EE 8501

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

1
 UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION
UNIT -2
 The N-R Power Flow: 5-bus Example

T2
800 MVA
1 T1 5 4 345/15 kV 3 520 MVA
Line 3
345 kV
50 mi
400 MVA 800 MVA
15 kV 15 kV
400 MVA 345 kV 40 Mvar 80 MW
Line 2

Line 1
345 kV
15/345 kV 100 mi 200 mi

2
280 MVAr 800 MW

Single-line diagram

1
2
 The N-R Power Flow: 5-bus Example
|V| θ PG QG PL QL QGmax QGmin
Bus Type per degrees per per per per per per
unit unit unit unit unit unit unit
Table 1. 1 Slack 1.0 0   0 0  

Bus input 2 Load   0 0 8.0 2.8  

data
3 Constant
1.05  5.2  0.8 0.4 4.0 -2.8
voltage
4 Load   0 0 0 0  

5 Load   0 0 0 0  
R X G B Maximum
MVA
Bus- per unit per unit per unit per unit per unit
Table 2.
to- Bus
Line input data
2-4 0.0090 0.100 0 1.72 12.0
2-5 0.0045 0.050 0 0.88 12.0
4-5 0.00225 0.025 0 0.44 12.0
1
3
 The N-R Power Flow: 5-bus Example
R X Gc Bm Maximum Maximum
TAP

per per per per MVA Setting

Table 3. Bus- unit unit unit unit per unit per unit
Transformer to- Bus
input data
1-5 0.00150 0.02 0 0 6.0 —
3-4 0.00075 0.01 0 0 10.0 —

Bus Input Data Unknowns

1 |V1 |= 1.0, θ1 = 0 P1, Q1

2 P2 = PG2-PL2 = -8 |V2|, θ2
Table 4. Input data Q2 = QG2-QL2 = -2.8
and unknowns 3 |V3 |= 1.05 Q3, θ3
P3 = PG3-PL3 = 4.4

4 P4 = 0, Q4 = 0 |V4|, θ4
5 P5 = 0, Q5 = 0 |V5|, θ5
1
4
Let the Computer Do the Calculations!
(Ybus Shown)

1
5
 Ybus Details
Elements of Ybus connected to bus 2

Y21  Y23  0
1 1
Y24    0.89276  j9.91964 per unit
R24  jX 24 0.009  j0.1

1 1
Y25    1.78552  j19.83932 per unit
R25  jX 25 0.0045  j0.05

1 1 B24 B25
Y22    j  j
R24  jX 24 R25  jX 25 2 2
1.72 0.88
 (0.89276  j9.91964)  (1.78552  j19.83932)  j j
2 2
 2.67828  j28.4590  28.5847  84.624 per unit
1
6
Here are the Initial Bus Mismatches
'-" i ! rti M !iiU!i .; • Case: TD_2008_Five8usE><ample.PWB Status: Ini ti al i zed I Simulator 13 Cl x
Case Information . D_ra_w Tools O'p-_tio_n_s Add Ons Window _

T
Case Description•••
Edit Mode
6 Network ...

Aggregation ...
liiill§I
E.lllll Case Summary•••
Power Flow List,••
Quick Power Flow List,,, ft! I
I
fill
lliSI
EunM Model
Explorer•••
Area/Zone
Filters... Filters, Expressions, etc
2imulator
Options •••
Custom Case Info... AUX Export Format Oesc...
Bus
View ...
Substation
View ...
Open
Windows
Mode Case Information Case Data Views ...

• •1@m1m1.114a31pnmnnt
mm:ml IF_xp_ln_r•· Bus Re I and Reactive Power Mismatches
- - - - - - ' - "

mi DC Transmission Lines 8 ,
ii 08
Number
.;g,,. o
Name
Im Records ... Geo ... Set ... Columns ...·I;
Area Name Type
... 1&
1,.... T D ... tl: mi I Options ...

Misma:chMW Mismatch Mvar Mismatch MV T

1±1 Generators 2 Two I PQ -800.00 -150.00 813.94
Impedance Correction 1
4 Four 11 JPQ 37.29 605.20 606.35
!Ill Line Shunts 3 Three PV 400.85 0.00 400.85
1±1 Loads
5 Five PQ 0.00 66.00 66.00
!Ill Mismatches 1 One Slack 0.00 0.00 0.00
1±1 Multi-Terminal DC
!Ill Switched Shunts
Three-Winding Transfor
Transformer Controls
B l:".:lAggregations
!Ill Areas Search Search Now Opticns ...

