ABSTRACT

Smart Street Light spotlights on different restriction and difficulties identified with
traditional and old street lights that are confronted now days and the answer for the deal
with those issues by embracing the vision of a smart street light. The noteworthiness of
this vision is "a completely mechanized bidirectional force conveyance of power and
information between the road lights and all the directions in the middle". Smart street
lights are vitality effective as well as extremely dependable.

The primary thought in the present field advances are computerizations, power
utilization, and expense adequacy. Automation is implied for the decrease of labor as
the human has gotten to be excessively occupied and even incapable, making it
impossible to discover time to switch the lights. Presently a day’s everybody are
mindful of the availability of limited power sources like coal, biomass, and hydro and
so on. Unnecessary wastage of power in the street lights is one of the noticeable power
loss.

Intelligent Energy Saving System can be used in places like where lighting is very
important. The libraries will be well illuminated with many lamps. When people are not
present at a reading place the lighting can be made OFF and when they are present, the
lighting made ON. All these can be done through by Dimming circuit and PIR sensor.

If a person entering to the monitored area, the PIR sensors activates and sense the
person, gives to the micro controller. The Infrared energy emitted from the living body
is focused by a Fresnel lens segment. Then only the PIR sensor activates. After sensing
the person LDR checks the light intensity of the monitored area, whether it is bright
or dark. Depending on the LDR output, the lamp may be ON / OFF by using Dimmer
circuit
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Project Overview 1
1.2 Project Objectives 1
1.3 Background History 2
1.4 Problem Statement 2
1.5 PIR Light Control System 3

CHAPTER 2 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

2.1 Component Selection 4

2.2 Resistors 5

2.3 Diodes 6

2.4 LEDs 7

2.5 Transformers 8

2.6 Capacitors 8

2.7 Relays 9

2.8 IC-7805 Voltage Regulator 12

2.9 Transistor as an amplifier 17

CHAPTER 3 MICROCONTROLLER 89C51

3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Overview 22
3.3 Pin Configiration 23
3.4 Interupts 26
3.5 Interupt Programming 31
3.6 Instruction Set 31

CHAPTER 4 WORKING COMPONENT

4.1 Power Supply Section 33
4.2 Automatic Street Light Circuit and LDR 34
. 4.3 Motion Detection 36
4.4 Buffer IC 38

CHAPTER 5 PREPERATION OF PCB

5.1 Schematic Preperation 41
5.2 Artwork Preperation 41
5.3 Film making 41
5.4 Etching of Copper Claded Board 41
5.5 Drilling of Holes 42
5.6 Tinning of PCB 42
5.7 PCB Testing 42
5.8 Assembling of the Unit 42

CHAPTER 6 Observations and Outcomes 43

CHAPTER 7 Testing and Result 45

CHAPTER 8 Estimated Cost 46

CHAPTER 8 Conclusion 49

Project Pictures
References
CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Project overview

The thought of outlining a new framework for the street lights that don't devour immense measure of
power and light up vast zone with high intensity. Smart Street lights framework is an essential piece of
the smart city which represents 10-40% of aggregate power utilizations which is a discriminating
attentiveness toward general society powers. So a vital and productive vitality advancements are to be
executed for monetary and social security.

1.2 Project Objectives

The aim of the project is to save the energy or power, used in places like libraries where lighting is very
important for the people who come to read books. So, the libraries will be well illuminated with many
lamps.
At the same time when people are not present at a particular reading place the lighting can be made off by
using Dimmer and when people come to that area, according to the LDR lighting can be made
sufficiently brighter.
Apart from it the switching of Street Light can also be made possible as when there is sufficient Lightning
LDR operates according to which it opeartes and automatically makes the Street Light OFF and vice
versa in the case when there is scarcity of light
.

1
1.3 Background History

The present framework is similar to, the road lights will be exchanged on in the night prior to the sun sets
and they are exchanged off the following day morning after there are adequate lights on the streets. The
hindrance of the framework is that we require manual operation of the road light which needs labor.
In sunny and rainy days, ON and OFF time differ discernibly which is one of the significant hindrances of
the present street lights systems.Conventional street lighting systems are online most of the
day without purpose. The consequence is that a large amount of power is wasted meaninglessly.With
the wide accessibility of adaptable lighting innovation like light transmitting diode (LED) lights and all
over accessible remote web association, quick responding, dependable working, and power moderating
street lighting frameworks get to be reality. The reason for this work is to portray the Smart Street
Lighting framework, a first way to deal with perform the interest for adaptable smart lighting
frameworks. The goal of this undertaking is to plan an automated lighting framework which focuses on
the saving of power; to construct a vitally energy efficient smart lighting framework with integrated
sensors and controllers; to outline a smart lighting framework with particular methodology plan, which
makes the framework adaptability and expandability and configuration a smart lighting framework which
similarity and versatility with other commercial products and mechanized automated system, which may
incorporate more than lighting frameworks.

1.4 Problem Statement

Statement [1]: Street lights are on in the presence of sun light.

Statement [2]: Street lights are on in the absence of any vehicle and pedestrian. Disadvantages of
Classical Street Light:

• Street lights are remain on when there is a visible spectrum of light.

• These street lights need a manual switching operation.
• It also needs man power.
• These street lights are unnecessarily glowing with its full intensity in the absence of any
activities in the street.
• High power consumption and waste of energy.

2
• Less reliable.
• Manual hectic operation due to change in season and climate.
To face the various problem mentioned above in the conventional lighting system we need a lighting
system that is well equipped with recent inventions and technology. As it is well known to everyone is
that the natural sources to generate power is limited and we are wasting so much of energy meaninglessly.
So if we can use automation in this particular case so that all the street lights can be switch on and
off automatically when it is really necessary. And if we can use controller circuits to implement a
model so that all the street lights can only glow with its maximum intensity when there is activity
in its region otherwise it should glow at a minimum given intensity. So that we can save a huge
amount of power.
With the inventions of light emitting diodes which has a small amount of power consumptions and high
efficiency; we should use light emitting diodes instead of all classical fuse bulbs.
With the help of all these sensor available in the market; we should have 100% control over the
street for the safety and security of lives in the streets along with a flexible transportation system.

1.5 PIR Light Control System

The advertising display board lighting board control unit is a device which switches the
supply to load when the sunlight is not present. This is achieved through a technique of sensing
the absence of light .This is possible by use of photodiode /photocell or LDRs. This photosensors
produces a voltage when light does not fall on them. This voltage is used as trigger voltage to
trigger the monostable circuit.
The monostable circuit produces the pulse which drives the 5 hour timer which in turn drives
the relay and it results in making of contact. The 230V supply is then switched to load i.e
bulb or tube light The value of R and C has been chosen such that time constant RC is less than
0.5 second.
The output pin no.3 of timer switches on the 5 hour timer which in turn drives the relay directly .
The pole of the relay is given the main supply which switches from NO to NC. The 40 Watt
load is given as light source. It is required to put higher current relay for higher load.

3
CHAPTER 2

Description of Components

2.1 Component Selection

Selection of Transformer
To generate a voltage of +15 Volt we have selected a transformer whose input is
230 V +/- 10 % and output is 9 Volts and deliver the current upto 500mA.

Selection of Rectifier Diodes

The rectifier diodes of 1Amp rating has been chosen to keep the safet y factor of
100%.

Selection of Filters
Since the load is not high we have chosen the capacitive filtering to avoid the
ripple .To keep the cost low and sufficien t ripple we chose the Capacitor value.

Selection of R
The resistance has been selected of sufficient wattage to avoid overheating and of
correct value.

Selection of Capacitor
Capacitors have been used for filtering the noise at the control voltage and for
minimizing the ripple.

Selection of Relay
To switch from 40 watt bulb we have chosen the relay whose contact current is
more than 1 Amp. and holding current is less than 20 mA.

