83 82 85
Academic or career advising 66 60 70
English language skiffs 29 34 21
American customs and behavior 30 24 35
NOTE. Includes only electrical, mechanical, and civil engineering.

SOURCE Burton. L , & Celebuski. C A (19941 Higher education surveys: Undergraduate education in ele:trical
mechanical and civil engineering (HES Survey No 161. Washington, DC National Science Foundation.
indicators of Science and Mathematics Education t 995

Appendix table 4-34

Percent of courses taught by full-time instructional faculty
using different formats, by type of institution and instructor's field: Fall 1992
Discussion Laboratory or
Type of Institution and field Total Lecture Seminar group problem session
Doctorate-granting institutions, total 100.0 61.1 13.2 10.6 8.7 6.4
Natural sciences 100.0 75.2 7.7 5.9 9.4 1.9

Engineering 100.0 84.7 4.2 1.1 7.8 2.3
Social and behavioral sciences 100.0 67.8 20.2 7.8 1.9 2.3
Non-science and -engineering 100.0 52 9 14.6 13.6 9.9 9.0
Master's-granting institutions, total 100.0 62.8 79 11.5 8.8 9.0

Engineering 100.0 75.2 3.5 3.3 15.3 2.7
Non-science and -engineering 100.0 54.9 9.0 15.2 9.0 11.9
Bachelor's-granting institutions, total 100.0 52.0 11.3 17.6 8.9 10.3

Engineering 100.0 68.5 33 0.0 28.2 0.0
Non-science and -engineering 100.0 42 6 12.0 22.3 8.8 14.2
Two-year institutions, total 100.0 66.2 2.3 10.1 14.4 7.0
Natural sciences 100 0 84 6 07 2.1 10.5 2.1

Engineering 100.0 78.5 0.9 3.1 15.9 16
Social and behavioral sciences 100.0 86.1 3.8 5.0 3.0 22
Non-science and -engineenng 100 0 57 1 27 13.6 16 9 96
NOTE. Other includes role playing or simulation, television or radio, group projects, and cooperative learning groups
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics (1994) [Special tabulations from the 1993 national study of postsecondary faculty]
Unpublished data.

APPENDIX TABLES 201
Appendix table 4-35

Percent of mathematics departments offering selected academic
activities to undergraduate mathematics majors, by activity
and type of institution: 1990
Institution type
Activities Doctorate-granting Master's-granting Bachelor's-granting
Regular oroblem-solving opportunities 69 63 25
Research projects 59 47 37
Senior project or thesis 23 36 28
Regular social activities With faculty 21 45 53
SOURCE. Albers. D J., Loftsgaarden. D.O.. Rung, D.0 . & Watkins. A E (1992). Statistical abstract of
undergraduate programs in the mathematical sciences and computer science in (he United States: 1990-91
CBMS survey MAA Notes No 23) Washington, DC Mathematical Association of America
indicators of Science and mathematics Education 1995
Appendix table 4-36

Number of calculus sections requiring selected course
activities, by type of institution: 1990
Institution type
Course Doctorate-granting Master's-granting Bachelor's-granting
Number of sections
Total 3.690 1,813 3.580
Writing activities 75 32 762
52 34 163
Group projects
Computer assignments 167 139 466
Percent
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
20 18 21.3
Writing activities
14 19 46
Group projects
45 7.6 13 0
Computer assignments
SOURCE. Albers. D J Loftsgaarden. D.O., Rung, D.0 . & Watkins. A E (1992) Statistical abstract of
undergraduate programs in the mathematical sciences and computer science in the United States'
1990-91 CBMS survey (MAA Notes No. 23) Washington, DC Mathematical Association of America.
223
Appendix ti 1-37
Percent of college and university equipment
and instrumentation at doctorate-granting
institutions used for instruction and research: 1990
Usage Percent
Research only 63
Predominantly research 29
Predominantly instruction 5
Instruction only 3
NOTE Includes only movable instrumentation and &luipment originally costing $10000 to S999.999
owned by research-performing colleges and universities. for use in the natural sciences and
engineering. from 1988 to 1989.
SOURCE: National Science Foundation. (1991) Characteristics of scienceiengineering equipment in
academic settings- 1989-90 (NSF 91-315). Washington. DC NSF.
Indtcators Of Science and Matnematics Education 1995
224
Index
Ability grouping . Av, 14. 15, 41-42, 4s. 49 Bachelor's degrees 74. TS, 79,
Achievement '. 14-29, 39, 1.17 S5;9-9', 94, 95
basic \iv, 14. 20 natural sciences 70, S9-s7, 97
international Aiv, 24, 29-2s, 29. sl s,.tence and engineermg 79, s0, Nom2
.
race or et link ,]rigin \iv, 7. -,]cial and behavioral st_iences .. 79, S7

