Thesis PDF

Mälardalen University Licentiate Thesis
No. 73
MICROWAVE IMAGING OF BIOLOGICAL TISSUES:
applied toward breast tumor detection
Tommy Gunnarsson
April 2007
Department of Computer Science and Electronics

Mälardalen University
Västerås, Sweden
Copyright Tommy
c Gunnarsson, 2007
ISSN:1651–9256
ISBN:978–91–85485–43–7
Printed by Arkitektkopia, Västerås, Sweden
Distribution: Mälardalen University Press
Abstract
Microwave imaging is an efficient diagnostic modality for non-invasively visualizing
dielectric properties of non-metallic bodies. An increasing interest of this field has
been observed during the last decades. Many application areas in biomedicine have
been issued, recently the breast tumor detection application using microwave imag-
ing. Many groups are working in the field at the moment for several reasons. Breast
cancer is a major health problem globally for women, while it is the second most
common cancer form for women causing 0.3 % of the yearly female death in Sweden.
Medical imaging is considered as the most effective way of diagnostic breast tumors,
where X-ray mammography is the dominating technique. However, this imaging
modality still suffers from some limitations. Many women, mostly young ones, have
radiographically dense breasts, which means that the breast tissues containing high
rates of fibroglandular tissues. When the density is very similar to the breast tumor
and the diagnosis is very difficult. In this case alternative modalities like Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) with contrast enhancement and Ultrasound imaging are
used, however those are not suitable for large scale screening program. Another
limitation is the false-negative and false-positive rate using mammography, in gen-
eral 5–15 % of the tumors are not detected and many cases have to go though a
breast biopsy to verify a tumor diagnosis. At last the mammography using breast
compression, sometimes painful, and utilizing ionizing X-rays. The big potential
in microwave imaging is the reported high contrast of dielectric properties between
fibroglandular tissues and tumor tissues in breasts and that it is a non-ionizing
method which probably will be rather inexpensive.
The goal with this work is to develop a microwave imaging system able to re-
construct quantitative images of a female breast. In the frame of this goal this
Licentiate thesis contains a brief review of the ongoing research in the field of mi-
crowave imaging of biological tissues, with the major focus on the breast tumor
detection application. Both imaging algorithms and experimental setups are in-
cluded. A feasibility study is performed to analyze what response levels could be
expected, in signal properties, in a breast tumor detection application. Also, the
usability of a three-dimensional (3D) electromagnetic-wave simulator, (QW3D), in
the setup development is investigated. This is done by using a simple antenna
setup and a breast phantom with different tumor positions. From those results it
is clear that strong responses are obtained by a tumor presence and the diffracted
responses gives strong information about inhomogeneities inside the breast.
The second part of this Licentiate thesis is done in collaboration between Mälar-
dalen University and Supélec. Using the existing planar 2.45 GHz microwave cam-
era and the iterative non-linear Newton-Kantorovich code, developed at Département
de Recherches en Électromagnétisme (DRE) at Supélec, as a starting point, a new
platform for both real-time qualitative imaging and quantitative images of inho-
mogeneous objects are investigated. The focus aimed to breast tumor detection.
For the moment the tomographic performance of the planar camera is verified in
simulations through a comparison with other setups. Good calibration is observed,
but still experimental work concerning phantom development etc. is needed before
experimental results on breast tumor detection may be obtained.
Swedish Summery – Sammanfattning
Mikrovågsavbildning är en effektiv metod att avbilda en ickemetallisk kropps dielek-
triska egenskaper. Detta forskningsområde har fått ett ökat intresse under de
senaste decennierna, många tänkbara medicinska tillämpningar har studerats och
nu senast bröstcancerdetektion med hjälp av mikrovågsavbildning. Det är av
flera anledningar som denna applikation är intressant. Bröstcancer är ett stort
hälsoproblem för kvinnor globalt, där 0,3 % av de årliga dödsfallen för kvinnor
i Sverige är i korrelation till bröstcancer. Medicinsk avbildning är den effekti-
vaste metoden att diagnostisera bröstcancer, där mammografin är den dominanta
tekniken. Trots det så har tekniken vissa brister. Många kvinnor, speciellt yngre,
har höga halter av fiber och körtel vävnad, dessa vävnader har liknande densitet
som tumörer så diagnostiken blir väldigt svår. Alternativa tekniker i detta fall är
Magnetresonanstomografi (MRI) med tillfört kontrastmedel och Ultraljud. Dessa
tekniker är dock inte ansedda som lämpliga i storskalig brästcancerscreenings pro-
gram. En annan svaghet är felfrekvensen i diagnostiken, både negativ och positiv,
uppskattningsvis så blir 5–15 % av cancerfallen inte upptäckta och många gånger
måste bröstbiopsi användas för att diagnostisera en bröstcancer. Till sist, mammo-
grafin använder sig av låga halter av joniserande strålning och kräver bröstkompres-
sion, vilket är smärtsamt i vissa fall. Den stora potentiella möjligheten för mikrovåg-
savbildning är den höga kontrasten för dielektriska egenskaperna mellan bröstets
fiber och körtel vävnader jämfört med tumören och att ingen joniserande strålning
används. Troligen skulle denna teknik även vara ett relativt billigt alternativ.
Målet med detta arbete är att utveckla ett avbildningssystem för mikrovågor
där ett kvinnobröst kan avbildas kvantitativt. Denna avhandling täcker vissa delar
av detta mål med början i en översikt över pågående forskning inom området,
med fokus på brösttumörsdetektion. Både algoritmer och fullständiga experi-
mentella system behandlas. En inledande studie behandlas med fokus på vilken
signal respons man kan vänta sig av vid bröstcancerdetektion med mikrovågor.
Användbarheten av en elektromagnetisk vågsutbredningssimulator (QW3D) vid
utveckling och analys av experimentella uppställningar undersöks. Till detta användes
en enklare antennuppställning tillsammans med en brästfantom där tumören kan
placeras i olika positioner. Resultatet visar att en tumör ger stark signal respons
och att diffraktionen ger information om inhomogeniteter inuti bröstet.
Andra delen av avhandlingen är gjord i ett samarbete mellan Mälardalens
högskola och Supélec, Paris. Genom att använda den existerande 2,45 GHz planvåg-
skameran tillsammans med den iterativa och olinjära Newton-Kantorovich koden,
utvecklade vid Département de Recherches en Électromagnétisme (DRE) Supélec
som en start punkt, kan en ny plattform för undersökning av inhomogena objekt
tas fram. Där både kvalitativavbildning i realtid och kvantitativavbildning kan
användas med en fokus mot detektion av bröstcancer. Planvågskameran påvisar
god tomografisk förmåga i simuleringar, i en jämförelse med andra uppställningar.
Bra kalibrering har åstadkommits mellan algoritmen och experimentella uppställn-
ingen, men fortfarande krävs en del arbete runt den experimentella uppställningen
och bröstfantomen för att experimentella resultat av bröstcancerdetektion ska kunna
uppnås.
Acknowledgments
The moment of this Licentiate thesis feels like a short break of an ongoing journey
and gives a possibility to reflect about my first part of the journey. Indeed it has
been hard moments with a lot of hard work, but also delighted moments solving
challenging questions into challenging situations. In general I see this period of my
life as a huge progress, not only on a professional plane but also personally. In my
reflection many supporting personalities appears in form of colleagues, my family
and friends. I would like to thank those persons who made this journey possible,
who courage me to continue and supporting me through the hard moments of this
journey.
Hans Berggren (former head of the department) and Prof. Ylva Bäcklund (main
supervisor) thank you for offering me the possibilities to do my Ph. D. studies in
this field. I’m also grateful for my supervisor Denny Åberg who supported me
through many discussions and in my decision to focus in the algorithmic part and
also for my visit to Supélec, I wish you good luck at your new position in the
industry. I also want to thank my external supervisor Hans Sköld mainly for your
support at the beginning of my journey and to open up the possibilities to do
experiments at Saab Metech. I am thankful to: Mats Karlsson and Ulf Eriksson at
Saab Metech who gave us free support and usage of the experimental equipments.
P. O. Risman for your interesting discussions about microwaves and your support
in the beginning of my journey. Nils-Fredrik Kaiser for your motivation and spirit
and putting me in contact with prof. Jean Charles Bolomey. Danel Noreland for
your lectures and discussions around the the inverse problem in microwave imaging,
without your help my journey would be hard to finish.
I’m more than grateful to: Prof. Jean Charles Bolomey who offered me to stay
at Supélec during 6 months in 2006 for collaboration, also for being my French
main supervisor in my continuing journey as a divided Ph. D. student between
Mälardalen University and University Paris SYD VI, Supélec. Alain Joisel and
Nadine Joiachimowicz who gave me great support during my stay with many in-
teresting discussions and taking the role as assistant supervisors. This period was
probably the most fruitful during my preparations of this thesis, without your help
my thesis would not have the format it has today. I’m looking forward to continue
this work in the near future. I also want to thank the other colleges at Supélec
who helped me to get along in Paris, in everything from running exercise to more
specific professional discussions around microwave imaging.
I am thankful to the Swedish Knowledge Foundation for founding this part of
my journey also to the Royal Swedish Academy of Science for providing me a grant
for my stay at Supélec in 2006. I will also take the opportunity to thank the Swedish
Institute for selecting me for the French government grant through CNOUS, as a
result they will provide me a grant for my continuing studies at Supélec in 2007.
Ann Huguet I am grateful for your help completing the applications with your
experienced advises.
Also thanks to my former and new colleagues at the department, especially
Peder Norin who was my companion since the first week at the university. We went
trough the four years studies to a Master of Science and then trough our first job
as engineer to follow up starting our Ph. D. studies together. It was always nice to
have a friend nearby, I wish you all luck in the future! I also want to thank Ali Fard
and Tord Johnson who was supervising me through my Master thesis and later was
a great support trough the beginning of the journey, with many discussion about
the life as a Ph. D. student.
I want to thank my friends outside the office especially Andreas Åhlin who was
my ”base camp” in Västerås during periods when I moved back and fourth to Paris.
Also, to my other friends who still are available when a far distance separating us.
I want to give my largest gratitude to my parents, you have always supporting me
in what I am doing and believing in my capability, without your support I would
never have the courage to go for what I am believing in. Also my sister who sup-
porting me when I need and put my two wonderful nephews Emma and Erik into
life, those helps me to get back to life when it is too much microwaves in my mind.
Late night in Paris, April 2007.
/Tommy
Contents
1 Motivation 1
1.1 Scope of this work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Publications Included in the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Other Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Summary of Appended Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Author’s Contribution in the Included Publications . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Thesis Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Introduction 7
2.1 A Brief Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Breast Tumor Detection Using Microwave Imaging . . . . . . 10
2.2 Dielectric Properties of Human Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Image Reconstruction Algorithm 15

3.1 Physical Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.1 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Direct Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Non-Linear Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1 Newton-Kantorovich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Open Configuration Newton-Kantorovich Algorithm . . . . . . . . . 22
4 Detection of Breast Tumors 23

4.1 Experimental and Simulation Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Responses due to a Tumor Presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5 Quantitative Imaging with a Planar Camera 31

