MAGNETISM

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 Magnetism
• The phenomenon known as magnetism was
first discovered by the ancient Greeks in about
100 BC. Then it was observed that a peculiar
stone had the property of attracting small
fragments of iron to itself. The peculiar stone
was called a lodestone, and the power of
attraction it possessed was called magnetism.
Any material possessing the property of
magnetism is a magnet.
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 Magnetism
• Every magnet has both a north (N) pole and a
south (S) pole. Just as “like” electric charges
repel each other and “unlike” charges attract,
“like” magnetic poles repel each other and
“unlike” poles attract
• Magnetism is the effects of attraction and
repulsion by iron and similar materials
without the need for an external force

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 The Magnetic Field
• The north and south poles of a magnet are the
points of concentration of magnetic strength.
The practical effects of this ferromagnetism
result from the magnetic field of force
between the two poles at opposite ends of
the magnet.

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 Types of Magnet
• Electromagnet (EM) produced by current from
a battery. With the length much greater than
its width, the coil is called a solenoid.

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 Types of Magnet
• Permanent magnet (PM) without any external
source of current. These are made of hard
magnetic materials, such as cobalt steel,
magnetized by induction in the manufacturing
process

Note: Induction is the electric or magnetic effect of one body on

another without any physical contact between them.
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 Magnetic field of force
• Magnetic field of force around a bar magnet.
( a ) Field outlined by iron filings.
( b ) Field indicated by lines of force

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Magnetic field of force

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 Magnetic field of force
• Magnetic field lines are unaffected by
nonmagnetic materials such as air, vacuum,
paper, glass, wood, or plastics. When these
materials are placed in the magnetic field of a
magnet, the field lines are the same as though
the material were not there

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Magnetic field of force

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Magnetic field of force

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Some areas of application of magnetic
effects

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 North and South Magnetic Poles
• Similar to the force between electric charges is
the force between magnetic poles causing
attraction of opposite poles and repulsion
between similar poles:
1. A north pole (N) and a south pole (S) tend to
attract each other.
2. A north pole (N) tends to repel another north
pole (N), and a south pole (S) tends to repel
another south pole (S).

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 Magnetic Flux (Φ)
• The entire group of magnetic field lines, which
can be considered flowing outward from the
north pole of a magnet, is called magnetic
flux. Its symbol is the Greek letter (phi). A
strong magnetic field has more lines of force
and more flux than a weak magnetic field.

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 The Maxwell
• One maxwell (Mx) unit equals one magnetic
field line.
• A 1-lb magnet can provide a magnetic flux of
about 5000 Mx. This unit is named after James
Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), an important
Scottish mathematical physicist, who
contributed much to electrical and field
theory

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 The Maxwell
• Total flux is six lines or 6 Mx. Flux density B at
point P is two lines per square centimeter or 2
G (Gauss).

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 The Weber
• This is a larger unit of magnetic flux. One
weber (Wb) equals 1x108 lines or maxwells.
Since the weber is a large unit for typical
fields, the microweber unit can be used. Then
1μWb = 10–6 Wb. This unit is named after
Wilhelm Weber (1804–1890), a German
physicist

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 Flux Density ( B )
• The flux density is the number of magnetic
field lines per unit area of a section
perpendicular to the direction of flux

where Φ is the flux through an area A and the flux density is B.

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 Systems of Magnetic Units
• Systems of Magnetic Units
– The centimeter-gram-second system defines small
units. This is the cgs system
– The meter-kilogram-second system is for larger
units of a more practical size. This is the mks
system.

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 Systems of Magnetic Units
• The Système International (SI) units provide a
worldwide standard in mks dimensions. They
are practical values based on the ampere of
current
• For magnetic flux , the maxwell (Mx) is a cgs
unit, and the weber (Wb) is an mks or SI unit.
The SI units are preferred for science and
engineering, but the cgs units are still used in
many practical applications of magnetism

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 The Gauss
• In the cgs system, this unit is one line per
square centimeter, or 1 Mx/cm 2 . This unit is
named after Karl F. Gauss (1777–1855), a
German mathematician
φ = 6 Mx

B = 2 Gauss

The total flux is six lines, or 6 Mx. At point P in this field, however, the flux
density B is 2 G because there are two lines per square centimeter.
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 The Gauss
• With a flux of 10,000 Mx through a
perpendicular area of 5 cm2 , what is the flux
density in gauss?

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 The Tesla
• In SI, the unit of flux density B is webers per
square meter (Wb/m 2 ). One weber per
square meter is called a tesla, abbreviated T.
This unit is named for Nikola Tesla (1857–
1943), a Yugoslav-born American inventor in
electricity and magnetism

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 The Tesla
1. With a flux of 400 µWb through an area of
0.0005 m2 , what is the flux density B in tesla
units?