14-22. 24..25 . 21) students 7S-79, S9-s
regional \ 1%, 24-25, 29 Blacks sty, 5-7, 67, :..l.1,
CS sic, 14, 23, 24, 29, 7S achievement .... 14, 19-22, 24-25, 2O
state 24-25, 27, ''-, "o 109 ,utrition si4-`6
ACT (see .Amerk.an College Test) courseraking xv, 40-41
Adult students 74 degrees s0, ss-90, 91, ') 3, 079S
African American (..ce Black) elementan education ....
5-7. 14-1(.
Age xv 5 7 14-19, 17-1s, 19-.20,
21, 21, 24-2s, 45, 4o, ;:ss, -: 41,s:1021,- ,(1,),.7).37-5., --2((iS7.,)
00, 9.1., os, 70-77, SO, ti enrollment

Alternative assessments 14, ii, 50, faculty
6 I -62 tin,incial support
American Association for the postseLondarv education SV-SVI,
Advancement of Science 7, 74, 7N SO S4935,
(AAAS) sin, 1, 34 s5-so, 55-90, 91, 92-94, 97-95
American College Test (Al 71 20-21, 22, sek ondarv educat ion 5-7, 14-16,
14 17, IS, 19, LI, 21,
American Indian (see Native American) 22, 40, 41, 41, 97, 6S, SO, 90
Asians 5 74, 9 I Bulgaria So
Acl)ie\ cmeni si\, 14,10, 21,22,
29. 41, 75, Si C
degrees oo
Calculators ;4, 1--), 37. -19, 56, 90,
elementar\ eduk .iti.,n . 10. M N. 03, os
enrollment ....... .. 79, 7s
Calculus 39, 53-54, 55, SI, 99
tacult Canada 10, 27, 'N
tin,ukial support Si
Carnegie Classification
rosise,..ondar\ edikation 74, 76.
.
Carnegie Foundation for the
`,5. 90. 91 Advancement of Teaching
L'Cl ,nd.a ton S lb, 21,
22, 4 I, OS
Caucasians (cc White,)
Aspirations Nv, 7:)-7(1, t);
. .
CCSSO (C ( d State SLhool
Assessment x. 3. 14-29. °lifters)
39-37, 40, 50, ho
CD-ROM
64, `,1. 10(s-10T, 10s. 109 37, 74, 7s, s5, 90, 91
Citi:ens
Assistantships si-so 51, 53, 55, 74, 75, 79, 77,
College
Associate degrees tin 02 b 1, 94,
Attrition (see al.,] s5, 97
95, 97-9S, 10s-109
r,i,e or ohtut_ ortL:in s4-s5 ti5
graduates
students . 7, SO, SI -S4
Collegiality is-59
Communication 9', 94,
2 2b
CompuSerx
Computer sciences 7. 7o, s4, o7 E
(..'omputers 55. 57, 4'), 55 54. EHR tce I 1Irei. t,nite ior
51, 57, o o; c
'
111111,111
74, 00, 07 Elementary education \R. \\. 5-4,

Content Core, The 5-7, 14-20, 54-00,
Council of Chief State School .11,11u \ 54, 55, 41,
Officers tc 54, 57 O,
Coursetaking . . . . 55 14. 40,
k hie% enklu . 1;1,, 1,.`0 01
clement Uslu,..a 1,1 Is . 1410,
t.h. . \ 54. 57, 50-54, 10-20, 25. 45. U. 0's
04, 05, ICU 7
IIHR. 1111)111 \R, 20, 54, 55, 57, oo

70. C, I o4-05, Llt. tilt .. . 7, 54, 55,
.
1.1 C et hnu . . . 1q-4I , 10.5,, 42-5o, os,,

s.e,..011,1.11-\ 14. 1
25, 24. 20.45, 55
H. 10.57, oo
; 0, .
Curriculum \ \ iv\ 17 -1,, 10-20, 24,.1. 45.