4
Selection of Lamp
We have chosen 40watt bulb for the display board .

2.2 Resistors

These are current resisting devices . These are made of carbon , metallic wire wound
etc. These are read through this acronym BBROYGBVGW. This stands for ,Black ,Brown ,
Red, Orange, Yellow ,Green ,Blue , Violet, Gray and ,White respectively .These colours are
printed as lines on the resistor the first and second colour lines indicate the number
corresponding to colour .The number indicated by the colour are shown in table below
.The third line indicate the number of zeros ,the fourth line indicate the percentage of
tolerance of the resistor.
e.g.Red ,Red ,Black Gold = 22 +/- 5% ;
Red Red Brown = 220 ;
Red Red Red = 2200 ;
Red Red Orange = 22K;
Red Red Yellow = 220 K;
Red Red Green = 2.2M ;
Red Red Yellow = 22 M
These are available in various wattages like1/4W ,1/2W,2W,5W,10W,20W,50W,100W,200W.
In electronics most common use is up to 5Watt. Higher the wattage bigger the sizes. The value
and wattage of resisters are to be selected as per the applications. The tolerence in variation
of the rated value is also selected as per the applications. The resisters are fabricated directly on
the IC itself.

5
2.3 Diodes

These devices allows to flow current in only one direction . These devices are also called
unidirectional devices .Earlier these devices were made of vacuum tubes, now a days
these are semi conductor solid state devices. These are PN junction devices .The PN
means doping of the semi conductor with positive and negative electronic valence
atoms . The silicon diodes have knee voltage drop of 0.7 volts i.e. forward biased
voltage drop whereas germanium diodes have 0.3 voltage drop. The different diodes are used
for different purposes. The diodes work in forward biased condition or reverse biased
conditions.
These are available with different current rating , voltage rating , power rating and are
used for different applications. The diodes of higher wattages are of bigger sizes. The
Symbol of Diode and the ideal curves of diodes are shown below.

Diode Characterstics

Diode Symbol

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Diodes are of different types like Photodiode, Varactor diode, Schotkey Diode, PIN diode, Zener
Diode etc.

Zener Diode:
Small signal and rectifier diodes are never operated in the breakdown region because this may
damage them. The zener diode is made to operate in breakdown region, sometimes called
breakdown diode. The zener diode is the back bone of voltage regulators, circuits that hold the
load voltage almost constant despite large changes in the line voltage and load resistance.

The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying
load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via
a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to
maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave
rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so
to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabiliser circuit as shown
below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be produced.

2.4 Light Emitting Diode

In a forward biased diode , free electrons cross the junction and fall in to holes. As these
electrons fall from a higher to a lower energy level , they radiate energy .In ordinary diodes
this energy goes off in the form of heat .But in the light emitting diode (LED) the energy radiates
7
as light.LEDs that radiate red, green, yellow, blue, orange or infrared are manufactured by
using elements like gallium, arsenic, and phosphorous. LEDs that produce visible radiations
are useful with instruments , calculators etc. The infrared LED finds application in burglar
systems and other areas requiring invisible radiations. The seven segment displays uses 7
LEDs .

2.5 Transformer

This are the devices which converts the primary ac voltage to different secondary ac voltages .If
the secondary voltage is higher then primary voltage then the transformer is called step
up transformer, if the secondary is less then primary voltage then it is called step down
transformer, if secondary is same as primary voltage then it is called unity transformer .This
unity transformer is also used as isolation transformer . This devices are highly efficient upto
99.9%. i.e. very low power loss.
The transformers are required for making dc supply, tuning circuit etc. The current rating of
primary and secondary winding determines the SWG gauge of the copper wire.

2.6 Capacitors

This are the storage devices but has in buit Resistance that’s why the storage voltage does not
last for longer period. The use of capacitor is for tuning the circuit, filtering the noise to ground,
creating the timing pulse as in our case .The capacitors can not be fabricated on Ics because of
the technical difficulty.
The capacitors are selected based on capacitance and voltage rating .Higher the voltage
higher the size of the capacitor. These are available in following types

8
Electrolytic Capacitor
These capacitors have electrolyte as the dielectric between the two plates. These are
available with polarity + and -.These are available with vertical mount or horizontal mount
configuration.
Paper Capacitor
These capacitors are available in low range of capacitance. The paper is used as dieletric
media between the two plates.
Mica Capacitor
These capacitors are also available in low range of capacitance. The mica is used as dieletric
media between the two plates.
Disc Capacitor
These are available from 1pF to 1ooooUF

2.7 Relays

These are electromagnetic devices which makes or breaks the contact as per the control voltage.
there are solid state relays which do not consume much power for their operation, but are not
available in higher current rating. Relays are being substituted by SCR also called thyristor for
on/off control.

Classification of Relays:
Protective relay can be classified in following categories depending on the technologies used for
their construction and operation:-

1.Electromagnetic Relays.
2.Static relays.
3.Microprocessor based relays.

9
ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS:

Electromagnetic relays included attracted armature, moving part induction disk and induction
cup type relays. Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet and a moving part when the
actuating quantities excels on a certain predetermined nature an operating torque is developed
which is applied in the moving part. This causes the moving part to travel and to finally close a
contact to energies the trip coil.
Relays are electrically operate power switches. A relay consists of an electromagnet which when
energisted, pulls and armature. The armature carries heavy electrical contacts that make or
break electric circuit general purpose relays can handle current of 5 or 10 ampere. Relays that
have contact rating of 25 ampere or more are known as “ contractors” . A single relay can place
or break a no. of contacts simultaneously.
The amount of electrical power required to drive relay is very small. Most voltage stabilizers
used relay coils of 720 milliwatts. It means that a 12 volt relay will have a coil resistance of 200
ohms & will operate on 60 MA. The same relay with 450 ohms coil will operate on 18 volts &
40MA.,and so on. Transistor,circuits can easily supply this much of power and thus control large
amount of power through relay contacts. Through desirable, it is not necessary to draw the set of
contacts just near the relay. In many diagrams, the relay coil is shown at one place & is identified
by no. of letter such as relay. It associated contacts are shown else where for maintaining clearly
of the diagram and are identified by the same letter of the number.
To clearify the position of relay contacts with relay energized or de-energised,the contact the
remain closed when relay is in its de-energised state are shown as NC(normally closed ).The
other contact are denoted by NO(normally open) closes when the relay is energized.

Static Relays:

Static relays contain electronic circuitry which may include transistors, ICs, diode and other
electronic components. There is a comparator circuit in the relay,which compares two or more
currents or voltages and gives an output which is applied to either a slave relay or a thyristor
circuit. The slave relay is an electromagnetic relay which finally closes the contact. A static relay
containing a slave relay is a semi-static relay. A relay using a thyristor circuit is a wholly static
relay. Static relay possess the advantages of having low burden on C.T.& P.T., fast operation,
absence of mechanical inertia and contact trouble , long life & less maintenance.

10
Electromagnetic relays continue to be in use because of their simplicity and low cost. Their
maintenance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair of
static relays requires personnel rained in solid state decices.

Microprocessor-based protective relays:

Microprocessor- based protective relays are the latest development in this area of developments
in VLSI technology, sophisticated and fast microprocessor.The advantage of
microprocessor-based relays over static relays are attractive flexibility due to their
programmable approach.

Diagram - Microcontroller Based Protective Relay

(a) A microcontroller used in 89C51 whose ports are configured a s I/O and output port the pin of
input and output port are both individually accessible.
(b) The port P1 is configured as Input port and P0 as output Port. Port P1 is from Pin1 and Pin8 of
ICR. Pin 18&19 are connected to cry rid pin 40 and pin 20 are connected +5V and ground
respectively pin 9 is connected to reset switch through R and Co combination and +5 V .
(c) Port Po is having Pin no 39 to pin32 as P0.0 to P0.7 in sequence order. The interface IC1 &
IC3 are connected to port P1 and P0 respectively.
(d) The I/P of IC1 i.e. Pin 2 and Pin 9 to which sensors can be connected the pins of IC3 I.E. Pin
18 to Pin 11 are output pins.

