Bridges PDF

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Bridges
Steel is widely used around the world for the construction of bridges from the very large to the very small. It is a
versatile and effective material that provides efficient and sustainable solutions. Steel has long been recognised as the
economic option for a range of bridges. It dominates the markets for long span bridges, railway bridges, footbridges,
and medium span highway bridges. It is now increasingly the choice for shorter span highway structures as well.
Society gains in many ways from the benefits delivered by steel bridge solutions. Landmark steel bridges embody
good design, they are fast to build, and have stimulated the regeneration of many former industrial, dock and
canalside areas.
Steel bridges are an essential feature of a country’s infrastructure and landscape. Few man-made structures combine
the technical with the aesthetics in such an evocative way. Look closely at the next ‘landmark’ bridge you see; the
chances are that it is made of steel.
Iron Bridge conservation A14 Cambridge to London Bridge Station Knostrop Weir Foot and
Huntingdon improvement Cycle Bridge, Leeds
scheme
The Ordsall Chord Viaduct Approach Viaduct South, Somers Town Bridge, Walkway Bridges, London
Queensferry Crossing London Wall Place
Attributes
1 / 20
//www.steelconstruction.info/Bridges - 14th January 2019
SteelConstruction.info
Main Article: Sustainable steel bridges
Modern steel bridges taking advantage of the latest advances in automated fabrication and construction techniques
are able to provide economic solutions to the demands of safety, rapid construction, aesthetics, shallow construction
depth, minimal maintenance and flexibility in future use. Steel also scores well on all the sustainability measures, and
offers a broad range of benefits addressing the economic, environmental, and social priorities of the ‘triple bottom line’
of sustainability.
Prefabrication of steelwork
(Image courtesy of Mabey Bridge Ltd.)
Economic priorities
Efficient use of resources
Minimum disruption
Durability
Adaptability
Environmental priorities
Recycling and re-use
Minimum CO2 and energy burdens
Minimum waste
Lightweight construction
Social priorities
Sustainable communities
Health and safety
Minimum impact
Aesthetically pleasing bridges
2 / 20
Recycling route diagram
The high strength-to-weight ratio of steel minimises the structural weight of superstructures and thus minimises the
substructure costs, which is particularly beneficial in poor ground conditions. Minimum self-weight is also an important
factor in the cost of transporting and handling components. Use of steel facilitates shallow construction depths, which
overcomes problems with headroom and flood clearances, and minimises the length and cost of approach
embankments.
Steel is the most recycled construction material and choosing it for bridges represents a sustainable management of
natural resources. When a steel bridge reaches the end of its useful life, the girders can be cut into manageable sizes
to facilitate demolition, and returned to steelworks for recycling. Some 99% of structural steel either finds its way back
into the steelmaking process where it is used to create new steel products or is reused. There is no degradation in the
performance of recycled steel. Alternatively, component parts of steel bridges can be reused in other structures; entire
bridges have been relocated and bridges can be designed with ease of future relocation in mind.
Steel has broad architectural possibilities. Steel bridges can be made to look light or reassuringly solid, and can be
sculptured to any shape or form. The high surface quality of steel creates clean sharp lines and allows attention to
detail. Modern fabrication methods can easily provide curvature in plan and elevation. The painting of steelwork
introduces colour and contrast, and repainting can change or refresh the appearance of the bridge.
Forms of construction
Main articles: Multi-girder composite bridges, Ladder deck composite bridges, Integral bridges, Half-through bridges,
Box girder bridges, and Tied-arch bridges
Steel is a most versatile and effective material for bridge construction, able to carry loads in tension, compression and
shear. Structural steelwork is used in the superstructures of bridges from the smallest to the greatest. There is a wide
variety of structural forms available to the designer but each essentially falls into one of four groups; beam bridges,
arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges and suspension bridges.
3 / 20
Beam bridges
A beam and slab, or composite bridge is one where a reinforced concrete deck slab sits on top of steel I-beams, and
acts compositely with them in bending. There are two principal forms of this beam and slab construction; multi-girder
construction and ladder deck construction. Between them, they account for the majority of medium span highway
bridges currently being built in the UK, and are suitable for spans ranging from 13m up to 100m. The choice between
the two forms depends on economic considerations and site-specific factors such as form of intermediate supports
and access for construction.
Cross section of a multi-girder highway bridge Cross section of a ladder deck bridge
Twin multi-girder bridge structures, showing bracing A twin ladder deck bridge
