CE 111

Hydraulic Engineering

RESERVOIRS

Cornelio Q. Dizon
Assistant Professor
Institute of Civil Engineering
University of the Philippines
Reservoir Reliability

• The reliability of a reservoir is defined as the probability that it

will deliver the expected demand throughout its lifetime without
incurring a deficiency.
• In this sense, lifetime is taken as the economic life, which is
usually between 50 and 100 years.
• We may estimate the reliability by generating stochastically 500
to 1000 traces, each trace equal in length to the adopted project life.
• An example of reliability curve is shown in Figure 7.8 that
indicates the probability that the demands during the project life
can be met as a function of reservoir capacity.
• For the stream referring to the figure, a reservoir capacity of
615,000 acre-ft is required if a reliability of 99.5% is desired while
550,000 acre-ft are adequate if a reliability of 95% is acceptable.
• In stochastic hydrology, zero risk or 100% reliability is impossible
and the traditional concept of safe yield or firm yield is meaningless.
• The use of reliability analysis permits one to compare the costs of
achieving various levels of reliability and determine whether an
increase in reliability is warranted.
Sediment Transport by Streams

• Every stream carries some suspended sediment and moves larger

solids along the stream bed as bed load.
• Though suspended sediments are heavier than water, upward
currents in the turbulent flow counters the gravitational settling and
when sediment-laden water reaches a reservoir, velocity and
turbulence are greatly reduced.
• The larger suspended particles and most of the bed load are
deposited as delta at the head of the reservoir.
• Smaller particles remain in suspension and are deposited farther
down the reservoir, although very small particles may remain in
suspension for a long time and some may pass thru the dam with
water discharged through the sluiceways, turbines or the spillway.
• Sediment load is expressed in parts per million (ppm), computed
by dividing weight of the sediment by the weight of the sediment
and water in the sample and multiplying the quotient by 106.
• The sample is usually collected in a bottle held in a sampler that
is designed to avoid distortion of the streamlines of flow so as to
collect a representative sample of the sediment-laden water.
• The relation between suspended-sediment transport Qs and
streamflow Q is often represented by a logarithmic plot which may
be expressed mathematically by the equation where n commonly
varies between 2 and 3:

Q  kQ
s
n
• The total amount of sediment that passes any section of stream is
referred to as the sediment yield or sediment production.
• Mean annual sediment-production rates in US watersheds
generally range from 200 to 4,000 tons/mi2.
 RESERVOIR Sedimentation
“almost every reservoir in the world grow old, get filled by
sediments, waste, and organic matter and inevitably dry-up..”

Sedimentation Bathymetric change Capacity change

Reservoi
r Bathymetric change,
Watershed input, shoreline Erosion, deposition, reservoir capacity
erosion, anthropogenic waste resuspension, sediment change, limited
disposal, organic loading, etc. transport, etc. reservoir reliability
Reservoir Sedimentation
River
Sediment
Transport


Suspended Load

Bed Load
Stream Sediment Transport
• Bed sediment load (ton) is estimated theoretically
(sediment size distribution vs. stream flow rates).
Constitutes 5 to 25 % of suspended load.
• Sediment rating curve is much less accurate
than the corresponding stream flow rating curve.
Reservoir
Sedimentation
• Reservoir planning must include
consideration of the probable rate of
sedimentation in order to determine
whether the useful life of the
proposed reservoir will be sufficient
to warrant its construction.
Reservoir Sedimentation

• The ultimate destiny of all reservoirs is to be filled with sediments.

• If the sediment inflow is large, the useful life of the reservoir will
be short i.e. a small water-supply reservoir on the Solomon River
near Osborne, Kansas was filled with sediments during the first year
after its completion.

•The specific weight of settled sediments vary with the age of the
deposit and the character of the sediments.

• Specific weights (dry) of sediment samples from reservoirs range

from about 40 to 90 pcf with an average of about 50 pcf for fresh
sediments and 80 pcf for old sediments.

• The specific weight (dry) of deposited sediment can be estimated

using the following equation:

W
% sand
W1  B1 log T   % silt W2  B2 log T   % clay W3  B3 log T 
100 100 100
 In which W is the specific weight (dry) of a deposit with an
age of T years.
 the percent of sand, silt, and clay is on a weight basis.
 W1, W2, W3 represent the specific weights of sand, silt, and
clay at the end of first year.
 B1, B2, B3 are constants having the same units as W that
relate to the compaction characteristics of these soil types.
 The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1987) classifies reservoir
operation according to the following: (Source: Mays)

• The specific weight /density of the sediment deposits is estimated

using:
W  Wc Pc  Wm Pm  Ws Ps
• Where W is the specific weight in pcf (or density in kg/m3) Pc, Pm,
and Ps are percentage of clay, silt, and sand respectively. Wc, Wm,
and Ws are the coefficients of the specific weight of clay, silt, and
sand respectively in pcf (kg/m3) obtained from Table 18.8.1 (Mays)

• Miller (1953) developed an approximation for the average specific

weight/density of sediment deposited WT of age T years as follows:

 T 
WT  W0  0.4343 K  (ln T )  1
T  1 
Where W0 is the initial specific weight (density) derived from the
previous equation and K is a constant based on the type of
reservoir operation and sediment size analysis.

