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EXPERIMENT NO. 01: PREPARATORY ACTIVITY

OBJECTIVE:
Introduction to machining terms, tool materials and tool geometry.

DEFINE TERMS:

1) Cutting speed:
➢ Cutting speed (also called surface speed or simply speed) is the speed difference (relative
velocity) between the cutting tool and the surface of the work piece it is operating on.
➢ It is expressed in units of distance along the work piece surface per unit of time, typically
surface feet per minute or meters per minute (m/min).
➢ peripheral speed S= πDN
➢ Cutting Speed v= (πDN/1000) m/min
2) Feed:
➢ Feed rate (also often styled as a solid compound, feed rate, or called simply feed) is the
relative velocity at which the cutter is advanced along the work piece; its vector is
perpendicular to the vector of cutting speed.
➢ Feed rate units depend on the motion of the tool and work piece; when the work piece
rotates (e.g., in turning and boring), the units are almost always distance per spindle
revolution (inches per revolution [in/rev] or millimeters per revolution [mm/rev]).
➢ When the workpiece does not rotate (e.g., in milling), the units are typically distance per
time (inches per minute [in/min] or millimeters per minute [mm/min]), although distance
per revolution or per cutter tooth are also sometimes used.
3) Depth of cut:
➢ It is the thickness of the layer of the metal removed in one cut or pass measured in the
direction perpendicular to the machined surface.
➢ Depth of Cut d= (D1-D2)/2 mm

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Cutting speeds for various materials using a plain high speed steel cutter

Material type Meters per min Surface feet per min

(MPM) (SFM)

Steel (tough) 15–18 50–60

Mild Steel 30–38 100–125
Mild Steel (with coolant) 60-76 200-250
Cast Iron (medium) 18–24 60–80
Alloy Steels (1320–9262) 20–37 65–120
Carbon Steels (C1008–C1095) 21–40 70–130
Free Cutting Steels (B1111–B1113 & C1108– 35–69 115–225
C1213)
Stainless Steels (300 & 400 series) 23–40 75–130
Bronzes 24–45 80–150
Leaded Steel (Lead alloy 12L14) 91 300
Aluminum 75–105 250–350
Aluminum (with coolant) 150-210 500-700
Brass 90–210 300–700
Machinable Wax 200
Acetal Copolymer (Delrin) 350
Polyethylene 400
Acrylic (with coolant) 500
Wood 600-1000

OBSERVATION TABLE
➢ Student will observe and record cutting parameters for given work piece material:

Work piece material Tool material Cutting speed, Feed, mm/rev Depth of
and dimension m/min cut,mm

MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE:

➢ MRR: Volume of material removed in one revolution,

MRR = π D d f (mm 3 )
➢ Job makes N revolutions/min
MRR = π D d f N (mm 3/min)
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➢ In terms of v MRR is given by

MRR = 1000 v d f (mm 3 /min)

NOTE: Students will calculate MRR for data stored in above table.

MRR:

TYPES OF TOOL MATERIALS:

Tool material Properties

Carbon tool Unstable. Very inexpensive. Extremely sensitive to heat. Mostly
Steels obsolete in today's commercial machining, although it is still
commonly found in non-intensive applications such as hobbyist or
MRO machining, where economy-grade drill bits, taps and dies,
hacksaw blades, and reamers are still usually made of it. Hardness up
to about HRC 65. Sharp cutting edges possible.
High speed steel(HSS) Unstable. Inexpensive. Retains hardness at moderate temperatures.
The most common cutting tool material used today. Used extensively
on drill bits and taps. Hardness up to about HRC 67. Sharp cutting
edges possible.
HSS cobalt Unstable. Moderately expensive. The high cobalt versions of high-
speed steel are very resistant to heat and thus excellent for machining
abrasive and/or work hardening materials such as titanium and
stainless steel. Used extensively on milling cutters and drill bits.
Hardness up to about HRC 70. Sharp cutting edges possible.
Cast cobalt alloys Stable. Expensive. Somewhat fragile. Despite its stability it doesn't
allow for high machining speed due to low hardness. Not used much.
Hardness up to about HRC 65. Sharp cutting edges possible.
Cemented Stable. Moderately expensive. The most common material used in the
Carbide industry today. It is offered in several "grades" containing different
proportions of tungsten carbide and binder (usually cobalt). High
resistance to abrasion. High solubility in iron requires the additions of
tantalum carbide and niobium carbide for steel usage. Its main use is
in turning tool its although it is very common in milling cutters and
saw blades. Hardness up to about HRC 90. Sharp edges generally not
recommended.
Ceramics Stable. Moderately inexpensive. Chemically inert and extremely
resistant to heat, ceramics are usually desirable in high speed
applications, the only drawback being their high fragility. Ceramics are
considered unpredictable under unfavorable conditions. The most
common ceramic materials are based on alumina (aluminum oxide),
silicon nitride and silicon carbide. Used almost exclusively on turning