1.050 p u
0.000 Deg

1.000 p u
0.000 Deg

8
The mismatch of the Mvar power flow equation
 And the Initial Power Flow Jacobian
Case: E><ample6_9.pwb Status: Ini ti al ized I Simulator 13 - c:i
X
w

Model Area/Zone
Aggregation ...
2imulator
Case Summary...
Power Flow List...
Quick Power Flow List... !t!
Bus
I
I

Substation
l ttl
Hi
Open
Filters... Filters, Expressions, etc Custom Case Info••• AUX Export Format Oesc•••
Explorer... Options•.. View... View. ., Windows ...
Case Information Case Data Views

Mi§@MIMl.!i§IQ.lili§iiMM§.MU
IExplore Power Flow Jacobian
X VBus ,c : = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ,1
Fields Explore Options I l O 1ffi I< ·-·-· +81iMi . I Records • Geo• S e t • · I · 'i!. · T '-li· 1t: mi I Options •
1±1 !Ji!!i Loads
!Ill Mismatches
[!] Number Name
Columns•
Jacobian Equation Angle Bus Z Angle Bus 3 Angle Bus 4 Angle Bus 5
• volt Mag Bus Z Volt Ma•

!Ill Switched Shunts

!Ill Three-Winding Transfoo I 2 Two Real Power Z9.76 -9.9Z -19.B4 Z.6B
Transformer Controls z 3 Three Real Power 99.44 -99.44
B Aggregations 3 4 Four Real Power -9.9Z -99.44 149.04 -39.6B -0.B9
!Ill
Areas 4 5 Five Real Power -19.B4 -39.6B I09.Z4 -1.79
1±1 !Ji!!i
Injection Groups
5 2 Two Reactive power -Z.6B O.B9 1.79 Z7.16
1±1 !Ji!!i
lnterfaces
6 3 Three Voltage Magnitude
!Ill Islands 7 4 Four Reactive power O.B9 7.46 -ll.9Z 3.57 -9.9Z
!Ill Multi-Section Lines B 5 Five Reactive power 1.79 3.57 -9.09 -19.B4
MW Transactions

!Ill Owners
!Ill Substations
!Ill Super Areas
Tielines between Areas
Tielines between Zones
Transfer Directions
!Ill Zones
B Solution Details Search Now Options •

Jacobian Equation
 Five Bus Power System Solved

On e Fiv e Fo u r Th r ee
A A

MVA MVA

395 MW A 52 0 M W
MVA

114 Mvar 33 7 M var

sla c k

1 .0 0 0 p u 0.97 4 p u 1 .0 1 9 p u 80 M W
A A

0 . 0 0 0 D eg - 4 .5 4 8 D eg MVA MVA
- 2 .8 3 4 D eg 40 M var
1 .0 5 0 p u
- 0 .5 9 7 D eg

0.8 34 p u Tw o
- 2 2 . 4 0 6 D eg

800 M W
280 M var

19
37 Bus Example Design Case
Met ropolis Light and Pow er Elect ric Design Case 2
A
SL A C K 3 4 5
MVA
A

MVA

220 MW
1 .0 3 p u RA Y 3 4 5
5 2 M v ar

Syst em Lo sses: 1 0 .7 0 MW A A A

1 .0 2 p u MVA MVA SL A C K 1 3 8 MVA

TI M 3 4 5
1 .0 2 p u RA Y 1 3 8
A A
A
1 .0 3 p u
MVA MVA
MVA
TI M 1 3 8 33 MW A

1 .0 0 p u 1 .0 3 p u
1 3 M v ar MVA
1 5 .9 M v a r 18 MW
A 1 .0 2 p u RA Y 6 9
A 5 M v ar 37 MW
MVA A
17 MW A
MVA
PA I 6 9 1 3 M v ar
1 .0 1 p u MVA 3 M v ar MVA
1 .0 2 p u TI M 6 9
A 1 .0 1 p u GR O SS6 9 A

23 MW
MVA
MVA FERN A 6 9
7 M v ar A
1 .0 1 p u W O L EN 6 9
12 MW
A A MVA
H I SK Y 6 9 3 M v ar
MVA MVA
P ET E6 9 A
A
A
4 .9 M v a r
M O RO 1 3 8 58 MW A MVA
MVA
39 MW MVA
4 0 M v ar 1 .0 1 p u
MVA
1 3 M var 1 .0 0 p u BO B1 3 8 A
12 MW
H A NNA H 6 9 2 8 .9 M v a r DEM A R 6 9 A A
5 M v ar MVA
60 MW
MVA MVA
1 9 M v ar
1 .0 0 p u 20 MW A
1 .0 2 p u BO B 6 9
1 .0 0 p u 1 2 M v ar
0 .9 9 p u 1 4 .2 M v a r UI U C 6 9 MVA
1 .0 0 p u
1 2 .8 M v a r 124 MW 56 MW
KYL E6 9 A A

4 5 M v ar
A
MVA MVA 1 3 M v ar L Y NN1 3 8
16 MW
MVA
A -1 4 M v a r
25 MW A
MVA
A
14 MW
3 6 M v ar BL T 1 3 8
MVA
1 .0 0 p u MVA 4 M var
0 .9 9 p u A M A NDA 6 9 A
A A

MVA 25 MW MVA MVA SH I M K O 6 9 1 .0 2 p u

A
H O M ER 6 9 1 0 M v ar 1 .0 1 p u A
7 .4 M v a r
BL T 6 9 MVA
A
1 .0 1 p u MVA
A
MVA 15 MW
20 MW
H A L E6 9 55 MW 5 M v ar
3 M var MVA A