• K is expressed as :

K  K C PC  K m Pm  K S PS
Where Ks, Km, and Kc are found in Table 18.8.2 (Mays)
Example 7: (Estimating specific weight)
Estimate the specific weight (dry) of deposited sediment that is
always submerged. The sediment is 20% sand, 30% silt, and 50%
clay by weight. Calculate the specific weights of the deposited
material and the volume occupied by 500 tons of sediments after 2
years and 10 years.

Solution:
Substitute all given values to the specific weight equation:
W  0.20  93 + 0   0.30  65 + 5.7logT   0.50  30 + 16logT 
Compute specific weight for each year:
For T = 1, W = 53.1 pcf
For T = 2, W = 56.0 pcf
For T = 10, W = 62.8 pcf
Compute for volume:
500  2000
Volume (2nd year) =  17,857 ft 3
56
500  2000
Volume (10 year) =
th  15,920 ft 3
62.8
Trap Efficiency
• The percentage of the inflowing sediment that is retained in a
reservoir, called the trap efficiency, is a function of the ratio of
reservoir capacity to total inflow.
• Figure 7.12 relates reservoir-trap efficiency to the capacity-inflow
ratio on the basis of data from surveys of existing reservoirs.
• The trap efficiency of a reservoir decreases with age as the
reservoir capacity is reduced by sediment accumulation.
• The complete filling of the reservoir may require a very long time,
but actually the useful life of the reservoir is terminated when the
capacity occupied by sediment is sufficient to prevent the reservoir
from serving its intended purpose.
• Figure 7.12 may be used to estimate the amount of sediment a
reservoir will trap if the average annual sediment load of the stream
is known.The volume occupied by this sediment can be computed
using a reasonable value of specific weight for the deposited
sediment.The useful life may be computed by determining the total
time required to fill the critical storage volume.
•Sediment transport fluctuates widely from near zero during dry
weather to extremely large quantities during major floods.
 Example 8: (Estimating probable life of a reservoir)

Using Figure 7.12, determine the probable life of a reservoir with an

initial capacity of 30,000 acre-ft if the average annual inflow is
60,000 acre-ft and the average annual sediment inflow is 200,000
tons.
Assume a specific weight of 70 pcf for the sediment deposits. The
useful life of the reservoir will terminate when 80% of its initial
capacity is filled with sediments.
Note: 1 ac-ft = 43,560 ft3 = 1525 tons for 70 pcf.
.
Capacity Capacity- Trap efficiency (%) Annual Sediment Increment Years to
(ac-ft) inflow ratio At indicated volume Average for increment Tons ac-ft ac-ft fill
30,000 0.5 96.0
24,000 0.4 95.5 95.7 191,400 126 6000 48
18,000 0.3 95.0 95.2 190,400 125 6000 48
12,000 0.2 93.0 94.0 188,000 123 6000 49
6,000 0.1 87.0 90.0 180,000 118 6000 51
Assignment 3:

A reservoir has an initial capacity 60,000 acre-ft and receives an

average annual inflow of 200,000 acre-ft. The average annual
sediment inflow is expected to be 4000 acre-ft and the deposited
sediment composition is 25 percent sand, 35 percent silt, 40
percent clay. The sediment is always submerged.

a.) Neglecting consolidation of sediments, determine the annual

reservoir capacity for the first 5 years of reservoir life.

b.) Compute the specific weights of the deposited sediments from

the 1st year to the 5th year.

c.) Considering consolidation of sediments, determine the annual

reservoir capacity for the first 5 years of reservoir life.
 RESERVOIR Sedimentation
35

30

25
CAPACITY (X 103 MCM)

20

15

10

0
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
 RESERVOIR Sedimentation
7

5
CAPACITY (X 106 ac-ft)

0
1870 1910 1950 1990 2030 2090
Estimating and Measuring Reservoir
Sedimentation
Annual sediment accumulation rate:
sv
S 100  % per year
rv  n
Where sv is the accumulated sediment volume, rv is the original
reservoir volume and n is the total number of years of accumulation

o Estimating Reservoir Sedimentation Rates

a. Regional Rate of Storage Loss
b. Regional Regression Relationship
c. Reservoir Capacity Correlation
Regional Rate of Storage Loss
This method uses available data from reservoir sedimentation
surveys within a specific region to develop a relationship
between annual storage loss and watershed size.
Regional Regression Relationship
This method uses available sedimentation data to generate a
relationship between sediment yield and watershed
characteristics. This method requires data points to derive
regression equations.
 