14
. 54. 1,ò ion.I1 . \ \ 5, 27',
Clemeni Ars, silk lib T1 R, 20,
54. 55 17-
4, ;-";, ;7, 00 1, 04,
ir.mu.\\$,FL, 14- 1 111.11,- 25. 24. 2,)
2T.1,111.o k .11 resinneuum, .14, 17 k. Amer], .111, . 0-1*
uslut \R, 14. s ,n1,1 et hnu 14-25,
;0. ;7, 00 20, S. 41, o4,
st rill \ . 54. 45, 47-49. 57, 5s)
ii k,...11,,ro... 24, 2
1)ellt, student . . 74. 54, 57
Degrees te,..utk 7, 14. 55, 0 5,6s,
. 74, ',(,02
Is ql.1411 . .. 'QM I 45
intern ,0 "Lins1.11,1- . 7, 54, 55,
Is, ses ond.u.% esluoinsql so-oh 50-57. 47-4`,. 54-55.
0,`, 61, 0 S, 07,
. 4. 24, 75, 20.
hue 01 ohms .
54. 57, 61-62
07, 5)1)11 . SO, 57
Demographics litit." o 7, 14-10,
Is lus\ .. 4-7 10,20, 24, 25, o7
. . . 6-7 E-mail .
FR e or ohms 5. 74, Engineering

4
English ;, U, s, ;;, 7r,, sS 4, 0;
.
Directorate for Education and Human Enrollment .......

Resources I H IR 1 4, IC0. 70 77
toreitm 'mien!" so, ol
Disabilities, individuals t ith
1,0-1.es,q1,1,11-\ eduk .11 wn 7,
50, 57, 74,
oi, To o7, sls
ersitv 1, 7, 27, 'o, ssMC his e . 7, 4 I, o'-, 70,
se. Iss,, 77, ss, 07

Doctoral degrees .
ol 07, ;. 04, o;, Equipment ;i, 0i, 01 (,7, W.). 05, 00 07

207
Equit . .2. 4. 7. 4- ;7. 4. I Co- IC7 Tt edik.luon \\,

Excellence 2-4, 7, 4.:;0.0.,, loo \ VI. 74. 7; 77.
70, ,
100
Facilities .
edtk .11
Faculty 2.;. 24, 2", ;0,
.I,,e,-,ment technique, 0)-0i 4 44, ';';.
\
`N4
04, qi tiliderreTte,entotion 74,
eletnenton, ot \Y. 7. 4, 02..03, 07, lob
5, 0.
Financial support 74, -:)..;-\(), Q1, 10',
Foreign students 00..0
11111-I title ..... . ...... 0; Funding ;-4. 0i, 74, 02, 00.
Tort-time 42, OS
11.2. ;, 207
40-40.
ro,Nc.n.1.1r\
. ;4. Y, 42. 4S. Goals 4, ;('. . ;7, bo

40.57, 04.05, Graduate students ... 7=), ,(1,
,I1.11 .le eltrInt.'n1 Graduates 'Is)/ 74.

70, 2', 00, 07, 0s,
to, et hnk Graduation requirements 4, ;7-;
o4
\ ot ton ;. 4, 4:Th.
Hands-on activities . . ,
4, ;;, ;0-;7, 01,