11
(e) The output from p0.1 is fed to relay driver which sends the command to dial the stored
number to communication system .
(f) The output from p0.2 is fed to relay which remove the connection from cradle.
(g) The command is also fed to the circuit which stats the play of recorded message.

Microcontroller Operation Between NC and NO terminals

iii. Two 4.7M, 1 watt, 3.5Kv metal glazed resistor.

2.8 IC – 7805 Voltage Regulator

Pin Diagram of 7805 Voltage Regulator IC

As mentioned earlier, 7805 is a three terminal device with the three pins being 1. INPUT, 2.
GROUND and 3. OUTPUT. The following image shows the pins on a typical 7805 IC in To-220
Package.

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 Pin diagram of IC – 7805

The pin description of the 7805 is described as the following :

Pin -1
Act as INPUT
Pin 1 is the INPUT Pin. A positive unregulated voltage is given as input to this pin.
Pin -2
Act as GROUND
Pin 2 is the GROUND Pin. It is common to both Input and Output.
Pin-3
Act as OUTPUT
Pin 3 is the OUTPUT Pin. The output regulated 5V is taken at this pin of the IC.

Basic Circuit of 7805

As I have previously talked about regulated power supply as a device that works on DC voltages
and it can uphold its output accurately at a fixed voltage all the time even if there is a significant
alteration in the DC input voltage.

13
As per the datasheets of 7805 IC, the basic circuit required for 7805 to work as a complete
regulator is very simple. In fact, if the input supply is an unregulated DC Voltage, then all you
need are two capacitor (even those are not mandatory depending on the implementation).

The above circuit shows all the components required for a 7805 IC to work properly. The 0.22μF
Capacitor near the input is required only if the distance between the regulator IC and the power
supply filter is high. Also, the 0.1μF Capacitor near the output is optional and if used, it helps in
the transient response.
In this circuit, VIN is the input voltage to the 7805 IC and the source can be from either a battery
of an unregulated DC. VOUT is the output of the 7805 IC, which is a Regulated 5V.

Voltage sources in a circuit may have fluctuations resulting in not providing fixed voltage
outputs. A voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. 7805 IC, a
member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulators used to maintain such fluctuations, is a
popular voltage regulator integrated circuit (IC). The xx in 78xx indicates the output voltage it
provides. 7805 IC provides +5 volts regulated power supply with provisions to add a heat sink.

As you may have noticed, there is a significant difference between the input voltage & the output
voltage of the voltage regulator. This difference between the input and output voltage is released
as heat. The greater the difference between the input and output voltage, more the heat generated.
If the regulator does not have a heat sink to dissipate this heat, it can get destroyed and
malfunction. Hence, it is advisable to limit the voltage to a maximum of 2-3 volts above the

14
output voltage. So, we now have 2 options. Either design your circuit so that the input voltage
going into the regulator is limited to 2-3 volts above the output regulated voltage or place an
appropriate heatsink, that can efficiently dissipate heat.
What to do with all the heat?
7805 is not very efficient and has drop-out voltage problems. A lot of energy is wasted in the
form of heat. If you are going to be using a heatsink, better calculate the heatsink size properly.
The below formula should help in determining appropriate heatsink size for such applications.
Heat generated = (input voltage – 5) x output current

If we have a system with input 15 volts and output current required is .5 amperes, we have: (15 –
5) x 0.5 = 10×0.5 =5W;
5W energy is being wasted as heat, hence an appropriate heatsink is required to disperse this
heat. On the other hand, energy actually being used is: (5 x 0.5Amp) = 2.5W.

So twice the energy, that is actually utilized is wasted. On the other hand, if 9V is given as input
at the same amount of load: (9-5) x 0.5 = 2W
2W energy will be wasted as heat.

What we learn
Higher the input voltage, less efficient your 7805 will be.
An estimated efficient input voltage would be at about 7.5V.

Other circuit components?

If your voltage regulator is situated more than 25cm (10 inches) from the power supply,
capacitors are needed to filter residual AC noise. Voltage regulators work efficiently on a clean
DC signal being fed. The bypass capacitors help reduce AC ripple. Essentially, they short AC
noise from the voltage signal and allow only DC voltage into the regulator. The two capacitors
are not necessarily required and can be omitted if you are not concerned about line noise.

However, for a mobile phone charger or logic assessment, you require a nice clean DC line.
Capacitors will be beneficial in this case as they are good at maximizing voltage regulation. The
values of capacitors can also be changed slightly.

15
Let’s take a look at what makes the IC tick.

The heart of the 7805 IC is a transistor (Q16) that controls the current between the input and
output and thus controlling the output voltage. The bandgap reference (yellow) keeps the voltage
stable. It takes the scaled output voltage as input (Q1 and Q6) and provides an error signal (to
Q7) for indication if the voltage is too high or low. The key task of the bandgap is to provide a
stable and accurate reference, even as the chip’s temperature changes.
The error signal from the bandgap reference is amplified by the error amplifier (orange). This
amplified signal controls the output transistor through Q15. This closes the negative feedback
loop controlling the output voltage. The startup circuit (green) provides initial current to the
bandgap circuit, so it doesn’t get stuck in an “off” state. The circuit in purple provides protection
against overheating (Q13), excessive input voltage (Q19) and excessive output current (Q14).
These circuits reduce the output current or shutdown the regulator, protecting it from damage in
case of a fault. The voltage divider (blue) scales down the voltage on the output pin for use by the
bandgap reference.

16
Scaling the output
The 7805’s scaled output provides the input voltage (Vin) to the bandgap reference and the
bandgap provides an error signal as the output. The 7805’s bandgap circuit removes the feedback
loop that exists inside a traditional bandgap reference. Instead, the entire chip becomes the
feedback loop.
If the output voltage is correct (5V), then the voltage divider provides 3.75V at Vin. Any change
in output voltage propagates through Q6 and R7, causing the voltage at the base of Q7 to rise or
fall accordingly. This change is amplified by Q7 and Q8, generating the error output. The error
output, in turn, decreases or increases the current through the output transistor. The negative
feedback loop adjusts the output voltage until it is correct.

Application areas for 7805 IC

7805 IC is used in a wide range of circuits. The major ones being:
Fixed-Output Regulator
Positive Regulator in Negative Configuration
Adjustable Output Regulator
Current Regulator
Adjustable DC Voltage Regulator
Regulated Dual-Supply
Output Polarity-Reversal-Protection Circuit
Reverse bias projection Circuit
7805 IC also finds usage in building circuits for inductance meter, phone charger, portable CD
player, infrared remote control extension and UPS power supply circuits.

2.9 Transistor as an amplifier

A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage
applied to the emitter base junction, makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward
bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below figure shows how transistor

17
looks like when connected as an amplifier.

The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an
appreciable change in the output. The emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the
collector current, which when flows through the load resistor RL, results in a large voltage drop
across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large output voltage, which shows that the
transistor works as an amplifier.

Example
Let there be a change of 0.1v in the input voltage being applied, which further produces a change
of 1mA in the emitter current. This emitter current will obviously produce a change in collector
current, which would also be 1mA.
A load resistance of 5kΩ placed in the collector would produce a voltage of
5 kΩ × 1 mA = 5V
Hence it is observed that a change of 0.1v in the input gives a change of 5v in the output, which
means the voltage level of the signal is amplified.

Performance of Amplifier
As the common emitter mode of connection is mostly adopted, let us first understand a few
important terms with reference to this mode of connection.

Input Resistance
As the input circuit is forward biased, the input resistance will be low. The input resistance is the
opposition offered by the base-emitter junction to the signal flow.