0.46
S Q  A
 C1   1.43  0.26 log    for Q<2 in/yr
SR  QR    AR 
 Q 
S 0.11    A 
 C2 e  QR 
  for Q>2 in/yr
1.43 0.26 log  
SR   AR 
A  watershed area, mi 2 (km 2 )
A R = reference watershed area value, 1.0 (2.50)
C1  coeffecient, 1.07 (0.375)
C 2  coeffecient, 1.19 (0.417)
Q = mean annual runoff depth, in/yr (mm/yr)
QR = reference runoff depth value, 2 in/yr (50.8 mm/yr)
S = specific sediment yield, ton/mi 2 /yr (ton/km 2 /yr)
S R = reference specific yield value value, 1645 ton/mi 2 /yr (635 ton/km 2 /yr)
Example 9: Estimating Reservoir Sedimentation Rates
Derive the sedimentation rate filling a reservoir (design
capacity of 18,000 ac-ft) with an upstream drainage area
coverage of 157 mi2 and mean annual runoff depth of 5.40
in/year. Use the regional regression relationship method.
Specific weight of sediments is 81 lb/ft3.
Solution:
The reference watershed, runoff and specific sediment yield
values will be:
AR= 1.0
QR= 2 in/yr
SR= 1645 ton/mi2/yr
Next, since Q is greater than 2 inches per year, use equation 2
and solve for specific sediment yield (S), where C2 = 1.19.

 5.4 
S 0.11    157  
 1.19e  2.0 
1.43  0.26 log  
1645   1.0 
S = 125 ton/mi2/yr
Then, multiply the specific sediment yield (S) by the
drainage area (A) to obtain tons of sediment entering the
reservoir per year.
S = 1,250 ton/mi2/yr × 157 mi2 = 196,000 ton/yr
Next, convert this to acre-feet per year by using the
measured (or estimated) specific weight of the sediment
deposits (81 lb/ft3).
196,000 ton 2000 lbs ft 3 ac-ft
S    3
 111 ac-ft/yr
yr ton 81lb 43,560ft
Finally, divide the annual sediment load by the original reservoir
capacity (at spillway) and multiply this by 100 to determine the
annual percent loss of storage capacity in the reservoir.

Sedimentation Rate = 111 ac-ft/yr ÷ 18,000 ac-ft × 100 =

0.62 %/yr
 Reservoir Capacity Correlation
Using sedimentation data, an inverse correlation between
reservoir capacity and the annual sedimentation rate is
developed. Depends largely on climate, geology and
topography similarity. Using the graph can provide a rough
estimate, or first approximation, of the sediment accumulation
rate based on reservoir size only.
4.0
AVERAGE ANNUAL LOSS OF STORAGE (%)

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Sediment Management Methods
Minimize sediments entering
reservoir:
o Watershed management
Sediment Management Methods
Minimize sediments entering
reservoir:
o Watershed management

o Upstream trapping
Sediment Management Methods
Agno River Watershed
Minimize sediments entering
Reservoir structures
reservoir:
o Watershed management

o Upstream trapping

o Locate reservoir off-stream

Sediment Management Methods
Minimize sediments entering reservoir:

o Watershed management

o Upstream trapping

o Locate reservoir off-

stream
o Preserve,
enhance, restore
and construct
wetlands
Sediment Management Methods
Minimize deposition of sediment in the reservoir:
o Sediment Pass-through
the practice of allowing high runoff events, which typically carry large
sediment loads, to flow unimpeded through the reservoir basin after
the reservoir has been partially or fully drawn down.
Sediment Management Methods
Minimize deposition of sediment in the reservoir:
o Density Current Vending
As the turbid, more dense, water enters the reservoir, it will “plunge” to
the bottom with minimal mixing. If it is strong, and lasts long enough, for
it to reach the dam, the sediment-laden water can be discharged
through low-level outlets (vented)
Sediment Management Methods
Minimize deposition of sediment in the reservoir:
o Sediment by-pass
Runoff flows are monitored and when heavy sediment loads are
detected, they are intercepted by a diversion structure upstream of
the reservoir and are transported around the reservoir using a canal or
pipeline.
Sediment Management Methods
Minimize deposition of sediment in the reservoir:
o Hydrosuction by-pass
Like sediment bypass, hydrosuction bypass intercepts all or a portion of
the sediment-load (depending on the grain size) before it enters the
reservoir and transports it downstream of the dam.
Sediment Management Methods
Remove sediments from reservoir:
o Sediment flushing
Sediment flushing re-mobilizes sediments previously deposited in a
reservoir by drawing down the water level and letting the water flow
out through low-level outlets in the dam.
Sediment Management Methods
Remove sediments from reservoir:
o Excavation
Excavation of sediment from a reservoir using heavy equipment. The
reservoir must be at least partially drawn down for extended periods,
resulting in a temporary reduction in storage capacity and associated
impacts to water users. Excavation and dredging require a place to
temporarily store or permanently dispose of sediments.
Sediment Management Methods
Remove sediments from reservoir:
o Dredging
Similar to the principle of excavation but with the use of a mechanical
pump to provide the energy or driving power to remove and transport
deposited sediment. It also includes floating barge and pipeline of
sufficient size to remove targeted sediments.
 Reservoir Sedimentation Control