40.
.00,
00-01, 0* 0;
"ex ..... ... 4; 44, 0'-0;. High School and Beyond (I Am,
e.lk 47C. i2--;7. 04, 14. 40.
0,,m0, 04.05, 07
High School Transcript Study ....
Families High school Sek,,ndor\ eduk,itton)
educ,iiion \1\.".S-0,:-, 74, 00 Higher education
one-Totem tce Poq,,e.ondot\ edut. otion)
12"\ ci \ l(\ L.( ...... Higher Ed ucat.on esearch Institute ;
Federal ; 4, ;0, lc, .
Hispanics I 74,
Feniales 24. 7S-70. 14, 10-22, 24. 25, 20
. . .
e;th. . \I). 24. "). 7, 70 Attrition . . .
our,e1,11.1m2
\v, 0, 7", 70 °O.
dt.,4tee,
deL9-ce, . 75-70. 7, 70, clement or\ edut. own
00, 07 14-10. 17- I to-2C.
Ldll.111,11 24,
24.
20, 4 ;,
...... . . 70, 7.
IA III) \ .
;oo
idt 4 ';'), 02 0;
Ill ,k.ItTh 74.
7". 70. '10, '12, '1 1,
7, 74, 70,
"4. o ;,
01, 02.04
14-10, 17,
19, 20, 21, 22,
40, 41, 41, OS Males
underrepresentati,,n `NO IC hlevtlnellt xR, 24, 7s
lomework 46. 62, 9(, , coursetaking NV TS
Hong Kong sl degrees 79, s6, S7-SS
HS&B (sCC I 11)41) licvond) elemental- edii t. loll
elm llnient
scien«. and engmecrint.t
IA,EP (see Internathnal .".essInclli
LIM:J(1011,11 rrress) pc.rstsecondary eduLailon xv, 75,
Immigration , 77, TS, 79,
S2, s3, 86,
Informal education 1, 00
87-SS,
Institutions x\ 1 74, 77,
SO, S4, s5, SO, S9, sect tndary educat i tn xv, 23,
90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 24. 29, 30 .
95-96, 96 97, 6ti, 75, H, S2, S3, 4
Instructional practices Master's degrees
2-1, 7,
natural sciences
14. 17, 45, 4S-49,
rice of ethnic omir 00, 9 7
57-59, 61, 07,
69, 95-9 , 107-109 science and engineering S6-S7
elementar\ education \iv, NV, seN S7, 97

3, 'k.), 14, 15, 17-3S,
social and hellaVIOral sciences S6-S7
45-46. 4S-49, 50, Mathematical sciences 20, 21-21,

59-63, 04, 60-0S 7, 79, S4,
1)4 95, Co, 97
p,ieCt.mdar\ educat ion . 95-90, 97 . .
selondar\ education Minorities (sel' also racial

3, 34, 35, 3N and ethnic V.I.Olips)
45-46, 4S-49, 50, 14-22, 24-25, 29,
59-63, 64, (6-69 19-41. 42, 43. 54,
1)(..1)7 55, 61, 04, 65, 60,
Instrumentation
International Assessment of 67, OS, 74, 76, 78,
Educational Progress (REP) S4-S6, SS-90, 91,
02.94, 1)7Q1 l6
\Hi, 24, 26-7,
Ireland 27-2S
Italy . . ........... 26-2S, SO
NAEP (see Natitmal Assessment of
J Educttional Aogress)
Japan 07, "-1. st), National Assessment of Educational
Jordan Progress (NAEP)
aChleVenient .... 14, 19-20, 24-25, 29,
rice or ethnic origin 14.20
seN 24, 29
Laboratory . . . .
61, 95.97 National Center for Education
Latino (see I lispanit.1 Statistics
Lectures 59-01, 0S, Lr-; National Council of Teacxliii, eirso..f39, 42.
Life and physical sciences 53, 75, Mathematics (NCTN11 1, 14,
Ts-79, 94 36, 47, 51-55
Loans . ........... si-s6 National Education Longitudinal
Study (NH sSs1 \in, 14,
16, 24, 29, 41, 45-40, 5S
National goals 2, 36
INDEX 209
National Research coursct mg .