locations Hunslett Viaduct, Leeds
Lagentium Viaduct, Castleford
Increasingly, such composite bridges are adopting ‘integral construction’, where the deck is rigidly connected to the
abutments. This eliminates the need for expansion joints and bearings, which minimises future maintenance
requirements.
4 / 20
In some situations, notably for railway bridges, the depth between the trafficked surface (or rails) and the underside of
the bridge is severely constrained and there is little depth available for the structure. In these circumstances,
‘half-through’ construction is used.
General arrangement of a half-through bridge
Box girder bridges
Box girders comprise two webs that are joined top and bottom by a common flange creating a closed cell that offers
very good torsional stiffness, which may be required on highly curved bridges. In beam and slab bridges, box girders
are an alternative to plate girders at the upper end of the span range, where they offer a lower steel weight, although
this has to be balanced against increased fabrication costs. Such composite box girder decks may take the form of
multiple closed steel boxes, with the deck slab over the top, or an open top trapezoidal box, closed by the deck slab.
Longer spans of 100 to 200m typically use either a single box or a pair of boxes with crossbeams. For such long spans
and for bridges such as lifting bridges, where minimising structural weight is very important, an all-steel orthotropic
deck may be used instead of a reinforced concrete slab. Above about 200m, box girders are likely to be part of a cable-
stayed bridge or a suspension bridge, where they are specially shaped for optimum aerodynamic performance.
5 / 20
Variable depth trapezoidal closed top box girders Open top box girders curved in plan
River Nene Viaduct, Peterborough Fossdyke Bridge, Lincoln
Truss bridges
A truss is a triangulated framework of individual elements or members which act primarily in tension or compression.
Trusses have been used in a similar way to beams in composite decks (Oresund Approach Spans), as arches
(Sydney Harbour Bridge), as cantilevers (Forth Rail Bridge) or as stiffening girders to suspension bridges (Forth Road
Bridge).
Today, the truss girder form of construction usually proves expensive to fabricate because of the large amount of
labour-intensive work in building up the members and making the connections, so they are seldom used for ordinary
highway bridges. However, for through or half-through forms, truss bridges do offer a very stiff, lightweight solutions
with minimum structural depth. Hence, they are widely used in the UK for footbridges, demountable bridges (Bailey
bridges), gantries and longer span railway bridges (over 50m).
6 / 20
Half-through warren truss footbridge Through truss railway bridge, New Cross Gate Flyover,
(Image courtesy of Nusteel Structures Ltd.) London
Arch bridges
In the traditional form, a steel arch has a similar structural action to old masonry arch bridges. The arch springs from
the foundations and exerts horizontal thrusts on them. The arch elements act primarily in compression. The deck may
either be supported on struts, resting on arch below, or it may be suspended on hangers from the arch above.
A tied-arch or "bow string" arch is a particular development of the arch form. The horizontal thrusts from the arching
action are resisted by tension members between the arch springings. Effectively the deck acts as a tension tie, and is
supported by hangers from the arch above. This form is suited to the soft soils of riverbanks, where the ground cannot
withstand the large horizontal thrusts from arching action.
In recent years, arches and tied-arches have become a little more common, partly because the use of an arch from
which to hang the deck allows the construction depth of a suspended deck to be kept shallow, even at longer spans,
and partly because arches make a clear architectural statement. Arches are sometimes skew to the line of the deck
and sometimes the arch planes are inclined for dramatic visual effect.
7 / 20
Arch skew to the line of the deck Tied-arch bridge Tied-arch bridge
Hulme Arch, Manchester River Usk Crossing, Newport Infinity footbridge, Stockton
Cable-stayed bridges
Swansea Sail Bridge
In this form of bridge, the main girders are supported at intervals along their length by inclined tension members
(stays) connected to a high mast or pylon. There may be either a single plane of stays down the centre of the bridge, or
two planes; one on each side of the bridge. The towers act in compression and can have a variety of forms (A-frame,
H-frame or columns). The deck girders sustain compression forces as well as bending forces.
8 / 20
Recent developments in the modelling and analysis of dynamic behaviour and the use of sophisticated damping
against oscillation have extended the realm of the cable-stayed bridge to spans in excess of 1000m, which had
previously been the almost exclusive domain of suspension bridges. The visual appearance of stayed structures can
be very effective, even dramatic. They are frequently considered appealing or eye-catching. On a more modest scale,
cable-stayed construction is sometimes used for footbridges, to give support and stiffness to an otherwise very light
structure.
Examples of cable-stayed bridges include:
Newport City Footbridge