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 The Tesla
2. A magnetic pole face has a rectangular
section having dimensions 200mm by 100
mm. if the total flux emerging from the pole
is 150µWb, calculate the flux density.

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Conversion between Units

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 Conversion between Units
• Make the following conversions: (a) 25,000 Mx
to Wb; (b) 0.005 Wb to Mx.

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Conversion between Units

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 Comparison of Flux and Flux Density
• The flux (Φ) includes total area, whereas the
flux density B is for a specified unit area

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 Induction by the Magnetic Field
• The electric or magnetic effect of one body on
another without any physical contact between
them is called induction.

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 Relative Permeability (μ)
• The ability to concentrate magnetic flux is
called permeability. Any material that is easily
magnetized has high permeability because the
field lines are concentrated by induction
• The permeability (μ) of a material is a measure
of the ease with which magnetic flux lines can
be established in the material.

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 Relative Permeability (μr)
• Numerical values of permeability for different
materials compared with air or vacuum is
Relative Permeability

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 Relative Permeability (μr)
• For example, if the flux density in air is 1 G but
an iron core in the same position in the same
field has a flux density of 200 G, the relative
permeability of the iron core equals 200⁄1, or
200.

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 Air Gap of a Magnet
• The air space between the poles of a magnet
is its air gap. The shorter the air gap, the
stronger the field in the gap for a given pole
strength. Since air is not magnetic and cannot
concentrate magnetic lines, a larger air gap
provides additional space for the magnetic
lines to spread out

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 Air Gap of a Magnet
• The spreading of the flux lines outside the
common area of the core for the air gap is
known as fringing.

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 Air Gap of a Magnet
• For short gaps, fringing can usually be
neglected. Alternatively, correction can be
made by increasing each cross-sectional
dimension of the gap by the size of the gap to
approximate the decrease in flux density.

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 Air Gap of a Magnet
• Many practical magnetic circuits (such as
transformers) use thin sheets of stacked iron
or steel. Since the core is not a solid block, its
effective cross-sectional area (i.e., the actual
area of iron) is less than its physical area
• A stacking factor, defined as the ratio of the
actual area of ferrous material to the physical
area of the core, permits you to determine the
core’s effective area

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 Air Gap of a Magnet

The horseshoe magnet has a smaller air gap than the bar magnet

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 Air Gap of a Magnet
• When it is desired to concentrate magnetic lines
within a magnet the magnet can be formed as a
closed magnetic loop
• Each magnet has its magnetic lines inside, plus
the magnetic lines of the other magnet, but
outside the magnets, the lines cancel because
they are in opposite directions. The effect
therefore, is maximum concentration of magnetic
lines in the magnet with minimum lines outside

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 Air Gap of a Magnet

Examples of a closed magnetic ring without any air gap. ( a ) Two

PM horseshoe magnets with opposite poles touching. ( b ) Toroid magnet
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 Keeper for a Magnet
• The principle of the closed magnetic ring is
used to protect permanent magnets in storage

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 Classification of Magnetic Materials
• Ferromagnetic materials: These include iron,
steel, nickel, cobalt, and commercial alloys
such as alnico and Permalloy. They become
strongly magnetized in the same direction as
the magnetizing field, with high values of
permeability from 50 to 5000. Permalloy has a
µr of 100,000 but is easily saturated at
relatively low values of flux density.

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 Classification of Magnetic Materials
• Paramagnetic materials. These include
aluminum, platinum, manganese, and
chromium. Their permeability is slightly more
than 1. They become weakly magnetized in
the same direction as the magnetizing field

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 Classification of Magnetic Materials
• Diamagnetic materials. These include
bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury,
gold, and silver. Their permeability is less than
1. They become weakly magnetized but in the
direction opposite from the magnetizing field

NOTE: Curie temperature is the temperature at which a magnetic material

loses its ferromagnetic properties.

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 Ferrites
• Ferrite is the name for nonmetallic materials
that have the ferromagnetic properties of
iron. Ferrites have very high permeability, like
iron. The permeability of ferrites is in the
range of 50 to 3000. The specific resistance is
105 Ω-cm, which makes a ferrite an insulator.
• (coils of RF transformers)

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 The Hall Effect
• The Hall Effect is when a wire carrying a
current is placed in an applied magnetic field,
a voltage across the wire is created that is
proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field
• Discovered in 1879 by Edwin H. Hall (1855–
1938)

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 The Hall Effect

The Hall effect. Hall voltage VH generated across the element is

proportional to the perpendicular flux density B.