(9, 55, 75-70,
Council (NR( SO, 04,05, 07
,
National Science Foundation degrees \" -xvi , 74, 76,

95, 7:s, 79, 56.9 ?, Q7-98
90, 106 cur, dl nieni 7 75, 76-75, 97, Q8
National Science Teachers taill111 xyl, Q2.-Q6
Association (NSTA) xiii, lemalvs xiv, xv, Nyl, 74,

;, 4 51 75-76, 77, 75, 79,
National Survey of Science and si, 54-55 , 5 6,
Mathematics Education 57-55, 90,
(NSNIE) 15, 41, 4 97-98, 100
45-46, 45, 50, 5i-54, financial .upport 74, 55-56, 92
5S-59, 61, 65 lorcien tiklent. . 85, 86, 93:)-91,
Native Americans 04, 74, 7, crajuate. xv 74, 85, 97
84-S5, S8, 90, 91, 95 xv-xyl, 7, 74, 70,
Natural sciences 75 7 , .5,)40-, 551,
oursetak 79
taiult 04 no tullons ....... . xv, 1, 74, 77,
degrees 70, M-1.ti7, 97 75, 54, S5, 59, 90,
50-54 91, 0', 93, 94.97, us
students
NCES (see National Center tor Llikat ion inst rut tional pract ic-es 95-96, 97
--1,16stics) males \s- 75, 70, 77,
NCTM (see National (.nincil ot Teachers 75, 79, 52,
Mailleinat It ,) 6, 87-88, 90
NELS:88 (see National Education Nati\ c Ainerk:ans . 74, 75, 50, 54-55,
Lonctitudinal Studs) 550
, 9, 9i
Networks 61, 06 -65 Pacific Islanders
Nontraditional assessments (see racial and ethnic rotips .... 75, 7til.5,..k7k,())
Alternative asse,incnts) reform .

74, 5;, 85, 90, 95, 90, 97-98
NRC (sec Nat 1( tnal Reseal% researc h 94, 95-,
9090-97, 98
NSF (see National Science Foundation) 96-97
9;
NSSME (Net: National S.Irvey k Sciciwc
and Mathematics Education) students with di,abilities 74, 75,
NSTA (sec National 5 mem. e -Teat hers 50, 95
xv 75, 77, 75, 79,
so5), 52, 5i, 54-55,
56, 57-55, 97-95, 100
students with disabilities 74, 75,
Pacific Islanders ....... . . .74, 76 so. us
Parents tssee Families)
tuition 74, S5, 9S
Physics \ 19, 52, 51,81
Pipeline 51-55, 97.95
Postsecondary faculty (sec Fac tilts )7 7S. 5
Postgraduation 74, S5 \ iv, 6- 7, 90
Poverty
Postsecondary education
4, 7 , 20-22, 29 , 50,
r ,
roject kaleidoscope .
Project 2061
52-54, 55, 74-05
adult students 74
Asians 74, 70, tk-', 9 I
aspirations xv, 75-76, 97 Racial and ethnic groups
dilution 51-55, 97-95 --, 45, )51.
Hacks xv-xvi, 7, 74, 75.

50, 54-55, 55-56, 74, 70. TS, 55, 90, 91
9), 9 ,.94,
'9
. 7. 20, 24. 74. 7s, 5.10..21. 22. 41, W,

s4-s5, s5-so, ss, oc, J1,1111\ . \\. 4, ;5,
01, 1)2,1)4,
41-42. 4`,,
lemen1.11\ . . . 14-21, .1" ,es sment \\, ;4, 15,
;5, 4 ;, 64, os ;(, i7, 46, 01-0 ;,
1
xv, 7. 20. 14, 74, 1410, 17,
7 o, 7s. s4-s5, 1 s, IC. 21, 22.
21\ ')I )-94 2'). 40, 41, 4 ;, o7, Ws, C. QC
N ti .1merk.ms 74. 7s. sC. \\, 4.
ss, 91 sl
Islandcrs . 74. 71, lurrk Ilium . 4,
cdtR.,Ith ;(-17, 1;s,
............
, 7,
14-2 ;, 20. ;5. LftIIII\ . 7, 4.