5.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2 Quantitative Images of Inhomogeneous Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6 Concluding Remarks 41
6.1 Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
i
ii CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Motivation
Today, cancer is a major health problem in the society. Swedish statics report
tumors as the second most common cause of death [1], after diseases in circulation
organs. 25% of the yearly deaths are caused by tumors, where breast cancer is the
most common tumor among women with around 30 caused deaths in a population of
100,000. Similar numbers has been reported in North America, Europe, Australia,
Polynesia and Western Africa [2], In a worldwide basis breast tumor is by far the
most frequent tumor among women with 23% of all cancers. In 2002, 1.15 million
new cases where reported, giving the rank second overall after lung cancer when
both sexes are considered.
Worth noting, the survival rate of breast cancer is 65% in a global average [2],
for a period of five years after the first detection. So breast cancer has a rather good
survival rate compared to other tumor forms. One reason is probably the major
screening programs carried out in high developed countries, established to find
early invasive tumors. However, still breast tumors are the leading cause of tumor
mortality for women, 411,000 annual deaths was reported in 2002 [2]. Incidence
rates of breast cancer are increasing in most countries, and the grown are usually
greatest where rates were previously low. With an estimated growth about 3 %
growth in East Asia and 0.5 % in the rest of the word, the world total in 2010
would be 1.5 million [2]. By only looking at those numbers all research in this area
are strongly motivated.
The motivation for major screening programs is the strong correlation between
the outcome of a breast tumor and its size at the time of detection. Michaelson
et. al. are able to calculate the chance of survival from the size of the tumor,
independent of detection method [3]. In the most high developed areas of the world
all women goes through this program with frequent radiology visits.
Today, imaging techniques takes an important role in the detection of malig-
nant breast tumors, where X-ray mammography is the dominant technique. X-ray
mammography fulfill almost all requirements to be an efficient imaging tool. An
1
2 CHAPTER 1. MOTIVATION
imaging tool must have high specificity and sensitivity to malign breast tumors,
resource effective in manpower, money and time and should also be non-invasive
and harmless [4]. Today, X-ray mammography is widely used and in general an
accepted method. However, mammography suffers from several limitations. The
sensitivity in false rate has been reported by Elmore et. al. [5] and by Huynh et.
al. [6]. X-ray mammography has a false-positive rate between 2.8% to 15.9% and
a false-negative rate between 4% to 34%. The false rate is mainly dependent of the
experience of radiologist. Also the specificity has a reported limitation, during the
extensive mammography screening programs often, (10-50%) [7], patients needs a
breast biopsy to verify the findings on the mammogram. The general number of
undetected breast tumors is estimated to be between 5% to 15% [5, 6]. One major
reason of the this high rate is the difficulty to image breasts with highly content of
fibrous and glandular tissues, radiographically dense breasts [7]. In this case a very
low contrast is achieved between the malign breast tissue and the fibroglandular
tissues using X-ray mammography [6, 8], and alternative imaging techniques must
be used [7].
Beside of those detection limitations, mammography uses ionizing X-rays and
needs in some cases a painful breast compression. The radiation is kept on low
levels in today’s mammography equipments, but there is still a small risk that
the exposure of ionizing rays producing breast cancer. Women passing an X-ray
mammography screening during 10 years has an estimated rate of mortality of eight
out of 100,000 women [9]. However, this is still a quite high number compared to
the total risk of mortality due to breast tumor.
Complementary non-ionizing imaging methods exists today, the most important
ones are Ultrasound imaging and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) with contrast
enhancement. However, no one of those techniques are suitable for large scale
screening programs. They have taken an important role in the later diagnostics
to verify the malignity of the breast tissue and in situations of dense breasts [7].
Other imaging techniques has a very small role in breast tumor detection today.
At the moment the highest breast tumor detection rates are reported in the
high developed areas around the world, where the screening programmes has been
established [2]. However, in many areas in lower developed countries, in e.g. Africa,
reporting similar rates of mortality from breast tumor while the detection is fairly
low compared to high developed contrives. Therefore, a cheap and high specificity
and sensitivity solution must be found to solve the global mortality from breast
tumors.
From this discussion its clear that there is a high need of complementary and/
or alternatively imaging modalities in order to decrease the the global mortality
related to breast tumors. Microwave imaging may be one of the needed imaging
modalities in the future, at least for two reasons. First, high dielectric contrast is
observed between malignant breast tumor tissues and fibrous and glandular breast
tissues in the microwave spectrum, microwave imaging has a strong potential to
detecting tumors [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Second, after major research efforts of
1.1. SCOPE OF THIS WORK 3
different groups microwave imaging is generally an efficient imaging modality for

non-invasively visualizing complex dielectric properties[17, 19, 20, 21]. Those rea-
sons settle a very interesting knowledge platform to establish new imaging modali-
ties using microwaves applied toward breast tumor detection. A microwave imaging
system will probably be a very inexpensive solution compared to MRI and X-ray
Computed Tomography (CT) enabling a wide usability.
1.1 Scope of this work

The work included in this Licentiate thesis was initiated during the establishment
of the microwave imaging research at the Department of Computer Science and
Electronics at Mälardalen University. The work can be divided into two parts.
One initiative part, where a feasibility study covering the responses obtained by a
tumor inside a breast phantom and the second part covering quantitative microwave
imaging in breast tumor detection, using the planar 2.45 GHz camera and the
iterative Newton-Kantorovitch algorithm.
From the initial feasibility study the responses due to the tumor presence
are observed in amplitude and phase responses without imaging algorithms in-
cluded. Also, the usability of a commercial Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD)
electromagnetic-wave simulator (QW3D) in the development stage of an imaging
setup was investigated. Trough contact with Prof. Jean Charles Bolomey collabo-
rated studies was investigated. At first an investigation about microwave imaging
algorithms has been experienced, in this context a review of the existing imaging
systems and algorithms is contributed. As an result of the review the planar 2.45
GHz camera seems to be an interesting and quick choice for quantitative imaging
studies in breast tumor detection. The usage of an extended version of the Newton-
Kantorovich code, developed by Joachimowicz et. al., the later part of this thesis
has been carried out to obtain quantitative image reconstruction of inhomogeneous
objects using the planar microwave camera with focus on the breast tumor detec-
tion application. This was done in a collaboration between Mälardalen University
and Supélec.
1.2 Publications Included in the Thesis

Paper A - T. Gunnarsson, Microwave Imaging of Biological Tissues: the current
status of the research area,” Technical report, Mälardalen University, Department
of Computer Science and Electronics, Dec. 2006
Paper B - D. Åberg, T. Gunnarsson, P. Norin, “Steps to Microwave Probing

of Complex Dielectric Bodies,” IEEE 48th International Midwest Symposium on
Circuits and Systems (MWSCAS), Cincinnati, OHIO, USA, Aug. 2005.
Paper C - T. Gunnarsson, N. Joachimowicz, A. Diet, C. Conessa, D. Åberg

and J. Ch. Bolomey, “Quantitative Imaging Using a 2.45 GHz Planar Camera,
” Accepted for proceeding, 5th World Congress on Industrial Process Tomography,
Bergen, Norway, 3rd-6th Sep. 2007.
1.3 Other Related Work

Paper D - P. Norin, T. Gunnarsson, D. Åberg, P. O. Risman, “MICROWAVE
PROBING OF COMPLEX DIELECTRIC BODIES,” 13th Nordic Baltic Confer-
ence Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics, pp. 203–204, 13th–17th June,
2005.
Paper E - T. Gunnarsson, N. Joachimowicz, A. Joisel, J. Ch. Bolomey, “Com-

parison Between a 2.45 GHz Planar and Circular Scanners for Biomedical Appli-
cations,” Extended abstract accepted for proceeding, International Conference on
Electromagnetic Near-Field Characterization and Imaging (ICONIC), St. Louis,
Missouri, USA, 27th–29th June, 2007.
1.4 Summary of Appended Papers

Paper A - This review report covers the current research in the field of microwave
imaging of biological tissues, both the complete experimental imaging systems and
the algorithm development are covered. The purpose of this study is to investigate
the usability of the planar 2.45 GHz camera and the Newton-Kantorovich algo-
rithm, developed at Département de Recherches en Électromagnétisme (DRE) at
Supélec, for quantitative imaging for breast tumor detection.
Paper B - This paper presents a feasibility study in breast tumor detection using
microwaves. Using a water-filled metallic container with three attached waveguide
antennas, 90◦ in between them, the response from a 10 mm diameter tumor inside
a breast phantom is measured and investigated using a network analyzer. The
measured results are also compared with simulated result generated by a FDTD
wave simulation tool, QW3D. The result is comparable after some calibration and
the conclusion is that the FDTD simulator is a very useful tool to investigate the
imaging setup in the development phase. Also, the tumor was detectable from the
11 dynamic responses of the measured signals, but an imaging algorithm must be
applied to get the information about position and size information and a quantita-
tive imaging algorithm must be used to verify the properties of the tumor.
Paper C - In this paper a simulation comparison between three different mi-

crowave imaging setups for breast tumor detection is presented. The ability to per-
form quantitative images using an open configuration based Newton-Kantorovich
1.5. AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION IN THE INCLUDED PUBLICATIONS 5
algorithm is verified. The same algorithm is used with different input parameters
describing the configuration of the different setups. In the comparison different
signal to noise ratios (SNR) are considered, by applying a Gaussian noise distribu-
tion, to analyze the stability of the algorithm for the different setups in a realistic
situation. The setups used are one planar setup and two circular setups corre-
sponding to exisitng experimental setups [10, 39, 63]. This paper also includes the
experimental result performed with the planar 2.45 GHz camera at Département
de Recherches en Électromagnétisme (DRE) at Supélec. The goal is to perform
quantitative images for breast tumor detection using experimental data. This is
the first attempt to perform quantitative images of inhomogeneous objects with
the planar camera. This paper includes a discussion about the difficulties to obtain
high precision calibration for quantitative results.
1.5 Author’s Contribution in the Included Publi-

cations
Paper A - The only author of the state of the art review report.
Paper B: A major part of the simulation study concerning the dynamical response
due to the tumor presence. Some parts of the measurements and the calibration
between measurements and simulations. Also, some parts of the manuscript writing
and performed the presentation on the conference.
Paper C - A major part of the general idea in the paper and the first author
of the manuscript. Extending the existing Newton-Kantorovich algorithm to a the
general open setup configuration version and performed the simulations. Part of
the experimental work with calibration using reference objects.
1.6 Thesis Organization