The Footbridge, MediaCityUK
The Sidings Bridge, Swansea
Cathedral Bridge, Derby
Pont King Morgan, Carmarthen
River Suir Bridge, N25 Waterford Bypass
Suspension bridges
Humber Bridge
A suspension bridge is fundamentally simple in action: two cables are suspended between two supports (‘towers’ or
‘pylons’), hanging in a shallow curve, and a deck is supported from the two cables by a series of hangers along their
length. The cables and hangers are in simple tension and the deck spans transversely and longitudinally between the
hangers. In most cases the cables are anchored at ground level, either side of the main towers; often the side spans
are hung from these portions of the cables.
In addition to its action in carrying traffic, the deck acts as a stiffening girder running the length of each span. The
stiffening girder spreads concentrated loads and provides stiffness against oscillation; such stiffness is needed against
both bending and twisting actions.
Because of their fundamental simplicity and economy of structural action, suspension bridges have been used for the
longest bridge spans. The graceful curve of the suspension cable combined with the strong line of the deck and
stiffening girder generally give a very pleasing appearance. The combination of grace and grandeur in such situations
leads to the acknowledged view that many of the world’s most exciting bridges are suspension bridges.
One recent example of a smaller suspension bridge is Peace Bridge, Derry-Londonderry

9 / 20
Materials
Main articles: Material selection and product specification and Weathering steel
Plate mill control room
Structural steel is a high-quality material that is readily available worldwide in certified grades, in products of various
shapes and sizes. Prefabrication of steelwork in controlled factory conditions leads to high quality work at minimum
cost. The excellent quality control is achieved through a thorough testing regime at the steel mills and during the
fabrication processes of cutting and drilling, assembly, welding, and protective treatment. The quality assurance that is
attained should give confidence to all clients and engineers who specify steel for their bridge project.
Steel material is supplied in two product forms – ‘flat products’ (steel plate and strip) and ‘long products’ (rolled
sections, either standard open sections such as beams, channels, angles, etc or hollow sections). For structural use in
bridges these products are inevitably cut (to size and shape) and welded, one component to another. In the structure,
the material is subject to tensile and compressive forces. Structural steel generally responds in a linear elastic manner,
up to the ‘yield point’ and thereafter has a significant capacity for plastic straining before failure. All these aspects of
steel material are utilised by the designer of a steel bridge.
The selection of an appropriate grade of steel for a bridge requires an awareness of the steel manufacturing process,
an appreciation of the relevant product standards and an understanding of several issues including:
Material properties
Design requirements
Availability and cost of steel
Product specifications
Steel derives its material properties from a combination of chemical composition, mechanical working and heat
treatment. The yield strength is probably the most significant property that the designer will need to use or specify. The
achievement of a suitable yield strength whilst maintaining other properties has been the driving force behind the
development of modern steel making and rolling processes.
10 / 20
A typical weathering steel bridge over the A1 at Wetherby
S355 steel is predominantly used in highway bridge applications, as it is readily available, and generally gives the
optimum balance between stiffness and strength. S275 steel is often used on railway bridges, where stiffness rather
than strength governs the design, or where fatigue is the critical design case. S420 and S460 steels can offer
advantages where self-weight is critical or the designer needs to minimise plate thicknesses. However, the use of such
steels confers no benefits in applications where fatigue, stiffness or the instability of very slender members is the
overriding design consideration. These steels are also less readily available in the UK.
Other mechanical properties of particular importance to the bridge designer include ductility, toughness, weldability,
and corrosion resistance.
All structural steels, with the exception of ‘weathering steel’, have a similar resistance to corrosion. In exposed
conditions they need to be protected by a coating system. There are no special requirements of the steel material for
ordinary coating systems, including both aluminium and zinc metal spray. However, if the steel is to be galvanized,
then there is a need to control the alloy content (notably the Silicon content).
Weathering steel is a high strength low alloy steel that in suitable environments forms an adherent protective rust
‘patina’, to inhibit further corrosion. The corrosion rate is so low that bridges fabricated from unpainted weathering
steel can achieve a 120 year design life with only nominal maintenance.
Design
Main articles: Bridges - initial design, Modelling and analysis of beam bridges, Design of beams in composite bridges,
Shear connection in composite bridge beams, Design for half-through construction, Design of steel footbridges,