18
By definition, it is the ratio of small change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the resulting
change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage.
Input resistance, Ri=ΔVBEΔIB
Where Ri = input resistance, VBE = base-emitter voltage, and IB = base current.

Output Resistance
The output resistance of a transistor amplifier is very high. The collector current changes very
slightly with the change in collector-emitter voltage.
By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the resulting change
in collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current.
Output resistance = Ro=ΔVCEΔIC
Where Ro = Output resistance, VCE = Collector-emitter voltage, and IC = Collector-emitter
voltage.

Effective Collector Load

The load is connected at the collector of a transistor and for a single-stage amplifier, the output
voltage is taken from the collector of the transistor and for a multi-stage amplifier, the same is
collected from a cascaded stages of transistor circuit.
By definition, it is the total load as seen by the a.c. collector current. In case of single stage
amplifiers, the effective collector load is a parallel combination of RC and Ro.
Effective Collector Load, RAC=RC//Ro
=RC×RoRC+Ro=RAC
Hence for a single stage amplifier, effective load is equal to collector load RC.

In a multi-stage amplifier (i.e. having more than one amplification stage), the input resistance Ri
of the next stage also comes into picture.

Effective collector load becomes parallel combination of RC, Ro and Ri i.e,

Effective Collector Load, RAC=RC//Ro//Ri
RC//Ri=RCRiRC+Ri
As input resistance Ri is quite small, therefore effective load is reduced.

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Current Gain
The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is called
as Current gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC) to the change in
base current (ΔIB).
Current gain, β=ΔICΔIB
The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates that input current becomes β
times in the collector current.

Voltage Gain
The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is called
as Voltage gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔVCE) to the change in
input voltage (ΔVBE).
Voltage gain, AV=ΔVCEΔVBE
=Changeinoutputcurrent×effectiveloadChangeininputcurrent×inputresistance
=ΔIC×RACΔIB×Ri=ΔICΔIB×RACRi=β×RACRi
For a single stage, RAC = RC.

However, for Multistage,

RAC=RC×RiRC+Ri
Where Ri is the input resistance of the next stage.

Power Gain
The gain in terms of power when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is called
as Power gain.
By definition, it is the ratio of output signal power to the input signal power.
Power gain, AP=(ΔIC)2×RAC(ΔIB)2×Ri
=(ΔICΔIB)×ΔIC×RACΔIB×Ri
= Current gain × Voltage gain

Hence these are all the important terms which refer the performance of amplifiers.

20
CHAPTER 3

Microcontroller 89C51

3.1 Introduction

Before the era of microprocessor, circuit were constructed using desecrate logic like various
gates, counters, flip-flops, decoders, monostables and registers. Circuit diagram was designed as
per the requirement prototype PCB is made interconnecting the logic components as per the
design. Testing and debugging was done in the lab. During the testing some modification were
required. When the product was tested on the field, some changes are required this requires new
design of PCB.
To overcome this difficulties scientist and engineer were working on a machine, which could
read the set of instruction to do a particular job called PROGRAM, stored in a memory and
executes it. The instruction would be simple like ADD, SUBTRACT, AND, OR, INVERT,
ROTATE and MOVE. If such a machine could made then, making changes in the design means,
making changes in the program, which is comparatively easy. The birth of computer is also a
result of such thinking. Because of the advancement in the silicon technology, it was possible to
design such a device called microprocessor. The microprocessor will read the instruction stored
in Rom, the read only memory, and execute in PROM programmers were used to put the desired
program inside the ROM. This process called the programming the ROM, also called burning the
program inside the ROM Intel come out first with 8080 microprocessor. This was followed by
the 8085, which become vary popular and accepted by industry all over the world. The use of
8085, always follows the use of external ROM like 2764, external RAM 6264, 8bit latch
74LS373, address decoding logic 74LS138, I/O device such as 8155/8255. Serial interface
8251,timers/counters 8253,or discrete logic again the effort were made to put all the standard
hardware logic in one chip. As a result of such an effort, Intel comes out with MCS-51 series. It
has all the above features, i.e. ROM. RAM, I/O, serial interface. Timers/counters logic built-in
chip or embedded in it. Plus enhanced instruction set. This includes bit manipulation instruction,
and instruction to multiply and divide 8 bit hexadecimal number. It also has code protection
features.

21
When Intel introduced MCS-51 series there were basically three IC’s in the series, namely
8031,8051 and8751. 8031 needs external ROM like 2764. 8051 has internal but one time
programmable or OTP ROM 8751 has on chip UV erasable ROM 8031 was suitable for
production, it is not possible to reprogram 8751 has UV erasable on chip ROM, which requires
20 minutes to erase and it was quit expensive. Atmel made a break through and developed flash
version of 8051, called the 89C51 which has built in Flash Rom .in flash version applying
proper logic levels at controls pin and just one push at the erase pin can erase program. The
process is called flash erasing. With this technique existing program can be erased quickly and
new program can be burn. The price of the flash version was also affordable. 89C51 IC’s become
very popular. It is Hardware and Software compatible with MCS-51 series IC 8051.
Quick look at 8085 IC revels that, it has 16 bit for addressing the memory, which can address
64K memory of which some part can be ROM and remaining can be RAM. But total of RAM
and ROM can not exceed 64K. MCS-51 series can address 64K ROM, 64K RAM & 256 byte
internal RAM. Out of the 64K ROM. Not all the ROM resides on the chip 89C59 has 4k of on
chip ROM and rest of the must be physically out side the chip. The 64K RAM is always out side
the chip and is called external RAM. Apart from the 64K external RAM, there is 256 byte
internal RAM which is always in side the chip & is called internal RAM. Industrial application
with moderate complexity can be fitted inside the 4K of ROM. The 256 byte internal RAM is
divided into two equal parts of 128 byte each. The upper half, from location 128 to 256 is
reserved for special purpose registers & is called SFR area. If program demands extra ROM, one
can use higher version, the 89C52 which has on chip 8K ROM. Next higher version is also
available. Next higher version is also available. The 89C55 has 20K of on chip ROM. If the
program is written in assembly language, 4K ROM of 89C 51 is more then sufficient for most of
the application.

3.2 Overview of 89C51

22
 Overview Of Microcontroller 89C51

3.3 Pin Configiration

89C51 is a 40 pin device. Two pins are used for power supply, and require +5V. It has on chip
oscillator circuitry to which requires use of external crystal. Normally crystal frequency is
around 12MHz. This oscillator is further divided by 12 by internally and considered as clock
for machine cycle. Most of the instruction takes one or two machine cycle to execute. For
12MHz crystal, most of the instruction will get executed in one or two microsecond it has one
pin called ALE. When program execution is going on. ALE pin will pulse at one sixth of clock
frequency. So for 12MHz crystal, ALE pin will pulse at 2MHz.it has one pin called Reset. And

23
it requires active high pulse. Please note that 8085 requires active low reset. After reset
program counter becomes 0000 and program execution starts from 0000. It has one pin called
PSEN. If external ROM is used then PSEN pin is connected to RD/ of ROM. So we will leave
them unconnected in our design. It has one more pin called EA and has to be connected to Vcc,
so that 89C51 will start using internal ROM.
It has four 8 bit ports port 0, port 1, port 2 and port 3. All the ports pin can be used as input or
output with out predefining. Port1, port2 and port3 are internally pulled up through FET. But
port0 requires external pull up resister. After reset all the port pins are high. Each port has a
place in internal RAM and has a specific address. The address of the port0 is 80 hex, address of
the port1 is 90 hex, address for port2 is A0 hex and address for port3is B0 hex. Anything that is
written to port 0, reading location A0 hex is same as reading port 2. The port pins are also
labeled in dot notation for convenience. Port 0 pins will labeled as port0.0, port0.1, port0.2 and
so on. Similarly other port pins will be labeled.