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tool bits. Hardness up to about HRC 93. Sharp cutting edges and
positive rake angles are to be avoided.
Cermet’s Stable. Moderately expensive. Another cemented material based on
titanium carbide (TiC). Binder is usually nickel. It provides higher
abrasion resistance compared to tungsten carbide at the expense of
some toughness. It is far more chemically inert than it too. Extremely
high resistance to abrasion. Used primarily on turning tool bits
although research is being carried on producing other cutting tools.
Hardness up to about HRC 93. Sharp edges generally not
recommended.
Cubic boron Stable. Expensive. Being the second hardest substance known, it is
nitride also the second most fragile. It offers extremely high resistance to
(CBN) abrasion at the expense of much toughness. It is generally used in a
machining process called "hard machining", which involves running
the tool or the part fast enough to melt it before it touches the edge,
softening it considerably. Used almost exclusively on turning tool
bits. Hardness higher than HRC95. Sharp edges generally not
recommended.
Diamond Stable. Very Expensive. The hardest substance known to date. Superior
resistance to abrasion but also high chemical affinity to iron which
results in being unsuitable for steel machining. It is used where
abrasive materials would wear anything else. Extremely fragile. Used
almost exclusively on turning tool bits although it can be used as a
coating on many kinds of tools. Sharp edges generally not
recommended
Stellite Stellite is a family of completely non-magnetic and corrosion
resistant Cobalt alloys of various compositions. This alloy is quite
hard, maintains a good cutting edge even at high temperature, and
resists hardening and annealing. Stellite alloys display outstanding
hardness and toughness, and are also usually very resistant to
corrosion. Stellite alloys are so hard that they are very difficult to
machine, and anything made from them is, as a result, very
expensive. Typically, a Stellite part is precisely cast so that only
minimal machining is necessary.Stellite is more often machined by
grinding, rather than by cutting. The alloys also tend to have
extremely high melting points due to the cobalt and chromium
content. Typical applications include saw teeth, hard facing,and acid-
resistant machine parts. Stellite was a major improvement in the
production of poppet valves and valve seats for the valves,
particularly exhaust valves, of internal combustion engines.

TOOL GEOMETRY:
➢ Tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient faces and
edges of the tools at their cutting point. Both material and geometry of the cutting tools
play very important roles on their performances in achieving effectiveness,
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efficiency and overall economy of machining. Cutting tools may be classified according
to the number of major cutting edges (points) involved as follows:
➢ Single point cutting tools: Examples: turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools
and boring tools
➢ Double- or Two-point cutting tools: Example: drills
➢ Multipoint (more than two) cutting tool: Example: Milling cutters, Broaching tools,
Hobs, Gear shaping cutters etc.

To determine the orientation and inclination of the rake face and flank surfaces, a coordinate
system is essential, resulting in a set of planes with reference to which the orientation or inclination
can be determined. Two planes are of significance D Tool reference plane or principal plane,
which is perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector D Cutting plane, which is tangential to the
cutting edge and contains the velocity vector. The cutting plane is also perpendicular to the
principal plane or the tool reference plane. There are three different types of coordinate system
that are popular, when it comes to tool nomenclature, they are:
a) Machine Reference System (MRS) American Standards Association (ASA)
b) Orthogonal tool Reference System (ORS)
c) Oblique or Normal tool Reference System (NRS)

TOOL NOMENCLATURE AND TOOL SIGNATURE:

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The general nomenclature for a single-point cutting tool is as follows:

1. Shank: Main body of the tool.
2. Flank: The surface or surfaces below and adjacent to the cutting edge.
3. Heel: The intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
4. Face: The surface on which the chip impinges.
5. Cutting edge: The portion of the face edge that separates the chip from the work- piece.
The total cutting edge consists of the side cutting edge, the nose, and the end cutting edge.
6. Nose: The intersection of the side cutting edge and end cutting edge.
7. Side cutting-edge angle: The angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool
shank. It is often referred to as the lead angle.
8. End cutting-edge angle: The angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpend-
ductular to the shank of the tool.
9. Side relief angle: The angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the
side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angles
to the side flank. It is the angle that prevents interference as the tool enters the work
material.
10. End relief angle: The angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the
end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angles
to the end flank. It is the angle that allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the workpiece.
11. Side clearance angle: A secondary angle directly below the side relief angle, measured
with the same reference.
12. End clearance angle: A secondary angle directly below the end relief angle, measured
with the same reference.
13. Back-rake angle: The angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with the base
of the tool, measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. It is the angle
which measures the slope of the face of the tool from the nose toward the rear. If the slope
is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake; and if the slope is

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downward from the nose, it is positive back rake. The back-rake angle is zero if there is
no slope.
14. Side-rake angle: The angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with the base
of the tool, measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge. It is
the angle that measures the slope of the tool face from the cutting edge. If the slope is
toward the cutting edge, it is negative side rake; and if the slope is away from the cutting
edge, it is positive side rake. If there is no slope the side-rake angle is zero.
A convenient way to specify tool angles is by use of a standardized abbreviated system called tool
signature (sometimes referred to as tool character). Tool signature also describes how the tool is
positioned in relation to the workpiece. A typical tool signature will always appear in a definite
order.
The order used is back rake, side rake, end relief, end clearance, end cutting edge, side cutting
edge, and nose radius. End clearance and side clearance are omitted unless clearance is used below
the relief angles.

Tool signature: 0-7-7-7-15-15-0.8

• Back rake 0°
• Side rake 7°
• End relief 7°
• Side relief 7°
• End cutting-edge angle 15°
• Side cutting-edge angle 15°
• Nose radius 0.8 mm

CARBIDE INSERT AND ISO CODIFICATION:

Inserts are known by an ISO naming convention that describes their shape and size. Each alphabet
and number in the name signify an aspect of the insert’s shape or size. The example below is for a
CNMG120408 insert commonly used in turning. The chip breaker geometry name is assigned by
the tool manufacturer. Other than this, all other designations are common across manufacturers.

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CALCULATION OF RPM FOR LATHE, DRILLING AND MILLING:

Example:
A mild steel rod having 50 mm diameter and 500 mm length is to be turned on a lathe.
Determine the RPM to reduce the rod to 45 mm in one pass when cutting speed is 30 m/min
and a feed of 0.7 mm/rev is used.

DRILLING SPEEDS:

The speed of a drill is measured in terms of the rate at which the outside or periphery of the tool
moves in relation to the work being drilled. The common unit and term for this velocity is
surface feet per minute, abbreviated sfm

Every tool manufacturer has a recommended table of sfm values for their tools. General sfm
guidelines are found in resources such as the Machinery Handbook. The peripheral and rotational
velocities of the tool are related as shown in the following equation:

V = π × D × N (Eq. 1)

where

V is the recommended peripheral velocity for the tool being used

D is the diameter of the tool

N is the rotational velocity of the tool

Since the peripheral velocity is commonly expressed in units of feet/minute and tool diameter is
typically measured in units of inches, Equation 1 can be solved for the spindle or tool velocity, N
in the following manner:

N [rpm] = 12 [in/ft] × V [sfm] / (π × D [in/rev]) (Eq. 2)

Example: Calculate the speed and feed for a ¼″ HSS drill bit in soft cast iron on a manual
Drilling machine in the lab. Take V ≈ 100 ft/min ‘

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MILLING SPEEDS:

Like a drill bit, the speed of a milling cutter is measured in terms of the rate at which the outside,
or periphery, of the tool moves in relation to the work being milled.

The peripheral and rotational velocities of the tool are related by the same equation:

V = π × D × N (Eq. 1)
where V is the recommended peripheral velocity for the tool being used
D is the diameter of the tool
N is the rotational velocity of the tool
Since the peripheral velocity is commonly expressed in units of feet/min and tool diameter is
typically measured in units of inches, Equation 1 can be solved for the spindle or tool velocity,

N in the following manner:

N [rpm] = 12 [in/ft] × V [sfm] / (π × D [in/rev]) (Eq. 2)

Example: Calculate the speed and feed for a 1″ diameter, 4 flute HSS end mill in aluminum

using a manual milling machine in lab. V ≈ 250 ft/min.

CONCLUSION:

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