Fatigue design of bridges, Bracing systems, Stiffeners, Connections in bridges, Bridge articulation and bearing
specification, Plan curvature in bridges, Skew bridges, and Specification of bridge steelwork
11 / 20
A wealth of design guidance
Designers of steel bridges are well supported with a wealth of guidance to assist them in designing the most economic
solution for their clients. This extends from initial concept design, through detailed design verification and on to
appropriate specification.
In the concept design stage, the designer takes the outline requirements of the alignment engineer (the road, rail or
pedestrian layout, cross section and vertical profile) and derives a structural solution that suits the topography and
restrictions of the site, whilst minimising both costs and risks. There may be little detailed calculation at this stage but
there should be consultation with steelwork contractors and main contractors. Most bridge construction in the UK
currently takes place under collaborative arrangements and thus access to steelwork contractors and main
contractors should be readily available to the designer. In the absence of a collaborative arrangement, designers
should at least discuss the options with a steelwork contractor at an early stage.
While minimising cost may be the most obvious consideration when embarking on the design of a steel bridge, the
health and safety of all those concerned in the construction of the bridge and in its maintenance throughout its life is
the responsibility of all those people making decisions about the procurement of the bridge. So, as well as aiming for a
structurally efficient solution, designers should consider how the steelwork will be fabricated and erected, how the
deck will be completed (i.e. design for construction), and how the bridge will be maintained. The chosen bridge
erection scheme will clearly have a big influence on the type and location of any connections.
Preliminary sizing is part of the concept design, and is often based on crude estimations of load distribution, and
resulting bending moments and shear forces. However, for steel composite highway bridges, preliminary design charts
and an associated software tool are available to facilitate far more accurate initial girder sizes
12 / 20
Detailed design is effectively design verification to the Eurocodes, which is more of a checking process than original
creative design. Modelling and analysis is carried out for the selected structural arrangement for the various loading
conditions (including fatigue) taking full account of any curvature and skew. The adequacy of the main members
(composite beams, half-through beams, and box girders etc.) is then checked in detail to ensure that they are
adequate to carry the applied moments and forces. Details such as shear connection, stiffener sizes and bracing
member sizes, etc, are chosen at this stage to suit the global actions of the main members.
The main output from the design process is often seen as a set of drawings, but designers should also recognise the
importance of an appropriate specification. It is important that a project specification (and the accompanying
drawings) should express clearly the particular requirements for a structure and, where standards allow options and
alternatives, which additional requirements apply. Failure in clarity will lead to extra provisions for risk and extra costs
in resolving queries. The project specification should also avoid over-specification, requiring unnecessary quality and
excessively tight tolerances will lead to higher costs. The project specification should generally follow recognised
industry standards, such as the Specification for Highway Works[1].
Construction
Main article: Design for steel bridge construction
CAD model of a multi-girder bridge

Offsite prefabrication of steel components means that construction time on site, often in hostile environments, is
minimised. The speed of bridge construction made possible by steel allows disruption to road and rail users to be kept
to a minimum, if not eliminated, with significant positive knock-on effects for the UK economy. The relatively low weight
of structural steel components permits the erection of large sections; in some circumstances complete bridges can be
moved into position overnight. Speed of steel bridge construction also benefits main contractors even on ‘green field’
sites, as it allows them to establish and maintain access for haul roads.
13 / 20
One of the key drivers behind the success of steel bridges in the UK since the 1980s has been the continuous
investment by steelwork contractors in automated fabrication equipment for cutting and drilling, girder assembly and
welding steel. Production efficiencies are further enhanced within modern factories by working on a number of projects
in parallel to achieve profitable utilisation of the space, equipment and permanent workforce. The fabrication process
begins with 3D modelling the bridge steelwork with CADCAM software, which creates a list of components (girder
webs and flanges, stiffeners and bracing elements etc.) required for the structure and produces the programs for the
automated fabrication equipment. The model is also used to locate and rectify conflicts and can even carry out a
virtual trial erection. Once the steelwork has passed through the factory, it is usually then blast cleaned and painted
prior to transportation to site.
Erection of Lagentium Viaduct, A1(M) Darrington to Dishforth