Pin Diagram of Microcontroller 89C51

24
 Pin Discription of Microcontroller 89C51

All the port pins are said to be Bit addressable. The bit addressable RAM is a new concept. If
the RAM location is bit addressable then its in individual bit has unique bit address. Refer
to fig. 2 for pin configuration and bit addressable concepts. Bits in the bit addressable RAM
can be addressed by their bit address or in the dot notation. The bit address for pin, port 0.0 is
80 hex, port 0.1 is 81 hex, port 0.2 is 82 hex and so on. The bit address for pin port1.0 is 90
hex, port 1.1 is 91hex,port 1.2 is 92hex and so on. Please note bit address and port address are
different 80 hex bit address means port P0.0 and 80 hex internal RAM address means port 0 as
a complete. There are separate instruction for addressing bit and byte it is the instruction which
decides whether bit is addressed or byte is addressed 89C51 has instruction to clear the bit ,set

25
the bit, compliment the bit OR the bit ,AND the bit and conditional jump instruction depending
on , the bit is set or clear.
The pins of the port 3 have alternate use. 89C51 has built in serial interface two pins are used
for this purpose. Serial data will be always received on port pin P3.0, so the port 3.0 is labeled
as RXD and serial data will be transmitted on port pin P3.1,so the port 3.1 is labeled as TXD.
External interrupt if used will be connected to port pin P3.2 and P3.3. So these pins are labeled
as INT0 and INT1 89C51 has two timer/ counter module they can count pulses appearing a
port pin P3.4 and P3.5 these pins are labeled T0 and T1 respectively
If external ROM or RAM has to be interfaced then port 0 is used as 8 bit multiplexed AD bus.
AD0 TO AD7. And port 2 is used as higher order Addressed Bus A8 to A15. the function of
pin ALE is same as in 8085, to generate strobe for latching lower order address byte. Port pin
P3.6 and P6.7 are connected to WR and RD/ for external RAM.
From the practical point of view, we can say that 89C51 has 4K on chip Flash ROM and 256
byte of on chip RAM called internal RAM plus it has two timer/ counter module, serial
interface, four 8-bit ports, interrupt handling logic as standard feature. It can also address 64K
external RAM , and /or remaining 60K of external ROM. But as many as 80 pins are used to
interfacing external memory. As so many pin are lost in interfacing, design using these external
memory are not preferred , if one needs more RAM one can use serial EEROM , which are
more economical, and used 3 lines for interfacing.
89C51 has wonderful features it has multiprocessing mode in this mode, there is one master
89C51 and no’s of other slave 89C51 master can communicate with the slave 89C51,sharing
the common serial bus, without disturbing other 89C51 even though they are connected to
common serial bus. This feature is quite advanced. We just mention that chips in the MCS-51
have multiprocessing capability and is not advised to go into details of it unless person gathers
basic skill in programming.

3.4 Interupts

We have seen earlier that many times, processor has to respond to event happening real time
world. The event may take place at any time. Interrupts handling logic is incorporated inside
the chip, for this purpose. In such a case, Processor will suspend current execution of the
program, & branch to interrupt service routine. After finishing, it will resume the suspended
work.

26
 The situation can be seen very frequently, in our every day life. Suppose a person is busy in
doing some work, say writing a letter and all of a sudden telephone ring. Then the person will
stop writing the book, ans. the telephone, & resume the writing the book. Some time there are
4,5 telephone lines are available. In that case he may have to decide about to priority, in
answering the phone. Some times he himself is very busy in imp. meeting,& does not want to
get disturbed by the phone calls. All this types of situations exist in microprocessor world also.
Those of you who are familiar with 8085 will recall that 8085 can handle 5 different
interrupts. 89C51 can also respond to 5 different interrupting lines, equivalent of having 5
telephone lines. Two are external interrupts they are called INT0, INT1 at port pin P3.2 & P3.3
respectively. If these interrupts are activated & enable in software the program will branch to
location 0003 & 0013 hex of program memory (ROM). 89C51 have two timers/counter
modules. These counters are UPCOUNTERS only. When counting starts, during the course of
counting whenever they overflow from FFFF to 0000, timer overflow flag, TF0, TF1 is set, &
interrupts are generated. If the interrupts are enable in software then the will branch to location
0000bB hex. and 0001B hex respectively. 89C51 has built in serial interface. Whenever
serial data is received, Receipt Interrupt Bit RI is set and whenever data is fully shifted out
Transmit Interrupt bit TI is set. The RI & TI together generate one interrupt, called serial
interrupt. If this interrupt is enabled in software then the program will branch to location 0023
hex. in ROM memory.
The 8051 microcontroller can recognize five different events that cause the main program to
interrupt from the normal execution. These five sources of interrupts in 8051are:
Timer 0 overflow interrupt- TF0
Timer 1 overflow interrupt- TF1
External hardware interrupt- INT0
External hardware interrupt- INT1
Serial communication interrupt- RI/TI
The Timer and Serial interrupts are internally generated by the microcontroller, whereas the
external interrupts are generated by additional interfacing devices or switches that are
externally connected to the microcontroller. These external interrupts can be edge triggered or
level triggered. When an interrupt occurs, the microcontroller executes the interrupt service
routine so that memory location corresponds to the interrupt that enables it. The Interrupt
corresponding to the memory location is given in the interrupt vector table below.
.

27
A real model of a standard impulse voltage generator was developed using MATLAB Simulink. This
modeling technique could be extended to some other applications in the area of power electronics, power
systems, etc. The simulation circuit closely approximated the actual base impulse generator. The
resistance value of the stage front resistor also has an impact on the time to peak and, in actual impulse
generators; this value is adjusted to correct the time to be in tolerance. The value of the actual tail resistor
was used in the simulation and resulted in the wave tail time (T2) within tolerance. The peak voltage also
was well within tolerance and closely approximated the base impulse generator. The initial charge of each
stage capacitor is the most common method of adjusting the actual peak test output voltage. The
simulation circuit resulted in close to actual impulse generator 1.2×50µs wave shape for the test voltages.
The major problem observed in high voltage field is the testing of HV equipment in the lab. The voltage
ratings of the different equipments are different there by it requires different rating high voltage impulse
generators and the associated equipments. It is very difficult to setup those practically. In this paper it is
found that the above complication can reduced by means of efficient simulation software. This can also
save expense and time by not actually performing test impulse attempts.

Interrupt Structure of 89C51 Microcontroller

Upon ‘RESET’ all the interrupts get disabled, and therefore, all these interrupts must be enabled by a
software. In all these five interrupts, if anyone or all are activated, this sets the corresponding interrupt
flags as shown in the figure. All these interrupts can be set or cleared by bit in some special function
register that is Interrupt Enabled (IE), and this in turn depends on the priority, which is executed by IP
interrupt priority register.

28
Interrupt Enable (IE) Register
This register is responsible for enabling and disabling the interrupt. It is a bit addressable register
in which EA must be set to one for enabling interrupts. The corresponding bit in this register
enables particular interrupt like timer, external and serial inputs. In the below IE register, bit
corresponding to 1 activates the interrupt and 0 disables the interrupt.

Interrupt Priority Register (IP)

It is also possible to change the priority levels of the interrupts by setting or clearing the
corresponding bit in the Interrupt priority (IP) register as shown in the figure. This allows the low
priority interrupt to interrupt the high-priority interrupt, but prohibits the interruption by another

29
low-priority interrupt. Similarly, the high-priority interrupt cannot be interrupted. If these
interrupt priorities are not programmed, the microcontroller executes in predefined manner and
its order is INT0, TF0, INT1, TF1, and SI
.

TCON Register
In addition to the above two registers, the TCON register specifies the type of external
interrupt to the 8051 microcontroller, as shown in the figure. The two external interrupts,
whether edge or level triggered, specify by this register by a set, or cleared by
appropriate bits in it. And, it is also a bit addressable register.