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 Ampere-Turns of Magnetomotive
Force (mmf )
• Magnetomotive force (mmf) is the cause of
the existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit.
mmf= NI A

I = current in amperes
N = number of turns

NOTE: The SI unit of mmf is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’.

However since ‘turns’ have no dimensions, the SI unit of mmf is the Ampere

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 Ampere-Turns of Magnetomotive
Force (mmf )
• The ampere-turn, A٠t, is an SI unit. It is
calculated as IN with the current in amperes.
• The cgs unit of mmf is the gilbert (Gb) from
William Gilbert (1540–1603) .
• 1A٠t = 1.26 Gb. The number 1.26 is
approximately 4π/10, derived from the
surface area of a sphere, which is 4πr2 .

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 Field Intensity ( H )
• Magnetic field strength (or magnetizing force)
• The intensity of the magnetic field depends on
the length of the coil.
• The field intensity, H, of solenoid in mks units
is
𝑁𝐼
𝐻= A·t/m or A/m
𝑙
N = number of turns
I = current in ampere
l = the mean length of the flux path in meters
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 Field Intensity ( H )
• The field intensity (magnetic field strength or
magnetizing force) is basically mmf per unit of
length. In practical units, H is ampere٠turns
per meter
• The cgs unit for H is the oersted (Oe)
from H. C. Oersted (1777–1851), which equals
one gilbert of mmf per centimeter

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 Permeability (µ)
• Permeability is the ability to concentrate
magnetic lines of force.
• The permeability of a material is similar in
many respects to the conductivity in electric
circuits.
µ = B/H

µ = the absolute permeability (not reffered to any other material)

B = the flux density in webers per square meter, or teslas
H = the field intensity in ampere-turns per meter

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 Permeability (µ)
• Any material that is easily magnetized has
high permeability because the field lines are
concentrated by induction

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 Permeability (µ)
• In the cgs system, the units of gauss for B and
oersteds for H have been defined to give µ the
value of 1 Gb/Oe, for vacuum, air, or space.
Thus B and H have the same numerical values
in air and in vacuum.
• For example, the field intensity H of 12.6 Oe
produces a flux density B of 12.6 G in air

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 Permeability (µ)
• The values of relative permeability µr are the
same as those for absolute permeability in
B/H units in the cgs system. The reason is that
µ is 1 for air or vacuum, used as the reference
for the comparison.
Example: If µr for an iron sample is 600, the absolute µ is also 600 G/Oe.

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 Permeability (µ)
• For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the
ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing
force is a constant, i.e. B/H = a constant. This
constant is μo, the permeability of free space
(or the magnetic space constant) and is equal
to
.
4 d 107 H/m, i.e., for air, or any non-
magnetic medium,
𝐵
= μ𝑜
H
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 Permeability (µ)
• For all media other than free space,
𝐵
= 𝜇𝑜μr
H
– where μr is the relative permeability

μ = absolute permeability
μo = permeability of vacuum or air = 4π x 10–7
μr = relative permeability
= flux density in material / flux density in vacuum
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 Permeability (µ)
• μr varies with the type of magnetic material
and, since it is a ratio of flux densities, it has
no unit.
• From its definition, μr for a vacuum is 1.

μoμr = μ, is called the absolute permeability

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 Permeability (µ)
• In SI, however, the permeability of air or
vacuum is not 1. This value is 4π x 10–7 , or
1.26 x 10–6 , with the symbol µ0. Therefore,
values of relative permeability µr must be
multiplied by 1.26 x 10–6 for µ0 to calculate µ
as B/H in SI units.

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B-H Magnetization Curve

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 Hysteresis and hysteresis loss
• Hysteresis is the ‘lagging’ effect of flux density
B whenever there are changes in the magnetic
field strength H. When an initially
unmagnetized ferromagnetic material is
subjected to a varying magnetic field strength
H, the flux density B produced in the material
varies
• From the Greek hysterein, meaning “to lag
behind.”