A wide range of construction methods and sequences are available for steel bridges. They can be lifted, piece-by-
piece, by cranes or strand jacks; they can be launched by sliding or rolling from the abutment; or they can be slid or
transported into position. In some instances a combination of erection methods are needed; these are called ‘Hybrid
schemes’. Steel offers flexibility in terms of erection sequence and certainty in terms of the programme and, once
erected, the steel girders provide platforms for subsequent deck construction operations.
The involvement of a steelwork contractor during the concept design and detailed design stage depends very much on
the form of contract, but even with relatively ‘ordinary’ structures it is desirable to seek their advice at an early stage.
The steelwork contractor can provide assistance with design for construction, i.e. the definition of the structural
concept, steelwork detailing and planning the proposed erection scheme. This ensures that the costs associated with
steelwork contract are minimised.
Videos of bridge construction:

1. Borough High Street Bridge, London being installed.
2. Mallard Bridge on White Rose Way, Doncaster being installed over the East Coast Main Line using one of the
largest mobile cranes in the UK.
3. Arch lift on the Central Link Bridge in Merthyr Tydfil.
4. Loughor Viaduct Replacement near Swansea shows a 15 hour bridge slide in 70 seconds.
5. Leigh Road Bridge installation using specialist transporters in Slough.
14 / 20
Durability
Main articles: Corrosion protection and Weathering steel
Forth Rail Bridge
Steel bridges now have a proven life span extending to well over 100 years. A notable example is the imposing Forth
Rail Bridge in Scotland, which was completed in 1890. The scale and size of this significant landmark was a major
achievement in construction engineering, and the structure has stood the test of time.
Steel has a predictable fatigue life and the structural elements are visible and accessible. Any signs of deterioration
are readily apparent, without the need for extensive investigations. Corrosion is a surface effect, which rarely
compromises the structural integrity of a bridge, and any problems may be swiftly addressed by repainting the affected
areas. Advances in coating technology and an industry commitment to the training of coating applicators mean that the
latest protective systems are expected to last well beyond 30 years before requiring maintenance. Furthermore, the
use of unpainted weathering steel, which requires almost no maintenance, is increasingly popular, as it is recognised
as the ultimate low maintenance option for bridge construction.
Tamar Bridge widening, Plymouth

(Image courtesy of AECOM)
15 / 20
Steel bridges are readily adaptable to changes in road configuration and increased loading that would render other
types of structure obsolete ahead of their original design lives. One notable example is the Tamar suspension bridge in
Plymouth, which needed widening and strengthening due to increased traffic loads and volumes. The solution was to
replace the concrete deck with a new lightweight steel one, and add steel cantilever sections. The result was that the
widened 5-lane bridge was only 25 tonnes heavier than the old 3-lane structure, and was able to accommodate 44
tonne trucks.
Steel bridges also lend themselves to easy and rapid strengthening or repair in the event of accidents, with well proven
techniques like heat straightening ensuring that damaged structures are soon back in use.
The fundamental requirements to fully realise the potential durability of a steel bridge include:
An understanding of the corrosion process

Good design and detailing
Thorough surface preparation
Use of high quality coatings
Correct coating application
Appropriate specifications
Inspection and quality control
Airless spray application of paint

The majority of steel bridges in the UK are protected against corrosion by the use of paint coatings. Modern
specifications usually comprise a sequential coating application of paints or alternatively paints applied over thermally
sprayed metal coatings to form a ‘duplex’ coating system. The protective paint systems usually consist of primer,
intermediate coat(s) and finish coats. Each coating ‘layer’ in any protective system has a specific function, and the
different types are applied in a particular sequence of primer followed by intermediate/build coats in the shop, and
finally the finish or top coat on site. Hot-dip galvanizing is an alternative durable coating that is sometimes used,
although its use is generally limited to smaller bridges due to the nature of the application process.
Case studies
16 / 20
River Taff Central Link Merchant Square Greenwich Reach Swing Stihl Treetop Walkway,
Bridge, Merthyr Tydfil Footbridge, London Bridge, London Westonbirt National
Arboretum, Gloucestershire
Harlech Castle Footbridge Lagan Weir Pedestrian and