The organization of this thesis is as follows. A brief introduction to microwave imag-
ing is presented In Chapter 2. From the general idea to a review of other groups
contributions, until recent. Both complete imaging systems and algorithms is cov-
ered with focus on the breast tumor detection application, based on paper A. Also,
the dielectric properties of the human body will be briefly reviewed. In Chapter 3
the imaging algorithm used herein is described, based on the Newton-Kantorovitch
code developed by Joachimowicz et. al. The method will briefly described together
with the extension to support an open configuration solution, used in paper C.
Chapter 4 covering the feasibility study of breast tumor detection in paper B,
with aim on the responses due to a tumor presence inside a breast a discussion
about what parameters effecting the response levels and the delectability without
an imaging algorithm included. In Chapter 5 the planar 2.45 GHz microwave cam-
era is used for quantitative imaging of inhomogeneous objects concerning the breast
tumor detection application. The tomographic ability of the geometry is verified
in a simulation comparison with two other circular setups, presented in paper C.
Also, the calibration used for quantitative image reconstruction is described therein.
The conclusion and the expected future work is presented in Chapter 6. Finally,
the appended papers are collected in the last part of this thesis.
Chapter 2
Introduction
This section will introduce the reader to the concept of microwave imaging in bi-
ological applications by an overview, based on paper A, of historical and recent
work done by other groups in this field. An extra attention is given to the field of
breast tumor detection. Microwave imaging, as X-ray tomography, obtaining im-
ages of a biological object’s material properties by measuring the object’s influence
on an applied wave, depicted in Figure 2.1. The major difference is that by using
Figure 2.1: General formulation of the scattering properties in microwave imaging.
X-rays the tissue density is imaged, while the contrast in dielectric properties is im-
aged in the microwave case. A microwave is heavily influenced by diffractions, while
X-rays follows a linear path ray-propagation assumption through the tissues. Thus,
the computations needs higher computational power due to the more sophisticated
propagation models.
7
8 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 A Brief Overview

The opening of microwave imaging in biomedical applications were performed by
Larsen and Jacobi et.al. in the late 70s, developing a water-immersed antenna for
biomedical applications [22]. This was the first time someone was able to penetrate
an biological object with microwaves, (due to the wave impedance matching be-
tween the water and the human body), to create images of the internal structures.
Images was obtained of the internal structure of a Canine kidney from the trans-
mission coefficients between two rotated antennas [23]. From those results a major
interest have been focused on microwave imaging in biomedical applications [24],
the initial focus was on remote measurements of internal temperature. The dielec-
tric properties of biological tissues are highly temperature dependent, which makes
microwave imaging a promising method to control the effect during microwave hy-
perthermia treatment [25, 26, 27, 28]. Semenov et. al. has been focusing on is
finding heart disease like ischemia and infarction [29, 30]. The most recent appli-
cation is breast tumor detection using microwave imaging, the initial and major
contribution has been done by Meaney et. al. [10, 17, 18, 31]. Recently many other
groups are working in this application area [11, 12, 13, 15, 32, 33].
The two major approaches of microwave imaging today are tomographic meth-
ods where cross-sectional slices of the dielectric properties is generated and radar
approaches where strong scatterers is found inside an object using radar techniques.
The radar approach is not issued in this thesis, but a recent review of the technique
is published by Hagness et. al. [34]. The tomographic methods are based on the in-
verse scattering problem and will be divided into two different groups in this thesis.
First, the diffraction tomography, a linear approach, which uses Born or Rytov ap-
proximations. This method is a very computation efficient method obtaining quasi
real-time imaging [27, 35, 36, 37]. In situations of small objects with a low contrast
with respect to the background medium this is a very efficient method. In a situa-
tion of larger objects with large contrast to the background medium this method is
not useful [38]. This is the case in the most situations of biomedical applications,
where an non-linear method is needed. However, still the diffraction tomography
formalization may be used in spectral domain to obtain real-time images of the
equivalent currents inside the object [39].
The second group, a non-linear deterministic approach was first introduced by
Joachimowicz et. al. and Chew et. al. in the beginning of the 90s [19, 40].
Also, Caorsi et. al. made early contributions in this domain [41]. The method
is based on iterative optimization of an object function using a Newton based or
Conjugate Gradient based scheme. Non-linear inverse problem in microwave imag-
ing has interested many groups [12, 13, 33, 42, 43, 44, 45, 71]. The algorithm
highly computational heavy, therefore mainly two-dimensional (2D) imaging has
been used, however, some efforts have been initiated in the three-dimensional (3D)
case [19, 46, 47, 48, 49]. Another computation saving approximation used is the
infinity approximation of the coupling medium, which means that the interaction
2.1. A BRIEF OVERVIEW 9
between the antennas, surrounding covering and the object are ignored. This ap-
proximation is very useful as long the background medium is lossy, like water. How-
ever the antenna interaction has been implemented in some cases [50, 51, 52, 53].
Recently alternative optimizing schemes have been reported, the Multiplicative
Regularization Contrast Source inversion by Abubakar et. al. [49, 54, 55], global
optimization methods using neural networks, genetic algorithms and nondestructive
evaluation by Caorsi et. al. [56, 57, 58, 59]. These methods avoid local minima,
however at the cost of a slower convergence and higher computation load. Until now
single frequency solutions are most widely used, but different groups are working
on multi-frequency solutions [12, 33, 60]. It is known that the low frequencies lower
the effect of phase non-linearities and stabilize the algorithm, while the higher
frequencies increase the resolution, and the idea is that a combination will improve
the reconstruction. However, the frequency dependence of biological tissues is a
difficulty in this approach and probably many future research efforts could focus in
this area.
Many experimental setups have been developed since the beginning of the 80s.
One of the first and still running, the planar 2.45 GHz microwave camera devel-
oped by Bolomey et. al. [25, 35] This camera using a quasi-plane wave as incident
field and measure the field on a vertical plane of 1024 sensors behind the object.
This system makes real-time acquisition using the Modulated Scattering Technique
(MST) [39, 61]. Franchois et. al. was able to create quantitative images of homoge-
nous objects with this equipment in the 90s [62]. The next break though was the
64 antenna circular 2.33 GHz camera developed by Jofre et. al. in the beginning
of the 90s [27, 63]. Using this system a 2D cross-section of a human arm was re-
constructed [20], and the circular experimental geometry was proven to be a better
choice for 2D imaging [27, 64]. Since then other groups have followed this trend
[12, 28, 29, 65, 66]. The first wide-band system was developed by Meaney et. al. in
the middle of the 90s, a circular monopole antenna system with a frequency range
between 0.3-1.2 GHz [65].
More recently Persson et. al. has developed a similar system utilizing a fre-
quency band between 2 − 7 GHz [12], for data acquisition used in a time-domain
multi-frequency imaging algorithm. Semenov et. al. has developed experimental
setups able to perform fully 3D acquisition [67, 68, 69, 70], probably the major
future efforts will be focused in this domain, while slicing a strongly 3D dependent
object using 2D models gives many artifacts [29, 71]. The planar 2.45 GHz camera
developed by Bolomey et. al. is able to measure the vertical-polarized field at
1024 points on a vertical plane behind the object, in real-time [39]. Therefore, this
camera is highly interesting as an efficient acquisition tool measuring 3D data for
a quasi-3D algorithm [47] or fully 3D using an updated version of the camera, able
to measure the two-component vectorial field. Note, the Newton-Kantorovich algo-
rithm generalized to the 3D, developed by Joachimowicz et. al., may be potential
starting point for 3D quantitative imaging [19, 72].
In a Mälardalen University and Supélec cooperation a solid experimental plat-
form for 3D analysis of inhomogeneous objects may be developed based on extended

versions of the Newton-Kantorovich algorithm and the planar camera. Franchois et.
al. has shown promising results for quantitative imaging of 2D homogenous objects
using the planar camera [62]. The next step is to perform quantitative inhomoge-
neous 2D objects before starting a quasi-3D imaging. Another big advantage with
the planar camera is the already implemented real-time algorithm in spectral do-
main, this algorithm reconstructing the equivalent currents in vertical planes using
the filtered-backpropagation process. Using this algorithm field behaviors inside
the object may be observed in real-time.
2.1.1 Breast Tumor Detection Using Microwave Imaging

Today, a major focus is applied on the breast tumor detection application using
microwave imaging. The major reason for this is the potentially high dielectric
contrast between cancerous tissues and normal breast tissues [11, 12, 75]. A major
contribution comes from the two groups Meaney et. al. and Hagness et. al.,
reviewed in [14, 16]. They are using two different approaches Meaney et. al. using a
Hybrid Element (HE) method in a non-linear inverse scattering formulation [42, 43],
while Hagness et. al. using a radar approach [11, 34].
The first imaging system to perform quantitative images of breast phantoms
[17, 44] was developed by Meany et. al. [10]. Even real breasts were imaged using
a clinical prototype developed in the 2000s [10]. Hagness et. al. has verified their
radar approach in an experimental setup using a ultra-wideband antenna [11, 73],
with impressive results. However, in a realistic situation it will be very hard to
diagnostic a tumor while the method just obtains qualitative images. The solution
may be to use statistical methods to verify the result [74]. Otherwise, a quantitative
method must be used, like Meaney et. al. Note, the difference between a qualitative
and a quantitative image is that the quantitative image gives information directly
correlated to the dielectric properties.
More recently, other groups has joined this field [12, 13, 32, 33] etc. Miyakawa
et. al. has investigated the usability if their developed linear chirp pulse microwave
computed tomography algorithm (CP-MCT), [76, 77, 78], to the breast tumor de-
tection application [32]. Fhager et. al. developing a time-domain nonlinear inverse
scattering algorithm for multi-frequency focused on imaging systems for breast tu-
mor detection [12, 12]. Also, a linear chirp pulse algorithm has been implemented
by this group [12, 79].
2.2 Dielectric Properties of Human Tissues

In this section the dielectric properties of human tissues will be introduced, which
must be known to understand the properties of quantitative microwave imaging.
This section gives a brief description of the definition and the widely used models
2.2. DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF HUMAN TISSUES 11
for the dispersion, (frequency dependance), of the tissues. At last typical numbers
of the dielectric properties will be given, together with tissues concerning the breast
tumor detection application.
In quantitative microwave imaging the dielectric properties is reconstructed re-
garding the differences in the complex permittivity, while non-metallic materials
are considered in biomedical applications, defined by Equation (2.1).
∗ = 0 − j00 , (2.1)
where 0 is the relative permittivity describing the polarization effects of charged