30
3.5 Interrupt Programming in 89C51

1.Timer Interrupt Programming

Timer 0 and Timer 1 interrupts are generated by the timer register bits TF0 and TF1. These
interrupts programming by C code involves:
1. Selecting the timer by configuring TMOD register and its mode of operation.
2. Choosing and loading the initial values of TLx and THx for appropriate modes.
3. Enabling the IE registers and corresponding timer bit in it.
4. Setting the timer run bit to start the timer.
5. Writing the subroutine for the timer for time required and clear timer value TRx at the end of
subroutine

2.External Hardware Interrupt Programming

8051 microcontrollers consists of two external hardware interrupts: INT0 and INT1 as discussed
earlier. These are enabled at pin 3.2 and pin 3.3. These can be edge triggered or level triggered. In
level triggering, the low at pin 3.2 enables the interrupt, while at pin 3.2 – the high to low
transition enables the edge triggered interrupt. This edge triggering or level triggering is decided
by the TCON register that has been discussed above. The programming procedure in 8051 is as
follows:
Enable the corresponding bit of external interrupt in IE register.
If it is level triggering, just write the subroutine appropriate to this interrupt, or else enable the
TCON register bit corresponding to the edge triggered interrupt – whether it is INT0 or INT1

3.Serial Communication Interrupt Programming

Serial communication interrupts come into picture when there is a need to send or receive data.
Since one interrupt bit is set for both TI (Transfer Interrupt) and RI (Receiver Interrupt) flags,
Interrupt Service routine must examine these flags to know the actual interrupt..

3.6 Instruction Set

31
 INSTRUCTION SET

The Instruction Set of Mcs-51 Family Is Divided In Divided In To Five Groups

1. The Data Transfer Group: Instruction in these groups will move the data
within different parts of the memory. The main instructions are MOV,
MOVX, MOVC, PUSH POP, and EXCH. These instructions will not affect
any flag.

2. Arithmetic Operation Group:- Instruction in this group are ADD,ADDC add

with carry. SUBB subtract with borrow. MUL, multiply. DIV, divide. INC,
DEC. these instruction affect the C carry, AC Auxiliary Carry, and OV
overflow flags.
3. Logical Operation Group These instruction consist of ANDing, ORing,
XORing, RR,RRC rotate right with or without carry, RL,RLC rotate left with
or without carry, clear and swap.

4. Bit Manipulation or Boolean Instruction Group:- The set includes SETB,

set bit, CLR clear bit, CPL, Compliment the Bit, MOV bit, AND Bit, OR Bits.

5. Branching or Machine control Group :- There are two types of branching

instruction, Conditional and Unconditional. Unconditional branching includes
instruction like JUMP and CALL. These instructions are similar to GOTO
instruction in Higher Level Language like BASIC. In case of conditional
branching, Branching will take place depending upon the result of the
operation. These include JZ, JNZ, and jump on Zero or not zero. JC, JNC.
Jump on carry/no carry. JB, JNB. JUMP IF Bit is set or cleared. CJNE,
compare and jump not equal. DJNZ, decrement and jump if not zero. These

32
CHAPTER 4

WORKING COMPONENTS

4.1 Power Supply Section

Although batteries can be used as input to the 7805 Voltage Regulator IC, we face certain bumps
like frequent discharge of batteries and reduction of battery voltage levels over a period of time.

The best alternative to using Batteries is to provide an unregulated but rectified DC Voltage from
an AC Source. Since AC Source is easily available as mains supply, we can design a circuit to
convert AC Mains to DC and provide it as input to the 7805 Voltage regulator IC.

Bridge Rectifier with Voltage regulator IC and Shunt Capacitance

as filter.

Working
The AC power supply from mains first gets converted into and unregulated DC and then into a
constant regulated DC with the help of this circuit. The circuit is made up of transformer, bridge
rectifier made up from diodes, linear voltage regulator 7805 and capacitors.
If you observe, the working of the circuit can be divided into two parts. In the first part, the AC
Mains is converted into unregulated DC and in the second part, this unregulated DC is converted
into regulated 5V DC. So, let us start discussing the working with this in mind.

33
Initially, a 230V to 12V Step down transformer is taken and its primary is connected to mains
supply. The secondary of the transformer is connected to Bridge rectifier (either a dedicated IC
or a combination of 4 1N4007 Diodes can be used).
A 1A fuse is placed between the transformer and the bridge rectifier. This will limit the current
drawn by the circuit to 1A. The rectified DC from the bridge rectifier is smoothened out with the
help of 1000μF Capacitor.
So, the output across the 1000μF Capacitor is unregulated 12V DC. This is given as an input to
the 7805 Voltage Regulator IC. 7805 IC then converts this to a regulated 5V DC and the output
can be obtained at its output terminals

4.2 Automatic Street Light Circuit and LDR

Automatic Street light is the bird from Flintstones which will turn on all the street lights in the
absence of sunlight and switch it off in the presence of sunlight.
To implement it on practical circuits we need
[1]Opamp CA3140
[2]Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
[3]Resistor (100k, 560E, 1k, 100k)
[4]Capacitor (10µF)
[5]Transister (BC548)

Working of Automatic Street Lightning

Resistor 10k and resistor 560E are connected to works as a potential divider and are built across
the inverting input (pin-2) and LDR and resistor 10K are connected to works as a potential
divider and built across the non-inverting input (pin-3) of the opamp CA3140. Both the
potential divider, opamp and relay are connected across a 5V supply. The base of transistor
BC548 is connected to the output pin (pin-6) of the opamp through a 1k resistor and its
collector and emitter are connected to the relay and GND respectively. A capacitor is used
across the base of the transistor and GND to remove the noise present during the AC-DC
conversion. Relay which works on both AC and DC provides isolation between the controller
circuit and the street lights.

34
Op-amp compares the analog input of both inverting and non-inverting circuits to give a
digital output to the transistor which switches the relay in the terminal between NO and NC.
During daytime the resistance of LDR is low in the range of 5kΩ therefore analog voltage
across the inverting pin is more than the analog voltage across the non-inverting pin. So the
output pin (pin-6) is low and transistor goes to the cut-off region; makes all the street lights
switched off. But in nighttime the resistance of the LDR is very high in the range of 1MΩ
resulting in the decreases in the analog voltage across the inverting pin than the non-inverting
pin which makes the transistor in conduction region. Thus all the transistor again turned on
during night time.

Circuit Diagram of Automatic Street Lightning

Development of LDR
It is said that “On the Flintstones, a small bird sits inside the light and turns it on every night
before he goes to bed”. But in 21st century that small bird’s duty is done by a small photo
sensitive resister. Light Dependent Resister (LDR) is made up of light sensing material called
Cadmium Sulphide i.e. Cds.
LDR is a Cadmium Sulphide photo resister that changes its resister according to the spectrum of
light falls on it. Its resistance is 1MΩ in the absence of sunlight and 5kΩ in the presence of
sunlight. So when there is complete darkness it conducts electricity very poorly due to high
resistance and when there is a visible spectrum of light it conducts electricity very well.

35
So according to problem statement (1) the classical street lights
• Are remain switched on in the presence of sunlight.
• Need manual switching.
• Need man power.
• Face variable On-period due to change in seasons.
• Less reliable.
• Waste of huge amount of energy unnecessarily.
To overcome this problem we can connect a relay in series with all the street lights which will
receives the signals from LDR where to switch the street lights on or off. By using this concept
we can develop an automatic street light.

4.3 Motion Detection

.