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Hysteresis and hysteresis loss

Distance OX indicates the residual

flux density or remanence, OY
indicates the coercive force, and PP’
is the saturation flux density
Hysteresis results in a dissipation of
energy which appears as a heating
of the magnetic material. The
energy loss associated with
hysteresis is proportional to the
area of the hysteresis loop

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 Reluctance
• Reluctance ‘S’ (or RM) is the ‘magnetic
resistance’ of a magnetic circuit to the
presence of magnetic flux.
– Ferromagnetic materials have a low reluctance
and can be used as magnetic screens to prevent
magnetic fields affecting materials within the
screen

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 Reluctance

𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑁𝐼 𝐻𝑙 𝑙
𝑆= = = = 1/H (or H–1) or A/Wb
𝛷 𝛷 𝐵𝐴 𝜇𝑜𝜇𝑟𝐴

Φ = flux in weber
B = flux density in Tesla
A = area in m2

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 Reluctance
• For a series magnetic circuit having n parts,
the total reluctance S is given by:

ST = S1 + S2 + S3 + … Sn

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Reluctance

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Electrical and Magnetic
Quantities

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 Ampere’s Circuital Law
• One of the key relationships in magnetic
circuit theory is Ampere’s circuital law.
Ampere’s law was determined experimentally
and is a generalization of the relationship

mmf = NI = Hl

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 Ampere’s Circuital Law
• Ampere showed that the algebraic sum of
mmfs around a closed loop in a magnetic
circuit is zero, regardless of the number of
sections or coils. That is,

𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 0 𝑁𝐼 = H𝑙
O O O

This states that the sum of applied mmfs around a

closed loop equals the sum of the mmf drops

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Ampere’s Circuital Law

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Series Elements and Parallel Elements

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 Electrical and Magnetic
Quantities
• Although there is similarity between electric
and magnetic circuits, one must realize that
the flux is not a “flow” variable such as
current in an electric circuit. Magnetic flux is
established in the core thru the alteration of
the atomic structure of the core due to
external pressure and is not a measure of the
flow of some charged particles through the
core
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 Magnetic field due to an electric
current
• Magnetic field can be produced by the electric
current. The magnetic flux produced has the
same properties as the flux produced by a
permanent magnet. If the current is increased
the strength of the field increases and, as for
the permanent magnet, the field strength
decreases as we move away from the current
carrying conductor

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Magnetic field due to an electric
current

The effect of only a small part of the magnetic field

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 Magnetic field due to an electric
current

Magnetic field around a straight conductor is in the form of concentric cylinders.

The field direction depending on the direction of the current flow

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Magnetic field due to an electric
current

Current flowing away Current flowing

from the viewer towards the viewer

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 Magnetic field due to an electric
current
• The direction of the magnetic lines of flux is
best remembered by the screw rule. This
states that…
• “If a normal right-hand thread screw is
screwed along the conductor in the direction
of the current, the direction of rotation of the
screw is in the direction of the magnetic field

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Magnetic field due to an electric
current

Magnetic field of a Magnetic field of an

solenoid iron cored solenoid

A magnetic field set up by a long coil, or solenoid

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 Magnetic field due to an electric
current
• The direction of the magnetic field produced
by the current I in the solenoid may be found
by either of two methods:
– The screw rule states that if a normal right-hand
thread screw is placed along the axis of the
solenoid and is screwed in the direction of the
current it moves in the direction of the magnetic
field inside the solenoid. The direction of the
magnetic field inside the solenoid is from south to
north.
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 Magnetic field due to an electric
current
• The direction of the magnetic field produced
by the current I in the solenoid may be found
by either of two methods:
– The grip rule states that if the coil is gripped with
the right hand, with the fingers pointing in the
direction of the current, then the thumb,
outstretched parallel to the axis of the solenoid,
points in the direction of the magnetic field inside
the solenoid.

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Force on a current-carrying conductor
• The force on the current-carrying conductor in
a magnetic field depends upon:
– (a) the flux density of the field, B teslas
– (b) the strength of the current, I amperes,
– (c) the length of the conductor perpendicular to
the magnetic field, l meters, and
– (d) the directions of the field and the current.

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Force on a current-carrying conductor
• When the magnetic field, the current and the
conductor are mutually at right angles then:
Force F = BIl newtons

• When the conductor and the field are at an

angle θ° to each other then:
Force F = BIl sin θ newtons

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Force on a current-carrying conductor
• If the current-carrying conductor is placed in
the magnetic field, then the two fields interact
and cause a force to be exerted on the
conductor. The field is strengthened above
the conductor and weakened below, thus
tending to move the conductor downwards.
This is the basic principle of operation of the
electric motor and the moving-coil instrument

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Force on a current-carrying conductor

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Force on a current-carrying conductor
• The direction of the force exerted on a conductor
can be predetermined by using Fleming’s left-
hand rule (often called the motor rule) which
states:
– Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the left
hand be extended such that they are all at right-
angles to each other. If the first finger points in the
direction of the magnetic field, the second finger
points in the direction of the current, then the thumb
will point in the direction of the motion of the
conductor

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Force on a current-carrying conductor