particles in the tissue and 00 describing the out-of-phase losses due to the dis-
placement currents generated by the applied electromagnetic field. Considering the
biological tissues as dielectrics the losses often are described by the conduction σ,
which is approximated to the displacement current effect only, as Equation (2.1),
[80].
σ = 2πf 0 00 , (2.2)
where the permittivity of free space is defined 0 = 36π 1
10−9 and f is the frequency.
The electrical properties of the human body has interested researchers since the
beginning of the 20s century, where Schwan et. al. dominated the field of physical
interaction between electromagnetic field and dielectric properties of tissues. Foster
and Schwan published a critical review concerning the physical mechanisms behind
biological tissues dispersion in dielectric properties [80]. The dielectric properties is
highly dispersive due to the cellular and molecular relaxation, generated by different
parts of the tissues at different frequencies. In the microwave region the dominant
relaxation is the dipolar relaxation of free water molecules. Therefore, the dielectric
properties of the tissues in microwave region are highly correlated to the water
content.
More recently, Gabriel et. al. made a major review of measured dielectric
properties together with own measurements on healthy human tissues, with the
final goal of physical modeling of human tissues for frequencies between 10 Hz–
100 GHz [81, 82, 83]. The basic and well known model is the Debye expression in
Equation (2.3), [83].
s − ∞
∗ (f ) = ∞ + , (2.3)
1 + j2πf τ
where ∞ is the permittivity at frequencies 2πf τ 1, s the permittivity at 2πf τ
1 and τ is the time constant of the relaxation mechanism in the tissue. To
enable a more wide-band model of the properties the time constant can be divided
in several regions to match different type of relaxation as
s − 2 2 − ∞
∗ (f ) = ∞ + + [84]. (2.4)
1 + j2πf τ1 1 + j2πf τ2
Note, the permittivity properties ∞ and s must also be divided in the same regions
by adding intermediate values. However, due to the complexity of the structure
and composition of biological tissues Gabriel et. al. used an extended Cole–Cole
expression, defined in Equation (2.5), [83].
X ∆n σi
∗ (f ) = ∞ + 1−α
+ , (2.5)
n
1 + (j2πf τn ) n j2πf 0
where σi is the static ionic conductivity by a constant field influencing very low
frequencies. Equation (2.5) was successfully used in a wide frequency band between
10 Hz–100 GHz by individually choosing the parameters for different tissues [83].
The result for different human tissues at 2.5 GHz are presented in Table 2.1.
Tissue 0 σ(S/m)
Blood 56 - 60 2.5
Bone 12 0.4
Brain (Grey matter) 45 2
Fat (Not infiltrated) 4-5 0.07 - 0.1
Heart 55 2.3
Kidney (Cortex) 55 2.5
Liver 42 1.8
Lung (Inflated) 20 0.7 - 0.8
Muscle 50 - 55 1.8 - 2.2
Skin (Dry) 38 1.5
Skin (Wet) 43 1.8
Spleen 52 2.2
Tendon 42 1.8
Table 2.1: Approximate properties of human tissues determined by Equation (2.5)

for frequency of 2.5 GHz, verified with measurements [81, 82, 83].
Also, the female breast tissues have been studied, with focus on the breast
tumor detection. Ex vivo measurement of fresh human malignant and normal
breast tissues has been performed by several groups. Chaudhary et. al. between
3 MHz–3 GHz [85], Surowiec et. al. between 20 kHz–100 MHz [86], Campbell
et. al. at 3.2 GHz [87] and Joines et. al. between 50 MHz–900 MHz [88]. The
conclusion from those measurements is a significant contrast between malignant
tissues and normal breast tissues, approximately 4:1 in permittivity and between
4–8:1 in conductivity along the frequency band of microwaves. The measured values
differs significantly between different patients due to both measurement difficulties
and the rate of fibroglandular tissues, as shown in Table 2.2. Moreover, this contrast
seems to be slightly overestimated while the dielectric properties of the tissues are
changed when they are removed, due to changes in blood flow, water content and the
metabolism is interrupted [80]. During in vivo measurements this contrast seems to
be closer to 2:1 in permittivity and 3:1 in conductivity, according to tomographic
2.2. DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF HUMAN TISSUES 13
Tissue 0 σ(S/m)
Normal Tissue 10 - 25 0.35 - 1.05
Fat 4 - 4.5 0.11 - 0.14
Tumor (Malignant) 45 - 60 3.0 - 4.0
Tumor (Benign) 10 - 50 1.0 - 4.0
Table 2.2: Measured dielectric properties of ex vivo female breast (2 – 3.2 GHz),
[85, 87].
breast images using a clinical prototype, by Meaney et. al. [10]. From those
results 0 =30–36 and σ=0.6–0.7 S/m seems to be a more appropriate estimation
of normal female breast tissues at 900 MHz. Recently, Hagness et. al. issuing the
need of extended measurements of the dielectric properties of female breasts and
collaborative efforts initiated between the University of WisconsinMadison and the
University of Calgary to obtain measured data of female breast tissues. However,
they proposing an expected dielectric contrast between 2–5:1 between malignant
and normal breast tissues.
Chapter 3
Image Reconstruction
Algorithm
As presented in paper A, there are in general two different approaches to create

an image with microwaves, by using radar techniques or using a tomographic for-
mulation. In this thesis the tomographic methods is used, for information about
the radar approach the reader may look into the work done by Hagness et. al.
[11, 15, 73]. The tomographic method is divided in two different groups in this
chapter, diffraction tomography and non-linear inverse scattering.
The diffraction tomography was the first attempt to create quantitative images
using microwaves [27, 35, 36, 37]. The method tries to reconstruct the equiva-
lent currents inside the object, which generating the received scattered field. The
equivalent currents are dependent by both the field inside the object and the com-
plex permittivity of the object. In the reconstruction process both those terms
are unknown, while measuring only the scattered field outside the object. By ap-
proximating the field inside the object to the incident field without concerning the
influence of the object, (the influence of the object is much lower compared to the
incident field), the complex permittivity can be found. This approximation is called
the Born approximation [38] and may easily be implemented for quasi real-time ap-
plications. However, when the object are larger or have a high contrast the Born
approximation is not valid and only a qualitative result is obtained [27, 38].
To obtain quantitative images of larger high contrast objects a non-linear inverse
scattering method has to be used. In this case the total field inside the object is
considered, with the object’s interaction included.This is a non-linear phenomenon
solved by iteratively solving a linear direct problem. Different approaches have been
used but most of them are based around a non-linear least square optimization.
The inverse scattering code developed by Joachimowicz et. al. in the beginning
of the 90s was used as a startup point in this Licentiate thesis. This code based on
15
16 CHAPTER 3. IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION ALGORITHM
Newton-Kantorovich process gives a 2D single frequency solution [19, 20]. (This is

very similar to the Levenberg-Marquardt method more common in the literature
[62, 64]). The formulation may be divided in three parts, the physical description,
the numerical direct problem and the iterative non-linear optimization.
3.1 Physical Description

Maxwell’s equations are the fundamental basis physically describing any electro-
magnetic (EM) wave propagation problem [89, 90], thus the starting point for the
inverse scattering formulation. The Maxwell’s equations describe the field proper-
ties along all three dimension axes, which results in a calculation heavy vectorial
problem. By knowing the scenario several simplification may be done to the final
wave equation, describing the propagation, e.g. considering vertical polarization
and non-magnetic material.
3.1.1 Wave Equation

A common wave equation is the scalar Helmholtz’s equation describing the time-
harmonic electric field in a situation, where the incidence field is a vertically polar-
ized and the object properties is homogenous along the vertical z-axis. The problem
is then transformed into a 2D problem, defined by Equation (3.1), [40, 41, 43].
(∇2 + k 2 (r))e(r) = 0, (3.1)
where k is the wavenumber of the electromagnetic (EM) wave containing the di-
electric properties of the medium of propagation. The e(r)-term is the total electric
field, i.e. including interactions of an object.
3.2 Direct Problem

Solving the direct problem gives the computed field at the receiving points, which
is the result of the interaction between a known object and incident field from
the transmitting point. Figure 3.1 shows the geometry for a 2D case, where the
transmitter can be modeled by an incident plane wave or a source of cylindrical
waves with vertical polarized E-field along the z-axis. The object has an estimated
complex permittivity ∗ and the receiving points may be arranged along a line
behind or along a circle around the object.
Several different methods can be used to implement the wave equation into the
direct problem. From the review in paper A, often used methods are the integral
formulation using Method of Moments (MoM) [19, 40, 41, 62, 64, 91], Finite Element
Method (FEM) in hybrid with the Boundary Element (BE) formulation [10, 42, 43]
or in some cases Finite Difference Method (FDM) [33, 47].
3.2. DIRECT PROBLEM 17
Figure 3.1: Two-dimensional TM-model in the forward problem, (a) planar setup,
(b) circular setup.
The formulation used in this thesis is based on the integral formulation of the
scalar Helmholtz’s equation using MoM. The total field ev (r) in Equation (3.1) is
assumed to be the sum of the incident field eiv (without an object) and the scattered
field esv (caused by the object), according to Equation (3.2).
ev (r) = eiv (r) + esv (r), (3.2)
where the notation v indexing the view in a multi-view process by rotating the
receivers. The incident field eiv is assumed as the homogeneous solution of the
Helmholtz’s equation without object and the scattered field is the solution of the
inhomogeneous Helmholtz’s equation defined in Equation (3.3). In this case the
object is described as a number of small source points generating the scattered field
defined by the Dirac delta function in the right side of Equation (3.3).
(∇2 + k1 )G(r, r0 ) = −δ(r − r0 ), [38]. (3.3)
Note, that the index r represent the observation points, (the receiving antennas),
while r0 represents the source point inside the object region. The term G(r, r0 ) repre-
(1)
sent the two-dimensional Green’s function, defined as G(r, r0 ) = −j/H0 (k1 |r −r0 |)
with the the zero order Hankel function of the first kind. The k1 -term is the
wavenumber of the background medium. The Dirac delta function can be defined
as the equivalent currents Jv inside the object generated by the contrast of the
complex permittivity C(r0 ) between the object and the total field ev (r0 ) inside the
object region as defined in Equation (3.4).
Jv = C(r0 )ev (r0 ), [41]. (3.4)

Where,
C(r0 ) = kobj
2
(r0 ) − k12 , (3.5)
and
2
kobj (r0 ) = ω 2 µ0 ∗ (r0 ) (3.6)
k12 = ω 2 µ0 ∗1 (3.7)
Note, the difference of the two wavenumbers is the complex permittivity ∗ of
the object and the surrounding medium [36]. By inserting Equation (3.4) into (3.3)
gives the solution of the scattered field esv (r) in form of a convolution in the integral
formulation as Equation (3.8).
ZZ
esv (r) = G(r, r0 )C(r0 )ev (r0 )dr0 (3.8)
S
By inserting Equation (3.8) in (3.2) gives the following linear system for the total
field ZZ
i
ev (r) = ev (r) − G(r, r0 )C(r0 )ev (r0 )dr0 (3.9)
S
The integral formulation ,in (3.8), is transformed into a discrete version using MoM
[19, 40, 41, 64, 89], Equation (3.10).
N
X
esv (rm ) = G(rm , rj )C(rj )ev (rj ), m = 1, 2, · · ·, M, (3.10)
j=1
where m is the index of the observation point around the object, depicted in Figure
3.1, and j is the index of the source point in square cells of the object. The v-term
indicates the projection of the transmitting antenna [19]. Before calculating the
scattered field the total field inside the N cells of the object must be calculated by
solving linear system
N
X
eiv (rn ) = [δnj − G(rn , rj )C(rj )]ev (rj ). n = 1, 2, · · ·, N, (3.11)
j=1
where n is the index of the observation point inside the object and j is the index
of the source point inside the object. From Equation (3.11) the object’s influence
of the field inside itself is included. These two equations may be written in matrix
form as equation (3.12) and (3.13).
[Evs ] = [KR,O ][C][Ev ], (3.12)
[Evi ] = [I − KO,O C][Ev ], (3.13)

where [Evs ] is a vector with length M while [Ev ] and [Evi ] are vectors with length N .
The [D] matrix is an N x N diagonal matrix containing the permittivity contrast
3.3. NON-LINEAR INVERSE PROBLEM 19
of the N cells. The [KR,O ] and [KO,O ] matrix contains the Green’s operator and
have the sizes of M x N and N x N respectively.
Including a multi-view process with receiver rotation the matrix formulation got
increasing sizes of the matrixes in Equation (3.12) and (3.13) obtaining Equation
(3.12) and (3.13).
[E] = [I − KO,O C]−1 [E i ] (3.14)
[E s ] = [KR,O ][C][E], (3.15)
i
where [E] is the total field and [E ] is the incidence field inside the object region,
[E s ] is the scattered field at the receiving points. The [E] and [E i ] vectors have
the size T N , where T is the number of transmitters and N is the number of cells
in the object region. the scattered field [E s ] is vector of size T M , where M is the
number of measurement points. This will be further discussed in Section 3.4.
3.3 Non-Linear Inverse Problem