According to problem statement (2) all the classical street lights are remain switched on from
6 pm to 6 am whether there is a pedestrian or vehicle is present or not present of any activity.
The most probable peak time of movement is from 6 pm to 10 pm in a smart city; so after 10pm
all the street lights are glowing at its full intensity which leads to loss of enormous amount of
energy. So to overcome this problem if we can install a small motion detection device which
will control the street light to glow at its 100% only in the presence of any activity in the street.
To overcome this problem we can use passive infrared motion sensor (PIR) or proximity
sensor or photoelectric beam detector.

PIR sensors are made up of pyro-electric crystalline elements which detects the change of
thermal energy due to the emission of infrared rays by the pedestrian or any animals. Infrared
radiation which is not visible to normal eyes is present in electromagnetic spectrum whose
wavelength is longer than the sunlight. When an object goes in front of its nominal range; it
produce infrared radiation of wavelength 9.4µm which falls on the surface of PIR. The amount
of infrared radiation falls on the surface of crystalline material generates that amount of
charge which is sensed by the built in FET of the PIR sensor. The sensed charged by the
FET is conditioned, compared and amplified by the module and switches on the electrical or
electronic circuit connected to it.

36
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PASSIVE INFRARED
SENSOR

The pin-2 of FET is connected to ground through a resistor of 100k and got fed to signal
conditioning circuit two stage amplifier whose bandwidth is restricted up to 10Hz.Then a
comparator circuit is connected next to it which sense the positive transition and negative
transition of the amplifier and gives a sinusoidal output. A voltage source of 3-15 volt is given
to the pin-1 of FET.

Disadvantages of PIR
• A focusing device like Fresnel lens is required in front of its crystal material.
• Radiation from the body should pass through sensor in a horizontal fashion.
• It is unable to sense object that doesn’t emits infrared radiations.

The proximity sensor detects the objects without any physical contact within the nominal
range of its electromagnetic radiations. It senses the change in the
electromagnetic field and corresponding return signal from the object. These type of
sensor are of capacitive proximity sensor and inductive inductive proximity sensor.
Capacitive proximity sensors are effective for plastic and polymeric target whereas inductive
proximity sensors are effective for metal targets. This type of sensors are reliable as it doesn’t
have mechanical physical parts. Proximity sensors are good for either vehicle movement
recognition or pedestrian movements.

Photoelectric beam detector use infrared rays that travel from source to receiver. When an
object passes through the path of that infrared radiation, the infrared radiation is covered by the
object and presence of any pedestrian or vehicle is detected.

37
Disadvantages of this type of sensor is that it needs maintenance and calibration on a regular
basis. It needs an alignment of source and receiver otherwise it doesn’t work properly.

4.4 Buffer IC

A digital buffer (or a voltage buffer) is an electronic circuit element that is used to isolate the
input from the output, providing either no voltage or a voltage that is same as the input voltage. It
draws very little current and will not disturb the original circuit. It is also called a unity gain
buffer because it provides a gain of 1, which means it provides at most the same voltage as the
input voltage, serving no amplification function.

A voltage buffer has a very high input impedance (the opposition to current flow viewed from the
load). The high input impedance is the reason a voltage buffer is used. A circuit with a voltage
buffer will always draw a little amount of current because of the high input impedance of the
buffer. As a result, the power source will not be affected.

The digital buffer is important because it can control the on and off of data transmission, which is
used widely in the world of registers (sophisticated data storage device) and buses (data
transferring device). A typical digital buffer that is used to control multiple data inputs written
onto a bus is a Tri-State Digital Buffer, which controls the data flow by "tri-state" pins.

Functionality

A digital buffer serves to transfer a voltage from a circuit that has a high output impedance level,
to a second circuit with a low input impedance level. If we have a power source and a low
impedance (resistor) load without a buffer, according to Ohm's law (voltage is equal to current
times resistance), a huge amount of current is drawn from the source. As a result, huge amounts
of power is drawn by the power source, which causes high disturbances. A voltage buffer always
has a very high input impedance, approaching infinity; as a result, no matter what value the load
impedance is, the source voltage will be totally spanned on the buffer impedance (because of
Ohm's law); the voltage across the buffer impedance is the input voltage. Because the resistance
is infinity, the circuit will draw very little current, and will not disturb the original circuit.
Because the output current is generated by the voltage source via buffer, the buffer acts as a

38
barrier between the source and load, thus preventing the load resistance affecting the source
network.

Digital Buffer IC
Single Input Voltage Buffer
Inverting Buffer
This kind of buffer produces the state opposite to the input. If the input is high, the output is low
and vice versa. Graphically, it is often represented as a triangle with a small circle attaching to
the tip. The inverter is a basic building block in digital electronics. Decoders, state machines, and
other sophisticated digital devices may use inverters.

Non-Inverting Buffer
This kind of buffer performs no inversion or decision-making possibilities. A single input digital
buffer is different from an inverter. It does not invert or alter its input signal in any way. It reads
an input and outputs a value. Usually, the input side reads either HIGH or LOW input and
outputs a HIGH or LOW value, correspondingly. Whether the output terminal sends off HIGH or
LOW signal is determined by its input value. The output value will be high if and only if the
input value is high. In other words, Q will be high if and only if A is HIGH.

39
Tri-State Digital Buffer
Unlike the single input digital buffer which has only one input, Tri-state digital buffer has two
inputs: a data input and a control input. (A control input is analogous to a valve, which controls
the data flow.) When the control input is active, the output value is the input value, and the buffer
is not different from the single input digital buffer.

Active High Tri-State Digital Buffer

An active high tri-state digital buffer is a buffer with control input high as an active state.[1]
When the control input is 1, data transmission occurs. When the control input is 0

Active Low Tri-State Digital Buffer

It is basically the same as active high digital buffer except the fact that the buffer is active when
the control input is at a low state.

Inverting Tri-State Digital Buffer

Tri-State digital buffers also have inverting varieties in which the output is the inverse of the
input.

40
CHAPTER 5

Preperation of PCB

5.1 Schematic Preparation

Schematic Preperation is a circuit that is drawn either with the help of software or by manually
on paper with standard symbols. If the circuit is big and complicated then multi layer schematic
is made otherwise single layer schematic is made. The schematic is drawn with coloured pen to
indicate the different layers, power lines, signal lines and ground lines.

5.2 Artwork Preparation

After making the schematic on a paper, same is duplicated on transparent acrylic plasticsheet .
This circuit is called artwork. The artwork is made either bigger or smaller or same size of the
desired PCB .The artwork is drawn with different colour tapes to identify the signal lines, power
lines and ground lines . The artwork should be proper without leaving any connection or
making any excess connection or shorts .

5.3 Film Making

The artwork is reduced or enlarged or made of same size of the PCB on the film through the
camera . The camera produces both the positive and negative films.These films are used to
made PCB .

5.4 Etching of copper claded board

The films are put on copper claded board and the board is exposed to light. The time of exposure
depends on many factors .After the exposure of the board it is rinsed in the etching solution.
During this etching operation the exposed copper gets dissolved in the solution whereas

41
unexposed copper remains intact with the board .This unexposed copper in turn makes the
pattern what we see on PCB. The board is then washed in water with gentle brush .

5.5 Driling of holes

The PCB is now ready for drilling operation .The holes are now drilled at all places wherever
the components are to be put .The size of the drills should not be either more then the required
or less then the required. If the hole is large the it will be difficult to solder and lot of lead will be
consumed. If the hole is small then component will not be inserted easily.

5.6 Tinning of pcb

The PCB is tinned after putting the mask on PCB. This is done to insulate the patterns and avoid
any short. The mask covers the areas where the soldering is to be done.

5.7 PCB TESTING

PCB is checked for all interconnections through multimeter, whether the tracks are broken or
short at any place ,thereby correction is done through soldering.

5.8 ASSEMBLING OF THE UNIT

Components are assembled in proper direction and avoid the touching of the components to
one another. Heatsink is to be put wherever required with a heat sink compound.
After assembling the components, they are soldered and thereafter cleaned with CTC liquid.