;0-41, 41-42, 41, ;o- 7, 42-50. 01.
54, 55, 07. ( s (1, ();,, t)".
khile \ , 7, .20, 24, 7`,, `,5 k-mak- xv, 20, .2;, 24.
Reform ........ mn..\1\, 2, 1, 20,
it).;7, 4S, 57, 50,

os. 05-00, 1,N), lig
element.in cltk,iIofl . \v, 14, 45, 4, ;0- >7
47-4'), 57. So ;;... ;0, 76,

po,..tsts. .. 74, ,s;, 7s, C QC, 07,
4, 00. 0:1, \ 14-10. 17, 1 19,
\)6, 20, 21, 22, 40, 41. 43,
,sond.11\cdu....uhm xv. 14, nisirnt.11,.1111 ri..10 .. x\ ;, 4,
45, 47 -40, 57, 50 is,. 45-40. 4',-40,
Regions
Requirements
Research
. xi -
'.;
,
14, 20. 4
fl,
4, i6.10,
s5,
')7
"4,
!s
mile
;o,
5C, 5')-01,
75,
04, 66-60
'I. 24, 20.
), s4
05,00, 00.07, myrik Ans (-1
Resources '-4, 7, 4, ;S,
; ms, 6o, oc,07, I Co. I 0,, I 4-2 ;, 2'), 4, ;0-41.
Retention . 41-42. 41, s4.
0, 55, 07, os
Rural 4. 4, 47-40 , 57, 5')
Russia 4; 40
i7,
7, 14, 4, ;7, (6.0:-.

\\ 4. 4 ;
SASS hook Si,tItln Sur\ c\
ii \R, 7, 4, 4.
SAT Ail it Hit'
10. 41, 47-4s,
Scholastic Aptitude Test tSAT1 . IC-22.14
40, 54-55, 0C, ol, 07, 0`,
Science and engineering \\, 74. 75,
7o, 05 00,
sktie. \I\ -\\, 4, ;4,
;7, 10, 4 ;, 44, (11-02

_
\ 10,
70
ST, Ts
degrees \\ 70,
5. 0. 7, 14-10, 17, Is, 20,
k.);
21, 22, 40, 41. 4 ;. (17, bs
Sex
students ... 74, 7N 1Co
element.m 4;
Schools and Staffing Survey . 4;
,stsek ond.in .11 ion x\,75,
Secondary education .. xlv, xv. ;-4.
7o, -.2,
5-7, 14-20, 4 .w),
s7..s;s,
75, sl-s4
2. 3 0
INDEX 211
edu, anon . . \ ;o, 4;

Social and helia ,. ioral sciences 75,
,ninSetaktnIt 7s, 70, 07 i'ndergraduate studints ;
ult 04 s5, 100

dettree, To, so s7, L'nderrepresented groups . 7. 14-22,
snident 70. ". 24 2S, 29, 59-4;,
Socioeconomic status 10, 74. 54-55, 05 os, 74-7s,
South Korea .
\1\, so sO. s4-04. 07-0s, 100,
Soviet Union . . .. 27 1.1rucersity of Houston 200
Standardized tests .. 5 U.S. Department of Deleme 4
Standards ... \I\ 2 ;, 7, 54, U. S. Department of Education .. \
55, io ;7, 5s, fl 4.
47-4s. 40, 54 U. S. Department of Health and Human
o7. (,s,, 10o ICTo Services 4
State curriculum frameNN orks 54, 55
States 4 4;
hie\ einem 14. 24
27.2°,1:0.109 \l'hites
achievement \ 1%, 14,22. 24-2S. 20
L.,111r.irlst . 24-2S. 27-29. 45, 1C7
elemcntar\ 4, 24. 25, ,ouNci.11.111,_! \\ 41
. . . .
detlree, 00
27 2",, 20, 4,
elemental \ cdti, .111,qt o 7,
7, 01-02
); 14-10, 17- I s,
p.m.c,,,ndat% ediliation
57, 50, ,t; l'1 20, 24. 25, 07
tequirement,
enrollment 5 7s
Cl tAltk. anon . -\%. 4,
4. 57. 5°, rosise,onddr\ edit,. anon .... 7, Ts s5
45, 44,
seit,ndar\ editial I ti ....... . 5, 0, 7,
14 10, 17, Is, 10,
Student achievement . 2-29, .
20, 21. 22. 4C.