The inverse problem is formalized by finding the unknown contrast distribution of
the object from the measured scattered field at the receivers, for a known incident
field. The non-linear inverse scattering problem may be solved by an iterative opti-
mization process, where the difference between the measured field and the computed
field from the direct problem is minimized. When the error is sufficient small the
reconstructed image of the object is the complex permittivity map used in the direct
problem, depicted in Figure 3.2. This optimization process may be arranged in a
Least Square formulation called Newton-Kantorovich [19] or Levenberg-Marquardt
[64].
3.3.1 Newton-Kantorovich
In Figure 3.2 the iterative flow-chart of Newton-Kantorovich is depicted. The algo-
rithm is using the direct problem described in Section 3.2 to compute the scattered
field in each iteration. The error between computed scattered field and the mea-
surements are then optimized to find the global minima. Two other major steps in
this scheme is to find the Jacobian matrix J , (the derivate-matrix of the computed
scattered field with respect to the complex contrast in the object), and update the
contrast distribution to avoid local minima. This process continues until the con-
vergence criteria on the relative mean square error of the scattered field, described
more deeply in the following.
Newton-Kantorovich is a Newton based Least Square method developed in the
70s applied to electromagnetic inverse problems in the 80s [92]. By starting from
s
a defined residual as the difference between the calculated scattered field, ER (C),
s
and the measured scattered field, Emeas , as Equation 3.16.
s s
Edif f = ER (C) − Emeas (3.16)
Figure 3.2: Flow-chart of the Newton-Kantorovich algorithm.
The optimization will then be performed on the square norm F (C)

s s
F (C) = ||ER (C) − Emeas ||2 = min, (3.17)
where the C-term is the permittivity distribution matrix used in the direct problem,
as depicted in Figure 3.2. The goal is then to find the global minimum of this
function. Using the Newton method, both the gradient and the Hessian matrix of
the function needs to be defined [93]. The gradient be calculated as Equation (3.18)
and the Hessian matrix as Equation (3.19).
∇C F (C) = J ∗ (C)Edif f (C) (3.18)

R
X
HF (C) = J ∗ (C)J(C) + i
Edif i
f (C)HEdif f (C), (3.19)
i=1
where J(C) is the Jacobian (derivate matrix) of the residual Edif f (C) with respect
to the contrast C and R is the number of observation points. Note. the ∗ asterisk
denotes the conjugate transpose. The estimation of the step ∆C in the optimization
done using the following linear system
HF (C)∆C = ∇C F (C). (3.20)
The Hessian matrix defined in Equation (3.19) is usually hard to compute in prac-
tical problems. Therefore, equation (3.20) is often simplified by using a Gauss-
Newton method as
J ∗ (C)J(C)∆C = J ∗ (C)Edif f (C). (3.21)
This solution is very limited while it has no control to find the global minimum,
(of (3.17)), while the implementation does not support regularization to avoid local
minima. Therefore the Newton-Kantorovich or Levenberg-Marquardt method [18,
3.3. NON-LINEAR INVERSE PROBLEM 21
64, 19] is used. In this technique the left side of Equation (3.21) is extended with
a regularization-term, µ, as in Equation (3.22).
J ∗ (C)J(C) + µI ∆C = J ∗ (C)Edif f (C),

(3.22)
The regularization-term is used to improve the convergence of an ill-possed problem.

This term is selected to lower the condition number of the J ∗ (C)J(C) matrix, which
stabilizes the convergence to avoid local minima. This term is updated in each
iteration using a priori information. E. g. a large regularization term is needed
when the convergence is far from the expected solution and a small regularization
term is needed when the error is small and the convergence is close to the global
minima. This will also have an affect in the final reconstructed image. A strong
regularization will filter out and suppress solutions with high spatial variations
in the complex contrast. However, too strong regularization limiting the ability
to reconstruct sharp gradients of a small high-contrast inhomogeneity inside the
object. Therefore, the regularization of the optimization is a major issue during
the non-linear inverse scattering in microwave imaging, to find a physically realistic
complex contrast distribution of the object. Moreover, how to choose a proper
regularization term is described in [19, 64]. Another, very important factor is the
initial guess. Choosing a proper starting point for the convergence has a major
influence on the ability to find the global minimum, or a physically correct image
[20].
Note, the right part of Equation (3.22) is the derivation of the residual with
respect to the contrast C, while the measured scattered field are independent of
the contrast the computation of the contrast step may be implemented as
−1 ∗ s
∆C = J ∗ J + µI J ER , (3.23)
s
where ER is the calculated scattered field in the direct problem, as depicted in
Figure 3.2. The computation of the Jacobian matrix, which is a derivate matrix
s
containing the scattered field’s ER dependence of the contrast C inside the object
is a central part of the optimization process. This is done by compute Equation
(3.24) from the direct problem, the details in how to compute the Jacobian matrix
may be found in [19, 64].
J = KR,O [I − CKO,O ]−1 E, (3.24)
where E is the total field inside the object region. With the known Jacobian matrix
the contrast step ∆C is computed from Equation (3.23) and the new contrast is
computed in each iteration as
Cn+1 = Cn + ∆C, (3.25)
where n is the iteration number. Those steps are repeated according to Figure 3.2
as long as the convergence criteria on the RMS error, defined in Equation (3.26),
of the scattered field not is reached.

v
u PM
u |E s (i) − Emeas
s (i))|2
errs = t i=1PMR , (3.26)
s 2
i=1 |Emeas (i))|
3.4 Open Configuration Newton-Kantorovich Al-

gorithm
In this thesis the code developed by Joachimowicz et. al. is extended into a open
configuration solution used in paper C, where the algorithm is configured through
different input files according to Figure 3.3. The receiver configuration file introduce
the positions in space of the receivers and how many receivers is used in each
view, also how many receiver rotations is used. The transmitter configuration
file describes the transmitter positions. The geometry file specifying the object
region, the number of cells, size and the complex permittivity of the background
medium. In the initial permittivity file the initial guess of the objects complex
permittivity C0 is specified. The last input file is the measured scattered field,
containing the expected scattered field for the optimization process. Finally, the
reconstructed image Cn is stored in the reconstructed permittivity file. In detail
Figure 3.3: The in- and output interface of the open configuration Newton-
Kantorovich algorithm.
this open configuration modification concerns Equation (3.15), (3.23) and (3.24),
where the size of KR,O and thus will be affected. By specify the size to ROT M xN
instead of T M xN , where ROT is the number of receiver rotations, M the number
of receivers, T the number of transmitter positions and N the number of discrete
cells inside the object region. In this step the size of the KR,O will be dynamically
changed for a situation with fixed receiving array during the multi-view process.
Moreover, with this input interface the algorithm is open for any single-frequency
setup, planar, circular or something else, as long as the scalar Helmholtz’s equation
(3.1) is a satisfying physical model.
Chapter 4
Detection of Breast Tumors
Using the iterative non-linear inverse scattering algorithms the resolution in the
reconstruction is less dependent of the wavelength compared to diffraction tomog-
raphy, much more important is the SNR and model errors [20]. (Also the general
quality of the data concerning antenna positions errors and other measurements
errors [94]). The SNR is defined by the logarithmic ratio between the square mean
value of the measured E-field and the the variance of the measured data, according
to Equation (4.1). Note, this ratio indicates the global dynamics of the measure-
ment data and does not mean that the received data containing information from
an internal inhomogeneity inside the object. I.e. the SNR level of a small response
from a inhomogeneity inside the object. Physically there is two major phenomenon
concerning the response level of the received microwave. First, if there is a high
contrast in complex permittivity between the background medium and the object
it self a major diffraction phenomenon will occur in the surface of the object. Sec-
ondly, if high losses in the object In this case it is clear that the dynamical response
from an inhomogeneity inside the object will be very low, especially in relatively
large objects.
Emean (x, y)2
SN R = 10 log( ) (4.1)
σ2
This can be described by an simplified example, where only the cross sectional
path trough the center of the object may be considered, using a plane wave with a
perpendicular incidence to the cylindrical surface of the object, according to Figure
4.1. During transmission measurements a large contrast between the object and
the external medium will obtain large reflections in both interfaces between the the
object and the external medium, causing a limited part of the wave passing through
the object. Also, in the case of a cylindrical object a major diffraction phenomenon
will occur in the first interface making the wave going around the object instead
of penetrating into it. If a an object with a lossy medium also is concerned the
response will be attenuated through the path into the object. In this case its clear
23
24 CHAPTER 4. DETECTION OF BREAST TUMORS
that a small inhomogeneity inside the object will be hard to detect. From section
2.2 we know that high losses is generally concerned in the human body, limiting
the penetration depth of microwaves. However, the fatty tissues in a human breast
have lower conductivity and increasing the penetration depth in a case of breast
tumor detection. Naturally this will improve the result in any imaging algorithm,
as long as the contrast to the background medium is kept at a reasonable level. A
study of those properties is motivated by the fact that no algorithm can reconstruct
an image with high quality from data with no information of the internal structures
of the object.
Figure 4.1: A simplified model of the dynamical response from an inhomogeneity

inside an object.
Jacobi et. al. was the first group solving this problem in the late 70s, [22].
By immerse the the biological body and the antennas into water they was able to
produce qualitative images of the internal structures of canine kidneys, [23]. Since
then some kind of water mixtures has been completely dominant as background
medium, [17, 20, 39, 66, 68]. There is several reasons why water mixtures is a good
choice. First, many organs in the human body has permittivity relatively close
to water, a reasonable wave impedance matching, (similar complex permittivity),
to the human body is obtained. Secondly, many unwanted secondary effects like
interaction between the equipment and the object. and at last the high permittivity
will shorten the wavelength improving the resolution of the reconstruction, while
the physical diffraction resolution is λ/2. However, using an iterative non-linear
inverse scattering algorithm this resolution limit can be overcome somewhat [20].
As one can see in section 2.2 the contrast is quite high between fatty breast
tissues and water, an interesting point is to see what the obtained responses levels
are in a situation of breast tumor detection using water as immersing medium.
The results form the feasibility presented paper B will be used as an example
to illustrate the responses of an inhomogeneity in form of a tumor inside a breast
4.1. EXPERIMENTAL AND SIMULATION SETUP 25
tumor. This situation is both simulated in QW3D, a 3D FDTD simulation tool