42
CHAPTER 6

OBSERVATIONS AND OUTCOMES

For a comparative study we have to take the following assumptions:

Assumptions
• Suppose a 10 km long one-way street contains 500 street lights and the nominal range of
all the street lights are 20 meter.
• All the street lights are supposed to glow for a period of 12 hour from 6 pm to 6 am.
• One street light is supposed to consume 1 kwh power for a period of 1 hour when it
glows with its maximum intensity so that one street light consumes maximum 12kwh in
a day.
• So 500 street lights consume maximum 12kwh*500=6000kwh power in a day.
• All the vehicles are crossing the street lights at a speed of 40km/hr.
Case-1: (from 1am to 5am; let only one vehicle is in motion)
All the 500 street lights are consuming a power of 500 kwh for a period of one hour and a vehicle
is crossing the lane at a constant speed of 40 km/hr.
In conventional street light system all the street lights are supposed to consume 500 kwh.
Time required to cross the nominal range of one street light =
ℎ ℎ ℎ

20/(40 ∗ 36)

= 1.8 second or 0.5 * 10-4 hour

So every street lights will glow with 100% intensity for only 1.8 second and rest period 3598.2
second it will glow with 20% of the maximum intensity.
Now we can see that when a street light glows with its maximum intensity it consumes 1000
watts for 3600 seconds so it consumes 0.278 watts for 1 seconds with 100% intensity and 0.0278
watts with 10% intensity

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So one street light will consume 100.02 watt and 0.5 watt and total 100.52 watt power when a
vehicle crosses it. So a street having 500 street lights will consume 50.26 kw.

Case-2: (from 5am to 6am and 12 pm to 1 am; let only 10 vehicles are in motion)
If 10 vehicle crosses the street light one by one; so for a period of total 1.8 * 10 = 18 seconds
they will be in the nominal range of street lights. So total 5 watts + 99.5 watts = 104.5 watts.

Case-3: (from 10pm to 12am; let only 100 vehicles are in motion)
If 100 vehicle crosses the street light one by one; so for a period of total 1.8 * 100 = 180 seconds
they will be in the nominal range of street lights. So total 50 watts + 95watts = 145watts.

Case-4: (from 6pm to 10pm; let only 1000vehicles are in motion)

If 1000 vehicle crosses the street light one by one; so for a period of total 1.8 * 100 = 1800
seconds they will be in the nominal range of street lights. So total 500 watts + 50watts =
550watts.

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CHAPTER 7

Model Testing

Power is applied through a fuse and switch to the transformer and rectifier
circuit , the rectified voltage is measured through a multimeter /Oscilloscope.
Measure the ripple voltage .Measure the DC voltage after the filter .This voltage
is fed to a regulator MC7815 , which gives the regulated output voltage of
+15 V DC.
The suppl y voltage is given to pin no.8 of Mono stable Multivibrator NE555
IC. The control voltage is applied at pin no.2 by throwing the light on LDR. The
output state of pin no. 3 changes its state .The output of pin no.3
drives the 5 hour timer which in turn drives the relay which change s the
contact from NO to NC .
As soon as the light is removed from LDR the control voltage at pin no.
2 is changed resulting in change of state pin no 3 which drives the
relay , thereby the contact restores from NO to NC .

Result
The load is connected to the device and the sensor of the device is
kept in dark this results in switching ON of the load and it remains
ON for a period of 5 hours and after that the suppl y to the load is
withdrawn automaticall y . Th e suppl y to the load remains OFF till the
sensor is brought in darkness again .This condition will arise onl y in
the next day evening.

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CHAPTER 8

ESTIMATED COST
cost estimation is the art of assigning value. It is also a science making use of a wide range of
techniques to predict the costs of activities and assets. There exist a wide range of methods,
applications and names for estimates. It might seem like a forest full of definitions out there. We
will explain the principles of cost estimating for you in 4 easy steps:
1. Cost estimation is part of the cost engineering profession. It is used to predict the quantity, cost
and price of the resources required by the scope of a project. A project might be any process that
is started to perform work activities and/or create assets. The accuracy of the estimate depends
heavily on the level of project scope definition: as the design and conditions of the project
become better defined, so do the estimated values.

2. Cost estimation is needed to provide decision makers with the means to make investment
decisions, choose between alternatives and to set up the budget during the front end of projects.
For this, estimates made by vendors and contractors need to be validated by clients as well. In
later phases of the project, the budget estimate is used as a baseline to assess the performance of
a project.

3. Estimating is done by breaking down the total scope of a project in manageable parts, to which
resources can be assigned and costed. There are standardised ways of breaking down a project,
like the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and the Cost Breakdown Structure (CBS), but
depending on the needs of the project team and external parties multiple structures are often
implemented to align reporting and sharing of cost data.

4. A cost estimate is more than a list of costs. It also includes a detailed Basis of Estimate (BOE)
report that describes the assumptions, inclusions, exclusions, accuracy and other aspects that are
needed to interpret the total project cost. Otherwise, it would be a meaningless number. The BOE
is required to communicate the estimate to the various parties involved in the decision making,
but is also handy during close out, when the performance of the project is compared with other
projects. It is the vital part often overlooked, that allows you to learn from your experience and
mistakes.

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CHAPTER 9

Conclusion

This paper expounds the configuration and development of Smart Street lighting control
framework circuit. Circuit meets expectations appropriately to turn road light ON/OFF. In the
wake of planning the circuit which controls the light of the road as delineated in the past
segments. LDR sensor and the object sensors are the two fundamental conditions in living up to
expectations the circuit. On the off chance that the two conditions have been fulfilled the circuit
will do the wanted work as indicated by the particular system. Every sensor controls the killing
ON or the lighting segment. The road lights have been effectively controlled by Arduino UNO.
With orders from the controller, the lights will be ON in the spots of the movements. Besides the
downside of the road light framework utilizing timer controller has been succeeded, where th e
framework relies on upon photoelectric sensor. At long last this control circuit can be utilized as
a part of a long roadway between the urban areas as well as the rural areas.

The venture points were to lessen the reactions of the present street lighting framework and
discover an answer for power loss. In this venture, the first thing to do is to set up the inputs and
yields of the framework to control the lights of the street. The model acts not surprisingly and
will turn out to be exceptionally valuable and will satisfy all the present limitations if actualized
on a vast scale.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS REFERRED:

Adler, R. B., A. C. Smith, and R. L. Longani: “Introduction to Semiconductor Physics,” vol. 1,

p. 78, Semiconductor Electronics Education Comitee, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
,1964.

Schade, O. H.: “Analysis of Rectifier Operation”, proc. IRE, vol.31, pp. 341-361, July, 1943.

Stout, M. B.: “Analysis of Rectifier Circuits”, Elec. Eng., vol. 54, September, 1935.

Jacob Millman Christos C. Halkias.: “Electronic Devices And Circuits”, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd. Sep, 2003.

Fair, Z. E.: “Piezoelectric Crystals in Oscillator Circuits”, Bell System Tech. J., vol.24, April,
1945.

Hakim, S. s.:”Open and Closed Loop Response of Feedback Amplifiers”, Electron. Eng.,
October, 1962

Bode, H. W.: “Negative Feedback in Current Amplifier Design,” D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1945.

Sawhney, A.K.: “Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instruments”, Dhanpat Rai & Co.
2003.

Yang, E.S: “Fundamentals of Semiconductor Devices”, chap. 1 McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York, 1978.

Shive, J.N.: “Semiconductor Devices”, chaps 8&9, D.Van Nostrand Inc. Princeton, N.J., 1959.

Millman, J.: “Microelectronics: Digital and Analog Circuits and Systems”, McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York, 1979.

Roger L Stevens : “Serial Communications”, Dontrics, 1997

Robert Terusalim: “Programming in Luo” 2-nd edition, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
Princeton, N.J., 1987.

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