Bridges on A1 Leeming to Cycle Bridge, Belfast Aberdeen Western
Barton upgrade Peripheral Route/Balmedie to
Tipperty bridges
Ordsall Chord, Manchester STIHL Treetop Walkway, Watermark Westquay Lincoln Eastern Bypass
Westonbirt, the National Footbridge, Southampton Railway Bridge
Arboretum
17 / 20
Iron Bridge conservation A14 Cambridge to London Bridge Station Knostrop Weir Foot and
Huntingdon improvement Cycle Bridge, Leeds
scheme
The Ordsall Chord Viaduct Approach Viaduct South, Somers Town Bridge, Walkway Bridges, London
Queensferry Crossing London Wall Place
18 / 20
References
1. ↑ Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works (MCHW). Volume 1: Specification for Highway Works.
Series 1800 Structural Steelwork. August 2014, TSO
Resources
Hendy, C.R.; Iles, D.C. (2015) Steel Bridge Group: Guidance Notes on best practice in steel bridge
construction (6th Issue). (P185). SCI
Hendy, C.R.; Iles, D.C.; Palmer, I. (2017) Steel Bridge Group: Completion of Appendix 18/1. (P418). SCI
Iles, D.C. (2004) Design guide for steel railway bridges (P318) SCI
Iles, D.C. (2010) Composite highway bridge design. (P356 including corrigendum, 2014). SCI
Iles, D.C. (2010) Composite highway bridge design: Worked examples. (P357 including corrigendum, 2014).
SCI
Iles, D.C. (2012) Design of composite highway bridges curved in plan. (P393). SCI
Iles, D.C. (2012) Determining the buckling resistance of steel and composite bridge structures. (ED008). SCI
Iles, D.C. (2015) Determining design displacements for bridge movement bearings. (P406). SCI
Steel Bridges: A practical approach to design for efficient fabrication and construction, 2010, (Publication no.
51/10), BCSA,
Guide to the Erection of Steel Bridges, 2005, (Publication no. 38/05), BCSA
Carbon footprint tool for steel composite highway bridges
Preliminary steel bridge design charts:
Chart finder
Spreadsheet tool
User manual
All three of which can be found on the BCSA web site
See also
Sustainable steel bridges
Multi-girder composite bridges
Ladder deck composite bridges
Integral bridges
Half-through bridges
Box girder bridges
Tied-arch bridges
Material selection and product specification
Weathering steel
Bridges - initial design
19 / 20
Modelling and analysis of beam bridges

Design of beams in composite bridges
Shear connection in composite bridge beams
Design for half-through construction
Design of steel footbridges
Fatigue design of bridges
Bracing systems
Stiffeners
Connections in bridges
Bridge articulation and bearing specification
Plan curvature in bridges
Skew bridges
Specification of bridge steelwork
Design for steel bridge construction
Corrosion protection
Welding
Preloaded bolting
Accuracy of steel fabrication
External links
Highways England DMRB (Design Manual for Roads and Bridges)
Highways England MCDHW (Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works)
The Steel Bridge Group (SBG)
CPD
Weathering steel bridges
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SteelConstruction.

Main Article: Sustainable steel bridges

Recycling route diagram

General arrangement of a half-through bridge

Box girder bridges

Swansea Sail Bridge

Examples of cable-stayed bridges include:

Newport City Footbridge

One recent example of a smaller suspension bridge is Peace Bridge, Derry-Londonderry

Plate mill control room

A typical weathering steel bridge over the A1 at Wetherby

A wealth of design guidance

CAD model of a multi-girder bridge

Erection of Lagentium Viaduct, A1(M) Darrington to Dishforth

Videos of bridge construction:

Forth Rail Bridge

Tamar Bridge widening, Plymouth

An understanding of the corrosion process

Airless spray application of paint

Harlech Castle Footbridge Lagan Weir Pedestrian and

All three of which can be found on the BCSA web site

Modelling and analysis of beam bridges

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

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