[95] and verified in experiments.
4.1 Experimental and Simulation Setup

In the feasibility study published in paper B the responses of a tumor at different
positions inside a breast phantom is studied. The setup containing a octagonal
metallic cavity with a diameter of 160 mm (between the corners), depicted in Figure
4.2. The breast phantom contains a cylinder of fat (r =9, σ=0.4 S/m) with a radius
of 50 mm and a skin layer (r =36, σ=4 S/m) of 2 mm [16]. A tumor (r =50, σ=4
S/m) modeled as a cylinder with a radius of 5 mm was moved in different positions
inside the breast phantom. The phantom is immersed in distilled water (r =78,
σ=1.4 S/m). Three waveguide antennas are used, referred as port 1, 2 and 3 in
the following. Port 1 is the transmitter and the other two measure the transmitted
field behind the object (port 2) and the diffracted field, (on the border between
transmission and reflection regions [26]), 90◦ relative to the straight traveling path
through the object (port 3), depicted in Figure 4.2. The distance between antenna
one and two is 145 mm. The same cavity is realized using a octagonal metallic cavity
Figure 4.2: The three port simulation setup with the breast phantom in the middle.
with the same dimensions as in simulations. As antennas dielectric-filled waveguide

antennas are used similar to the ones used by Semenov et. al., [29]. For the data
acquisition a Rohde & Schwarz 0.3-8 GHz ZVB8 4-port network analyzer is used,
with signal strength of 0-10 dBm, depicted in Figure 4.3. The phantom is created
using un salted butter with the perimeter is clad by a 2 mm thick skin of fresh pig
skin. As a tumor a cylinder of calf-liver with radius 5mm is used [82]. Note, while
using a cylindrical object with no variations in the vertical axis the 3D effects are
Figure 4.3: The measurement setup used in a feasibility study of breast tumor
detection.
kept at a minimum level, while studying the influences in a 2D cross sectional plane
through the phantom. However, all simulations is performed in fully 3D to keep the
accuracy at highest level between measurements and simulations. The calibration
between measurements and simulations is performed in similar fashion as Meaney
et. al., [65], according to Equation (4.2).
m c m m
log[Ecalibrated = log[Ehomogenous ] + log[Ephantom ] − log[Ehomogenous ], (4.2)
m
where Ecalibrated is the calibrated data, the index m stands for measured field and
c for calculated field. The idea is to measure on a homogenous liquid first and
compare with the computed result for the same setup, to create an calibration
vector. This vector can then be used to calibrate the measured data on the breast
phantom.
4.2 Responses due to a Tumor Presence

In this part the obtained responses of a tumor presence inside the breast phan-
tom will be discussed. The measurements scheme follow the scattering parameter
scheme, where port 1 is the transmitter and the measured responses on port 2 is
refereed as S21 and port 3 as S31 . However, from the simulations it is also possible
to overview the field disruption in the complete scenario, not only at the receiver
locations. By looking in Figure 4.4 one may see how the field propagates in quite
spherical modes from the transmitting antenna, but the propagation radius in the
4.2. RESPONSES DUE TO A TUMOR PRESENCE 27
xy-plane (left) is approximately three times larger than the propagation radius in
the yz-plane (right) [29]. The waveguide antennas are constructed for T E10 mode,
so the emitted field will mainly contain a vertical component of the electric field
, (polarized along the z-axis). It is clear how a standing wave pattern is obtained
between the metallic cavity and the object, due to the contrast between the ob-
ject and the background water. Also, a significant part of the wave tries to pass
around the object. However, the water is clearly attenuating those unwanted sec-
ondary effects. The tumor has much larger conductivity compared to the fatty
Figure 4.4: The simulated amplitude of the E-field in xy-plane (left), in yz-plane
(right).
breast tissues, the affect will be large losses through the tumor. By investigate the
dissipative power the effect of the losses can be observed. The dissipative power is
the amplitude attenuation of the pointing vector, depicted in Figure 4.5. Here, the
largest attenuation is observed in the water close to the transmitter but the small
tumor in the center is appearing clearly. Note, in Figure 4.4 also an impact due
the tumor cylinder may be observed in the center of the breast phantom.
Figure 4.5: The dissipative power of the wave in the xy-plane.
Figure 4.6 shows the simulated response received in S21 at 2.5 GHz. This is
the dynamical response with and without a tumor presence at different discrete
locations in the phantom, both amplitude variations (left) and phase variations
(right) are presented. It is clear that a detection of an inhomogeneity is possible
with a dynamic response between 2.5 dB – 5 dB close to the path trough the breast.
Also the phase gives an clear indication with a response between -31◦ –5◦ along the
similar path. Note, the expected symmetry in both amplitude and phase along the
x- and y-axis. From S21 responses only, a position indication is almost impossible
to achieve while the central parts almost gives the same responses.
Figure 4.6: Simulated received dynamical response S21 in dB at 2.5 GHz as a

function of tumor position, normalized to tumor-free phantom.
By looking at the dynamical response obtained at the diffraction mode antenna

S31 , the diffraction phenomenon around the tumor may be observed. In Figure 4.7
similar result is shown for S31 . Note the difference in the symmetry, in this case
the symmetry follows a line 45◦ between port 1 and 3. Regions with high responses
is observed in the fourth quadrant of the plane, between port 1 and 3. The largest
amplitude response is observed on the symmetry axis, -18 dB, also the largest phase
response is noticeable close to this region. It is clear that the responses received in
the area beside the objet gives much information about the inhomogeneities inside
the object. The responses in S31 are in some regions much larger compared to S21 .
However, the transmission mode antenna gives a more global response inside the
object, while S31 have unnoticeable responses in many regions. A combination of
those are probably most sufficient.
Those observation was studied in the experimental measurements as well in
paper B, by introducing the tumor into the breast phantom. The experimental
observations was quite similar, but the responses was much higher with ampli-
tude responses up to -19 dB observed in S21 . Probably reasons for this may be
water penetrated the object lowering the contrast between the phantom and the
4.2. RESPONSES DUE TO A TUMOR PRESENCE 29
Figure 4.7: Simulated received dynamical response S31 in dB at 2.5 GHz as a

function of tumor position, normalized to tumor-free phantom.
background medium, the calf-liver had rough edges (pentagon cut) compared to
simulations with a smooth circular cut may also affect. The positioning error of the
breast phantom and the tumor is of course affecting the result as well. However,
the symmetry was still quite good even if the surrounding pig skin had a joint.
To verify the discrepancies between QW3D simulations and measurements, the
response on a tumor-free phantom was observed. The data was calibrated using
Equation (4.2) and reference measurements on only water, keeping the water surface
level constant. Figure 4.8 shows the measured and simulated S31 signal of the
phantom without tumor. The simulation tool did not include a model for the
frequency dependency of the complex permittivity. To obtain good agreement
between measurements and simulations over a wide band the frequency dispersive
effect must be taken into account, at least in the immersing water. The breast
phantom assumes to have less frequency dispersion, while those tissues have lower
water content with less dipole-relaxation. The permittivity and conductivity of the
water was calculated in in frequency steps of 100 MHz using a frequency dispersive
permittivity model, discussed in Section 2.2 [84]. A wide-band simulation result
was obtained by multiple narrow-band simulations around each frequency step,
depicted as a broken line in Figure 4.8. The differences are quite large, while the
frequency of the resonance dips around 1.5 GHz differ by 125 MHz. The measured
conditions has an error of positioning of the phantom on the order of ±1.5 mm
which accounts for some of this discrepancy, also, the water penetrating into the
phantom may cause problem even in this situation together with the fact that the
estimated conductivity of the skin is too high in the simulations looking at other
references [32].
-40
S31 Measurement
S31 simulation
-50
Magnitude [dB]
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
1 1,5 2 2,5 3
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 4.8: Measured and simulated signal, S31 , using a tumor-free phantom in
water.
Even if some phantom mismatches, antenna model mismatches and complex

permittivity mismatches etc. affecting the comparison between measurement results
and simulation result, this example gives information about expected responses
during measurements of a breast phantom. This information may be useful in the
decision of background medium and geometrical aspects of the tomograph system.
If the data have very low responses from the internal object no iterative non-linear
inverse solver would find the inhomogeneity [18, 40, 20]. Moreover, a noise free
situation was assumed in the simulations, while the dynamics in the data acquisition
had a noise floor of -115 dB. Another comment worth noting is that only fatty breast
tissues was assumed in the fantom, including fibroglandular tissues the contrast
between the surrounding water and the breast tissues will be lower [10, 12].
Chapter 5
Quantitative Imaging with a

Planar Camera
The planar 2.45 GHz microwave camera, developed at Département de Recherches

en Électromagnétisme (DRE) at Supélec, France, was one of the first developed
microwave imaging system during the 80s [25, 39, 96, 61]. This system has mainly
been used to create real-time qualitative images of the equivalent currents inside
objects using a linear spectral algorithm, [25, 26, 39], but Ann Franchois made great
efforts to generate quantitative reconstruction of homogeneous objects [62]. At this
time it was noted that the planar geometry obtains limited results compared to a
cylindrical setup and the circular setup was considered as an optimal geometry for
2D quantitative imaging [63, 64].
There are several reasons why the planar setup has limited performance com-
pared to cylindrical setups. One, is that some diffraction information is lost while
measuring only behind the object, according to chapter 4. Secondly, and probably
the largest influence, is the lower SNR at the edges of the measuring line due to the
attenuation along the longer distance between the object and the receiver elements
on the edges of the measuring line. However, beside of those limitations the planar
camera offers a great package of rapid acquisition on 1024 elements on a vertical
plane behind an object. By using all those data a 2D reconstruction, where only
one line is used, may be extended to a quasi-3D reconstruction, by using all the
data of the vertical plane. Even the vectorial 3D properties may be reconstructed if
the camera is extended to measure both the vertical and horizontal polarized field.
In this configuration the planar camera will offer a efficient platform with rapid
measurements for both 2D and 3D reconstructions. This together with many other
improvements of the camera motivates a new investigation of the capabilities to
quantitatively reconstruct inhomogeneous objects such as a breast with a tumor.
31
32 CHAPTER 5. QUANTITATIVE IMAGING WITH A PLANAR CAMERA
5.1 Experimental setup