100 1.7.109, 20;
41, 45, 07, os
Student attitudes ;7, 74, 75 70, 07, 1C7.
\Vorkiorce 5 7, 00. '15, 07, 100
Student loans
Student performance
assessment techniques
it tmework
14-2.'1, H
trend, .. 14 24, 20, 1,'0 1CT
SNitzerland .......... . 20- ", .
Taiwan
Teachers I,C(' Ii, liii \
Technical students ..
Technicians 02.
Testing tee -e-inenis) . oI -0 5, 04
xtbook 54-
oC, o5-o4,
Time spent . oC.
'Fracking Aklit
Tuition ... . 74, s5,
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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 395 827 SE 058 552

TITLE Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Plus Postage.

PoMI Of v.!. o. 01:.C13 *taloa

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Science and Whemalics

REC INDICATORS SERIES NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATIOr

Division Of Research, Evaluation, and Communication, Directorate for Education and

LIST OF TEXT TABLES XI

CHAPTER 2-AC H I EVE M ENT IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS 13

CHAPTER 3-TH E ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 33

CHAPTER 4-POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION 73

CHAPTER 5-POSTSCRIPT 105

APPENDIX TABLES 113

Figure 1-5. Education level of parents of elementary or secondary school students, by

Figure 1-6. Percent of white, black, and Hispanic families

CHAPTER 2-AC HI EVEM E NT IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

Figure 2-2. NAEP science and mathematics proficiency, by percent of students at or

1:11.,,iirc NAEP ience ,ind mathematics prof IL iency. In percent of students

CHAPTER 3THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Figure 3-14. Percent of 12th-grade science and mathematics students taught

Figure 3-16. Percent of mathematics teachers who are "well aware"

Figure 3-19. Percent of mathematics teachers agreeing

Figure 3-21. Percent of science and mathematics teachers with undergraduate

Figure 3-22. Total number of semesters of college science coursework completed

Figure 3-25. Percent of elementary school mathematics teachers with college

Figure 3-28. Percent of self-contained elementary teachers feeling

Figure 3-10. Percent of mathematics teachers considering themselves

Figure 3-32. Percent of teachers considering themselves "master teachers" of their

Figure 3-35. Average percent of science and mathematics class time

Figure 3-36. Percent of mathematics classes never working

Figure 3-41. Mean percent of schools with computers that use

Figure 3-42. Percent of students reporting any use of computers in mathematics or

Figure 3-44. Average percentage of mathematics problems correct on test items

CHAPTER 4-POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

Figure 4-2. Percent of high school sophomores aspiring to various

Figure 4-4. Total fall education enrollment, by attendance status and

Figure 4-6. Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions,

Figi,re 4-7. Percent of 1991 bachelor's degree recipients who took

Figure 4-8. Percent of 1991 bachelor's degree recipients who graduated

Figure 4-9. Percent of population that is black, by population group: 1990 80

Figure 4-10. Percent of population that is female, by population group: 1990 80

Figure 4-11. High school calculus and physics coursetaking of high

Figure 4-12. Percent of faculty agreeing with statements that undergraduates

Figure 4-20. Number of science and engineering bachelor's degrees awarded

Figure 4-25. Science and engineering doctorates awarded, by citizenship of recipient:

Figure 4-26. Proportional distribution of science and engineering doctorates

4-27. Total number of engineering technology degrees awarded,

Figure 4-28. Institutions of higher education, by institutional type: 1994 Q3

Figure 4-29. Percent of full-time faculty who are black, by field:

Figure 4-30. Percent of full-time instructional faculty who are feTiale,

Figure 4-32. Percent of engineering departments (electrical, mechanical,

Figure 4-33. Percent of classes that use a laboratory or problem-solving format,

Figure 4-34. Percent of mathematics departments offering research opportunities to

Figure 4-35. Percent of college and university equipment and

Text table 3-4. NAEP mathematics proficiency of 17-year-old students, by frequency of

Text table 3-8. NAEP mathematics proficiency of 17-year-old students, by frequency of

of white or black students. Additionally, the propor-

between 1985 and 1991. However, blacks represented

THE CONTEXT FOR THIS REPORT 2

1HE ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT 7