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 Force on a charge
• When a charge of Q coulombs is moving at a
velocity of v m/s in a magnetic field of flux
density B teslas, the charge moving
perpendicular to the field, then the magnitude
of the force F exerted on the charge is given
by:

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 Electromagnetic Induction
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic
field so as to cut through the lines of force (or
flux), an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is produced
in the conductor. If the conductor forms part of
a closed circuit then the e.m.f. produced causes
an electric current to flow round the circuit.
Hence an e.m.f. (and thus current) is ‘induced’ in
the conductor as a result of its movement across
the magnetic field. This effect is known as
‘electromagnetic induction’.
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Electromagnetic Induction

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 Electromagnetic Induction
• It is the relative movement of the magnetic
flux and the coil that causes an e.m.f. and thus
current, to be induced in the coil.

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Laws of electromagnetic induction
• Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
state:
– An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever the magnetic
field linking that circuit changes.
– The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in any circuit
is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux linking the circuit.’

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Laws of electromagnetic induction
• Lenz’s law states:
– The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such
that it tends to set up a current opposing the
motion or the change of flux responsible for
inducing that e.m.f.’.

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Laws of electromagnetic induction
• Fleming’s Right-hand rule (often called the
geneRator rule)
– Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the
right hand be extended such that they are all at
right angles to each other. If the first finger points
in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb
points in the direction of motion of the conductor
relative to the magnetic field, then the second
finger will point in the direction of the induced
e.m.f.

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Laws of electromagnetic induction
• Fleming’s Right-hand rule (often called the
geneRator rule)

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Laws of electromagnetic induction
• In a generator, conductors forming an electric
circuit are made to move through a magnetic
field. By Faraday’s law an e.m.f. is induced in
the conductors and thus a source of e.m.f. is
created. A generator converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

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 Induced emf

The induced e.m.f. E set up between the ends of the

conductor is given by:

Note:
If the ends of the conductor are open circuited no current will flow
even though an e.m.f. has been induced
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 Induced emf
Where:
B is the flux density, measured in teslas
l is the length of conductor in the magnetic
field measured in meters
v is the conductor velocity measured in
meters per second

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 Induced emf
• If the conductor moves at an angle ° to the
magnetic field (instead of at 90°) then

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 Inductance
• Inductance is the name given to the property
of a circuit whereby there is an e.m.f. induced
into the circuit by the change of flux linkages
produced by a current change
• When the e.m.f. is induced in the same circuit
as that in which the current is changing, the
property is called self inductance, L

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 Inductance
• When the e.m.f. is induced in a circuit by a
change of flux due to current changing in an
adjacent circuit, the property is called mutual
inductance, M.
• The unit of inductance is the henry, H.
• ‘A circuit has an inductance of one henry when
an e.m.f. of one volt is induced in it by a
current changing at the rate of one ampere
per second.’

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 Inductance
• Induced e.m.f. in a coil of N turns,

Where:
dΦ is the change in flux in Webers
dt is the time taken for the flux to change
in seconds(i.e., dΦ/dt is the rate of
change of flux).
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 Inductance
• Induced e.m.f. in a coil of inductance L henrys,

Where:
dI is the change in current in amperes
dt is the time taken for the current to
change in seconds

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 Inductance
• Mutually induced e.m.f. in the second coil,

Where:
M is the mutual inductance between two coils, in henrys,
and dI1/dt is the rate of change of current in the first coil

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 Inductor
• A component called an inductor is used when
the property of inductance is required in a
circuit. The basic form of an inductor is simply
a coil of wire.

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 Inductor
• An iron-cored inductor is often called a choke
since when used in a.c. circuits, it has a
choking effect. To reduce inductance to a
minimum the wire may be bent back on itself.
The wire may be coiled around an insulator,
without increasing the inductance

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 Inductor

L=N2uA/l L=NΦ/I

Where:

L = inductance in Henry N = number of turns

µ = permeability of the core A = is the csa of the core in m2
l = the length of the coil in meters I = the current in the coil
Φ = flux in Webers

E. B. Pioquinto
 Inductor
• Factors which affect the inductance of an inductor
include:
– the number of turns of wire—the more turns the higher
the inductance
– the cross-sectional area of the coil of wire—the greater the
cross sectional area the higher the inductance
– the presence of a magnetic core—when the coil is wound
on an iron core the same current sets up a more
concentrated magnetic field and the inductance is
increased
– the way the turns are arranged—a short thick coil of wire
has a higher inductance than a long thin one.

E. B. Pioquinto
 Energy stored
• An inductor possesses an ability to store
energy. The energy stored, W, in the magnetic
field of an inductor is given by:

E. B. Pioquinto