The planar microwave camera operates at a frequency of 2.45 GHz able to pro-
vide data acquisition in real-time. It consists of two large horn-antennas, one for
transmitting and one for receiving, depicted in Figure 5.1 (left). The transmitting
horn-antenna is designed to produce a vertical polarized field consistent with an
incident plane wave model, while using a centralized object. Between the two horn-
antennas a large rectangular water tank is placed immersing the object under test.
During normal operation pure water is used as immersing liquid.
The measured field is provided by a synthetic retina, which is placed in front
of the collector aperture as shown in Figure 5.1 (right). It consists of 1024 small
dipole antennas in a 32x32 array, with a step size of 7.2 mm (half the wavelength
in water) between each element. The retina is measuring at 1024 points along
the vertical yz-plane, considering the plane wave propagates along the x-axis, this
enables image reconstruction of the object’s characteristics in horizontal as well as
vertical cross sections. At first the retina may seem like a receiving part, but in
Figure 5.1: The retina (left) located in front of the receiving horn-antenna of the
camera (right).
fact this is a low frequency transmitter disturbing the plane wave transmitted by
the horn-antenna using the Modulated Scattering Technique (MST) [61, 96]. Only
one retina element is active at once modulated at 200 kHz, the scanning is done
rapidly line by line starting in the upper left corner of the retina, (looking from
the transmitter). Each dipole-antenna is fed by a switching diode. The diode will
open and close producing a short circuit and open-ending during the modulation.
Known from antenna theories this will produce an 180◦ phase-shift in the disturbed
wave. A specific antenna element is selected by choose column and line by setting
sufficient voltage levels on the Cy and Cz busses, depicted in Figure 5.2, (left).
The active dipole antenna is modulated by a square-pulsed 200 kHz generating a
received response with a frequency modulation shown in complex plane in Figure
5.2, (right). The large response is the response from the undisturbed plane wave.
When modulating one retina element the response will move and oscillate between
5.1. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 33
the two big dots in the complex plane. Note, that the low frequency results of
the both big dots are similar but 180◦ phase-shifted, according to the open-ending
and short circuit modulation of the antenna element, oriented from the plane wave
carrier response. Now, one may note that the response of one retina element is a
disturbance of the plane-wave response. This disturbance will both change phase
and amplitude level dependent of the field at retina element position. Hence, the
issue for the receiver hardware is to extract this disturbance response from the
plane-wave response. Then by scanning trough all the 1024 points in the retina the
syntectic retina function is obtained.
Figure 5.2: General function of the retina (left) the matrix element functionality,
(right) the complex response at the receiver.
The initial idea of the planar 2.45 GHz camera was to provide one-view images
in real-time of a dynamic phenomena or at least with very fast acquisition. Benefit-
ing from the spectacular rise of the microcomputer’s power and modifications of the
acquisition and control system the camera is able to perform real-time reconstruc-
tion of the equivalent currents in cross sections, by using a spectral method [39].
In this real-time mode the rate of qualitative acquisitions/reconstructions reaches
25 images/s. However, if quantitative results is wanted the Born approximation
may be used, (by approximating the internal field in the object as the same as the
incident field). This approximation fails in the reconstruction while the object is
relatively large or having a high contrast in complex permittivity [38]. Hence, the
most situations of biological applications an iterative non-linear inverse scattering
approach is needed.
To obtain acquisition for quantitative reconstruction using a nonlinear inverse
scattering algorithm, multi-view acquisition has to be applied by using a electronic
step engine as rotator on top of the system, depicted in Figure 5.3. Many im-
provements have been made on the system for the quantitative reconstruction of
inhomogeneous objects. The object is now fixed in the lower part of the water tank
for higher stability, increase the repeatability and avoid position error between the
rotation axis and the retina. A SNR of 50 dB is obtained by using averaging in the
acquisition, also, minor hardware updates have improved the system’s dynamics.
The water temperature is regulated at 37◦ C (temperature of the human body).
This induces a triple effect: 1) it reduces drastically the effects of the incident field
drifts, 2) it improves the SNR by reducing the losses in water and 3) it decreases the
model errors due to variation on the complex permittivity. At last, minor changes
of the transmitting horn-antenna has improved the homogeneity of the incidence
field. Note, that for 2D reconstruction purpose, only one line of the retina is used,
while the field is measured in 1024 points in each view a efficient 3D accusation
may be obtained.
Figure 5.3: The experimental setup for quantitative imaging using the planar cam-
era, the rotator on top and the temperature regulator (blue box) on the left.
One big advantage with the planar camera is the already implemented spectral
algorithm using filtered-backpropagation process. Using the real-time imaging the
field properties inside the experimental setup and object may be verified before
time consuming multi-view acquisition is started. While, the equivalent currents
are imaged in real-time the response due to an inhomogeneity inside the object can
easily be verified in real-time, discussed in Chapter 4. Figure 5.4 shows an example,
in the left the one view measured scattered field at the 32x32 retina is depicted in
a situation using a cylindrical Plexiglas phantom with 100 mm diameter filled with
saline water (0 = 74, 00 = 14) and a small tube, 20 mm in diameter, filled with
a saline/propandiol solution (0 = 68, 00 = 23). In this case it is impossible to
observe the effect of the inhomogeneity. By using the real-time capability and
image the differential difference of the field during rotation, the inhomogeneity’s
effect is easily determined. In Figure 5.4 (right) the differential field at the retina
is shown, in amplitude, between two views using the cylindrical phantom during
multi-view operation. Here, one easily can see that qualitative real-time imaging
is very useful to validate the experimental setup, to investigate if inhomogeneities
5.2. QUANTITATIVE IMAGES OF INHOMOGENEOUS OBJECTS 35
inside the object gives noticeable responses in the measured scattered field. If not,
the quantitative algorithm will not have sufficient information in the measured
data. Note, in Figure 5.4 it is clear that the data from the planar camera contains
Figure 5.4: Qualitative images if the field on the retina using the real-time algorithm
(left). A differential image of the field at the retina during the rotation of the object
information on the vertical plane behind the object, utilization of the complete
data of the retina is a straight forward if a quasi-3D imaging algorithm is used.
The retina offers a rapid measurement of the 3D space, with a modification of the
system obtaining measurements of both the vertical and horizontal polarized field
a fully 3D imaging system is possible.
5.2 Quantitative Images of Inhomogeneous Objects

In paper C the ability of the planar 2.45 GHz camera to produce quantitative
images for breast tumor detection is investigated. The imaging performance is
studied through simulations, verifying the tomographic ability to reconstruct the
inhomogeneity inside the breast with a high contrast between the breast tissues and
the surrounding water, using the phantom in Figure 5.5. An elliptical breast model
is considered, whose dimensions are 100 x 76 mm containing a 15 mm diameter
tumor inside, depicted in Figure 5.5. The object is discretizised with a cell size of
2λ/7 using 27 x 21 cells. The complex permittivity values used in the phantom
are given in Table 5.1. Note that they come from a good compromise between
measured values on existing phantoms materials and those found in the literature
presented in Section 2.2.
The performance of planar geometry was compared with two circular systems
[10, 63] using the open configuration Newton-Kantorovich code, presented in Section
Figure 5.5: The elliptical breast model used in simulations.
Tissue 0r 00r

Breast Tissue 35 5
Tumor 65 14
Skin 37 8
Water 77.8 8.66
Table 5.1: Complex permittivity used in the model [10, 11, 17, 32].
3.4. All three system used 64 views, where one view consists of M set complex
values of the scattered field at Rm (m=1,2 ... M) receiver positions. The planar
camera using 32 receiving points in each view placed on a 220 mm straight line,
whose center is placed 198 mm from the transmitter. While, both the two circular
systems using 64 antennas in transmitting and/or receiving mode on a circular
array, 250 mm in diameter. A cylindrical field with a frequency of 2.33 GHz is
used applied at the transmitters. The difference between the two circular systems
is the receiving antenna behavior. One of the circular systems are based on the
circular scanner developed by Jofre et. al. in Barcelona. This system using the
33 antennas on a half-circle behind the object opposite to the transmitter, in each
view [63]. The second circular system using the same fixed 32 receiving antennas
evenly located along the complete circle trough the multi-view process [26]. The
simulations is performed by using the direct problem to simulate the measured data,
using the phantom depicted in Figure 5.5, into the Newton-Kantorovitch algorithm.
To obtain a realistic situation a noise with an Gaussian distribution is added to the
simulated measured field generating a SNR of 40 dB, defined by Equation (4.1).
While using the open configuration Newton-Kantorovitch algorithm all three setups
are simulated the same code with just different antenna setup, discussed in section
3. Figure 5.6 shows the results obtained at iteration three for all three multi-view
systems when the SNR is considered to 40 dB. Also, the initial guess (Figure 5.6
5.3. CALIBRATION 37
Figure 5.6: Complex permittivity distribution (up real part, down imaginary part),
solution at iteration nô3 with different multi-view systems for a SNR = 40 dB:
(a) 2.45GHz planar camera (b) 2.33GHz Barcelona camera (c) 2.33 GHz complete
circular system (d) initial guess (e) exact solution.
(d)) and the exact solution (Figure 5.6 (e)) are shown. From those results it appears
that successful result may be obtained using the planar camera (Figure 5.6 (a)).
The result are similar to the one obtained with the Barcelona system (Figure 5.6
(b)) even if the Barcelona system using more input data, 2112 (64x33) instead of
2048 (64x32) used in the other cases. The fixed complete circular system has a clear
advantage in the quality of reconstructed results, however this system has many
practical difficulties in a practical realization [26]. In paper C alternative usage
of the camera in situations where antenna rotation is impossible for multi-view
acquisition. In this case a multi-incidence alternative, using fixed retina and object
with an transmitter array, seems to be a potential alternative to obtain enough
independent data for the reconstruction.
From those simulations it is clear that the planar 2.45 GHz camera definitely
is an interesting platform applied to the case of breast tumor detection. Using the
planar camera investigations about more specific 2D or 3D systems may be done.
However, still, some work has to be focused on the experimental part to obtain
quantitative images from experimental data.
5.3 Calibration
In quantitative microwave imaging using non-linear inverse scattering formalization
the solution is determined by iteratively minimizing the error between the measured
field and the computed field using a numerical model in the direct problem. Hence,
it is of major importance that the numerical model in the direct problem and the
equipment are carefully calibrated. If not, the model error will make the recon-
struction converge towards an nonphysical and wrong minimum, or if the model
error is too large no convergence will be obtained at all. The calibration procedure
of the planar 2.45 GHz camera may be divided into three principal parts.
• The transceiver calibration.