1. The most common procedure for dealing with the sediment

problem is to designate a portion of the reservoir capacity as
sediment storage.
- Negative approach that in no way reduces the sediment
accumulation but merely postpones the date when it becomes
serious.
- Since sediment is deposited all through the reservoir, the
allocation for sediment storage cannot be exclusively in dead
storage but must include some otherwise useful storage.
2. Reservoir sedimentation cannot be prevented, but may be
retarded. One way of doing this is to select a site where the
sediment inflow is naturally low.
- Sedimentation depends on soil type, land slopes, vegetal
cover, and rainfall characteristics.
- If alternative sites exist, prolific sediment sources should be
avoided.
3. Some reduction in sediment inflow to a reservoir is possible by
use of soil-conservation methods within the drainage basin.
- Terraces, strip cropping, contour plowing, and similar
techniques retard overland flow and reduce erosion.
4. Check dams in gullies retain some sediment and prevent it from
entering the streams.
5. Stream-bank protection by revetment, vegetation, or other
means is a necessary feature of a sediment-control plan.
6. Physical removal of sediment deposits or dredging is sometimes
feasible.
7. Sluice gates near the base of the dam may permit flushing some
sediment downstream, but the removal will not extend far upstream
from the dam.
Stream-bank protection by vegetation
Stream-bank protection by vegetation
Bank protection using wooden barriers
Bank protection using wooden barriers
Stepped watershed for sediment control
Sluice gate flushing of sediments from reservoir
Sluice gate flushing of sediments from reservoir
Sluice gate flushing of sediments from reservoir
Mechanical desilting / Dredging from reservoir
Wind Setup and Waves in Reservoirs

When an earth dam is designed, the crest of the dam must be

made higher than the maximum pool level in the reservoir to
prevent overtopping of the dam as the wind-generated waves
strike the face of it.

The additional height allowance given to the crest to take care of

wave action and setup is called the freeboard.

Wind setup is the tilting of the reservoir water surface caused by

the movement of the water surface toward the leeward shore
under the action of the wind. The wind setup may be estimated by

Vw = wind speed in km per hour

V F
2
F = fetch, length of water surface over which the
zs  w
wind blows in kilometers
63,200  d
d = average depth of the lake along the fetch in
meters
Example 10: Wind Setup

A reservoir is oval shaped with a length of 16 km and a width

of 8 km. If the wind blows in a direction lengthwise to the
reservoir with a velocity of 36 m/s, what will be the set-up if
the average depth is 6 meters.

Solution:

Substitute all given values to the wind set-up equation:

Vw  36m / s  129.6kph

Vw2  F
zs 
63,200  d
(129 .6) 2 (16)
zs   0.71m
63,200 (6)
 Wave Height and Run Up

Allowances for the significant wave height Zw and the run up Zr of

wind-generated waves are the most significant components of the
freeboard. The significant wave height is the average height of the
highest 1/3 of the waves and is computed as,

Vw = wind velocity in kph about 7.6m

z w  0.005  V 1.06
w F 0.47
above the water surface
F = fetch in kilometers

The height of the run up Zr is shown as a ratio of Zr/Zw and is

dependent on the surface and the wave height to wavelength l
ratio. The ratio can be determined using Fig 7.16. The
wavelength for deep-water waves is computed as
l = wavelength in m
l  1.56t 2
w
t w  0.32V 0.44
w F 0.28
tw = wave period

The freeboard is the sum of the setup and run up.

Reservoir Site Selection

1. A suitable dam site must exist. The cost of the dam is often a
controlling factor selection of a site.
2. The cost of real estate for the reservoir including road, railroad,
and dwelling relocation must not be excessive.
3. The reservoir site must have adequate capacity.
4. A deep reservoir is preferable to a shallow one because of lower
land costs per unit of capacity, less evaporation loss, and less
likelihood of weed growth.
5. Tributary areas that are unusually productive of sediment should
be avoided if possible.
6. The quality of the stored water must be satisfactory for its
intended use.
7. The reservoir banks and adjacent hillslopes should be stable.
Unstable banks will contribute large amounts of soil material to the
reservoir.
8. The environmental impact of the proposed reservoir must be
studied and made available to the public to ascertain the social
acceptability of the project.