• Geometric and background medium properties of the equipment.
• The complex calibration vector of the equipment.
The first step, transceiver calibration is needed to suppress non-linearities and
errors introduced by the hardware. The received complex field are represented by
the I/Q–channels in the homodyne receiver, where the I–channel representing the
real part and the Q–channel representing the imaginary part with a 90o phase shift
in the complex plane. Therefore, it is important that both channels obtaining the
same gain and offset with a orthogonal behavior of the phase quadrature between
the channels. Franchois et. al. presented a method to calibrate those defects in
[62, 98]. The idea is to perform calibration measurements by phase shift the input
signal on the receiver between 0◦ –360◦ , in even steps, and then represent the I-
and Q- channel results in the complex plane. A perfect system will in this case
obtain a circle with the center point in origo. However, the system defects will
eventually produce results with an elliptical shape with the center on an offset
from origo. By estimating an elliptical model of the of the results and using a Least
Mean Square (LMS) method for curve fitting of the data calibration coefficients
can be determined to produce a circular result. After several hardware updates
during the preparation of this thesis an almost circular result was obtained without
calibration, making this calibration step unnecessary. However, still the calibration
between direct problem and equipment is necessary in the following steps.
The second step, concerns fitting of physical parameters in the experimental
setup, such as the estimated complex permittivity of the surrounding water, the
distance rotation axis–retina R0 and the offset between the center-point of the
retina with respect to the rotation axis Y0 . Those parameters may of course be
measured using different equipment like the Agilent Dielectric probe 85070E or
using the analytical water model developed by Stogryn et. al. [97]. Another
method, proposed in paper C, is to use the planar camera with an test-antenna
as a source point. In this case the parameters are obtained by minimizing the
error between the field radiated by a source point and the one produced by a
spherical wave model. The acquisition is done on a line of the retina when moving
a short vertical monopole, which is supposed to radiate a spherical wave, along a
line perpendicularly to the retina. The points using the same coordinates as the
rotation axis, therefore may the distance R0 be estimated.
The Final step, the complex coefficient to fit the measured field to the computed
values in the direct problem. here two effective methods are developed by Meaney
5.3. CALIBRATION 39
et. al. and Jofre et. al. Meaney’s method is presented in Section 4.1, which
effectively matching the measured field’s 3D properties to the 2D model. This is
done by taking the logarithmic difference between the the measured and computed
field without object, according to Equation (4.2). This calibration vector is then
used to correct the data from the acquisition with object. Jofre et. al. used a 40 mm
metallic reference cylinder and compared the measured values with the theoretically
values. The correction vector for each emitter-receiver couple in the circular system
are found by dividing the theoretical measurement with the actual one. Using the
calibration vector on the measured data on the object gives a calibration of the
whole system [27, 63].
The method used herein may be seen as an combination of the other two group’s.
When the first two steps are full filled the estimated parameters is used in the direct
problem. The scattered field is computed in the direct problem using a reference
object similar to Jofre et. al. A calibration vector is then computed from the
differences of the computed and measured scattered field using the logarithmic
amplitude and the phase like Meaney et. al. The correction vector’s amplitude
and phase is transformed to the complex plane. All data in multi-view experiments
are then multiplied with this vector. Both experimental and simulated data have
been verified with analytical results, while good agreement is obtained between
analytical and simulated values simulations are used as reference. Note, only one
line is used during 2D image reconstruction.
As a reference object an 35 mm PVC cylinder is used, fixed at the rotation
axis. Also, the calibration vector may be defined by a global complex calibration
coefficient defined from the center of the retina along line 15. Figure 5.7 shows
an example of calibrated results using the global calibration coefficient. The phase
results show a very good agreement, but the amplitude has larger errors especially
on the outer skirt of the retina. However, as one can see a reasonable calibration
is obtained even with a perfect plane wave assumption in the simulations. Part of
those defects may be solved by an calibration vector with individual calibration for
each specific retina element, but this could introduce large errors into the data when
the differences are too large, e.g. along the outer skirt of the retina. However, the
mismatches in this area may be due to model mismatches between the plane wave
model and the reality. This problem was observed by Franchois et. al. and they
tried to include an experimental based model into the direct problem [98]. This
was not successful in experiments, but this could be a focus area at the moment,
while the error in the incident field description has a major impact of the image
reconstruction [62].
Figure 5.7: Comparison between calculated and measured scattered field of a 35

mm PVC cylinder with a complex correction of the measured field.
Chapter 6
Concluding Remarks
The work included in this Licentiate thesis was initiated during the establishment
of the microwave imaging research at the Department of Computer Science and
Electronics at Mälardalen University. Therefore, the work is initiated with feasi-
bility studies together with a review of other group’s work. The later part of this
work has been done in frame of a collaboration between Supéelec and Mälardalen
University. Using the existing planar 2.45 GHz camera and the existing non-linear
iterative Newton-Kantorovitch code, both developed at DRE of Supélec.
A state of the art review report has been created, covering the major contri-
butions in both imaging systems and algorithms in the field of microwave imaging
in biomedical applications, paper A. The focus has been on the area of breast
tumor detection using microwave imaging. From the review it has been shown that
extended versions of the existing planar 2.45 GHz camera is an interesting platform
for investigating quantitative imaging of inhomogeneous objects as breast imaging.
Earlier work showed that the planar 2.45 GHz camera is able to handle quantita-
tive imaging of homogenous objects. One weak point with the planar setup is the
shown limitation in reconstructed image quality for 2D imaging compared to a cir-
cular configuration. The major advantage is, however, its high data acquisition rate
on a vertical plane behind the object. The rapid 3D vertical polarization acquisition
is a big potential for quasi-3D imaging, or even fully vectorial 3D imaging with an
extended version of the camera able to measure both the vertical- and horizontal-
polarized field. Also, the single frequency 2D Newton-kantorovitch seems to be a
solid starting point for future extension to the 3D problem of quantitative imaging
for breast tumor detection.
A feasibility study has been performed to indicate the expected response levels
due to a tumor presence into a breast phantom, paper B. This knowledge is useful
at the moment of designing the tomographic acquisition system. Verifications may
be done in a early stage if the tumor inhomogeneity is detectable and in which
regions of the object are responses achieved. Also, the usefulness of an 3D FDTD
41
42 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
electromagnetic-wave simulator (QW3D) was verified.

To verify the usefulness of the planar 2.45 GHz camera its tomographic per-
formance in a 2D reconstruction situation was compared with two other existing
circular systems paper C. This was possible though an extended open configura-
tion Newton-kantorovitch code where the same algorithm effectively handle different
antenna configurations. It has been shown that the tomographic ability is similar
compared to the other two, breast image detecting a breast tumor has been obtained
in simulations with a SNR of 40 dB on the simulated measured scattered field. Fur-
thermore, extensions leaving multi-view to multi-incidence system seems to be a
strong alternative when a rotation is impossible in the acquisition. Good calibra-
tion is achieved between experimental measurements and the algorithm. However,
the amplitude is not fully satisfying and further efforts are needed before satisfying
experimental quantitative results are obtained. A better estimation of the back-
ground medium is needed in the calibration, also the differences between computed
and measured field must be minimized. Those errors may be found in the model
error due to the experimental incident field is not properly modeled with a perfect
plane wave. In this case an incident field calibration has to be achieved to imple-
ment an experimental based model of the incident field into the direct problem of
the algorithm. At last, a realistic breast phantom modeling the breast tumor case
has to be designed.
6.1 Future Research

A major effort has been initiated in this work to establish a platform for quantitative
imaging of inhomogeneous using the planar 2.45 GHz camera at Supélec. For
the moment the major focus is on obtaining 2D quantitative image reconstruction
from experimental data of an inhomogeneous object using the Newton-Kantorovich
algorithm. Next step is to get result with a 2D breast phantom for the case of breast
tumor detection. One necessary step may be to minimize the model error between
the algorithm and the experimental equipment. One way to minimize the model
error is to implement an experimental based model of the incident field. According
to the conclusion of Franchois et. al. model error of the incident field error has
a major impact of the final result of the reconstruction. A possible method is to
use the filtered-backpropagation process to compute the incident field in the object
region of the Newton-Kantorovich code.
In the application of breast tumor detection there is in general two future di-
rection. A multi-frequency approach similar to Meaney et. al. and Persson et.
al. or 3D reconstruction. The big advantage of the planar camera is the rapid
measurements on a plane behind the object, this setup could be used for inter-
esting investigations of 3D imaging formalizations. However, the planar camera is
a fixed frequency equipment optimized for 2.45 GHz, therefore, a multi-frequency
approach needs a major hardware development. Therefore, the planar 2.45 GHz
6.1. FUTURE RESEARCH 43
camera is more suitable as a future platform for analyzing inhomogeneous objects

in 3D using both qualitative imaging in real-time and quantitative imaging with
an iterative nonlinear algorithm. Using this system future breast tumor detection
specific applications may be investigated.
44 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
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54 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Included Papers A-C
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Mälardalen University Licentiate Thesis

MICROWAVE IMAGING OF BIOLOGICAL TISSUES:

applied toward breast tumor detection

Department of Computer Science and Electronics

Late night in Paris, April 2007.

3 Image Reconstruction Algorithm 15

4 Detection of Breast Tumors 23

5 Quantitative Imaging with a Planar Camera 31

different groups microwave imaging is generally an efficient imaging modality for

1.1 Scope of this work

1.2 Publications Included in the Thesis

Paper B - D. Åberg, T. Gunnarsson, P. Norin, “Steps to Microwave Probing

Paper C - T. Gunnarsson, N. Joachimowicz, A. Diet, C. Conessa, D. Åberg

1.3 Other Related Work

Paper E - T. Gunnarsson, N. Joachimowicz, A. Joisel, J. Ch. Bolomey, “Com-

1.4 Summary of Appended Papers

Paper C - In this paper a simulation comparison between three different mi-

1.5 Author’s Contribution in the Included Publi-

1.6 Thesis Organization

Figure 2.1: General formulation of the scattering properties in microwave imaging.

2.1 A Brief Overview

form for 3D analysis of inhomogeneous objects may be developed based on extended

2.1.1 Breast Tumor Detection Using Microwave Imaging

2.2 Dielectric Properties of Human Tissues

where 0 is the relative permittivity describing the polarization effects of charged

Table 2.1: Approximate properties of human tissues determined by Equation (2.5)

As presented in paper A, there are in general two different approaches to create

Newton-Kantorovich process gives a 2D single frequency solution [19, 20]. (This is

3.1 Physical Description

3.1.1 Wave Equation

(∇2 + k 2 (r))e(r) = 0, (3.1)

3.2 Direct Problem

ev (r) = eiv (r) + esv (r), (3.2)

(∇2 + k1 )G(r, r0 ) = −δ(r − r0 ), [38]. (3.3)

Jv = C(r0 )ev (r0 ), [41]. (3.4)

[Evs ] = [KR,O ][C][Ev ], (3.12)

[Evi ] = [I − KO,O C][Ev ], (3.13)

3.3 Non-Linear Inverse Problem

Figure 3.2: Flow-chart of the Newton-Kantorovich algorithm.

The optimization will then be performed on the square norm F (C)

∇C F (C) = J ∗ (C)Edif f (C) (3.18)

HF (C)∆C = ∇C F (C). (3.20)

J ∗ (C)J(C) + µI ∆C = J ∗ (C)Edif f (C),

The regularization-term is used to improve the convergence of an ill-possed problem.

J = KR,O [I − CKO,O ]−1 E, (3.24)

Cn+1 = Cn + ∆C, (3.25)

of the scattered field not is reached.

3.4 Open Configuration Newton-Kantorovich Al-

Detection of Breast Tumors

Figure 4.1: A simplified model of the dynamical response from an inhomogeneity

tumor. This situation is both simulated in QW3D, a 3D FDTD simulation tool

4.1 Experimental and Simulation Setup

with the same dimensions as in simulations. As antennas dielectric-filled waveguide

4.2 Responses due to a Tumor Presence

Figure 4.5: The dissipative power of the wave in the xy-plane.

Figure 4.6: Simulated received dynamical response S21 in dB at 2.5 GHz as a

By looking at the dynamical response obtained at the diffraction mode antenna

Figure 4.7: Simulated received dynamical response S31 in dB at 2.5 GHz as a

Even if some phantom mismatches, antenna model mismatches and complex

Quantitative Imaging with a

The planar 2.45 GHz microwave camera, developed at Département de Recherches

5.1 Experimental setup

5.2 Quantitative Images of Inhomogeneous Objects

where 0 is the relative permittivity describing the polarization effects of charged

Tissue 0r 00r