2 5 M v ar A

1 .0 0 p u MVA
MVA
A
36 MW A
1 .0 1 p u
A
60 MW MVA 1 0 M var 7 .3 M v a r MVA
A
A

MVA
1 2 M v ar
1 .0 0 p u 1 .0 0 p u P A T T EN 6 9 MVA

0 .0 M v a r A
MVA

45 MW 14 MW R O G ER 6 9
MVA
1 .0 1 p u W EB ER 6 9 0 M v ar
L A U F6 9 2 M var
1 .0 2 p u
23 MW
22 MW 10 MW
A A
6 M v ar 14 MW A

20 MW 1 5 M v ar 5 M v ar
MVA MVA 3 M v ar MVA
2 8 M v ar
1 .0 2 p u JO 1 3 8 JO 3 4 5
L A U F1 3 8 1 .0 2 p u SA V O Y 6 9 38 MW
1 .0 0 p u 3 M var
1 .0 1 p u BUCK Y 1 3 8 A

A MVA A

150 MW
MVA 1 .0 1 p u SA V O Y 1 3 8 MVA
A A
0 M v ar
MVA MVA

150 MW
A
0 M v ar
MVA
1 .0 3 p u
1 .0 2 p u A

MVA

20
 Good Power System Operation
• Good power system operation requires that
there be no “reliability” violations (needing to
shed load, have cascading outages, or other
unacceptable conditions) for either the current
condition or in the event of statistically likely
contingencies:
• Reliability requires as a minimum that there be no
transmission line/transformer limit violations and
that bus voltages be within acceptable limits
(perhaps 0.95 to 1.08)
• Example contingencies are the loss of any single
device. This is known as n-1 reliability. 12
Looking at the Impact of Line Outages
Met ropolis Light and Pow er Elect ric Design Case 2
A
SL A C K 3 4 5
MVA
A

MVA

227 MW
1 .0 3 p u RA Y 3 4 5
4 3 M v ar

Syst em Lo sses: 1 7 .6 1 MW A A A

1 .0 2 p u MVA MVA SL A C K 1 3 8 MVA

TI M 3 4 5
1 .0 2 p u RA Y 1 3 8
A A
A
1 .0 3 p u
MVA MVA
MVA
TI M 1 3 8 33 MW A

1 .0 1 p u 1 .0 3 p u
1 3 M var MVA
1 6 .0 M v a r 18 MW
A 1 .0 2 p u RA Y 6 9
A 5 M v ar 37 MW
MVA A
17 MW A
MVA
PA I 6 9 1 3 M v ar
1 .0 1 p u MVA 3 M v ar MVA
1 .0 2 p u TI M 6 9
A 1 .0 1 p u GR O SS6 9 A

23 MW
MVA
MVA FERN A 6 9
7 M v ar A
1 .0 1 p u W O L EN 6 9
12 MW
A A MVA
H I SK Y 6 9 3 M v ar
MVA MVA
P ET E6 9 A
A
4 .9 M v a r
M O RO 1 3 8 58 MW A MVA

Opening
39 MW MVA
4 0 M var 1 .0 1 p u
MVA
1 3 M var 1 .0 0 p u BO B 1 3 8 A
12 MW
H A NNA H 6 9 2 8 .9 M v a r DEM A R 6 9 A A
5 M v ar MVA
60 MW

one line
MVA MVA
1 9 M v ar
1 .0 0 p u 20 MW A
1 .0 2 p u BO B 6 9
1 .0 0 p u 1 2 M v ar
0 .9 0 p u 1 1 .6 M v a r UI U C 6 9 MVA
1 .0 0 p u
1 2 .8 M v a r 124 MW 56 MW

(Tim69- KYL E6 9 A A

4 5 M v ar
A
MVA MVA 1 3 M var L Y NN1 3 8
16 MW
MVA
A -1 4 M v a r
25 MW

Hannah69)
A
MVA
A
14 MW
3 6 M v ar BL T 1 3 8
MVA
1 .0 0 p u MVA 4 M v ar
A 0 .9 0 p u A M A N DA 6 9 A
A

11 0 % 25 MW MVA SH I M K O 6 9 1 .0 2 p u
M VA MVA

causes H O M ER 6 9 A
1 0 M v ar 1 .0 1 p u A
7 .3 M v a r
BL T 6 9 MVA
A
1 .0 1 p u MVA
A
15 MW
135%
MVA
20 MW
H A L E6 9 55 MW 5 M v ar

overloads. A
3 M v ar
0 .9 4 p u
M VA

A
36 MW
MVA
A

A
3 2 M v ar A

MVA
1 .0 1 p u
60 MW MVA 1 0 M var 7 .2 M v a r MVA A

This would
A
MVA
1 2 M var P A T T EN 6 9
1 .0 0 p u 1 .0 0 p u MVA

0 .0 M v a r A
MVA

45 MW 14 MW RO GER6 9
MVA
1 .0 0 p u W EB ER 6 9 0 M v ar

not be 1 .0 1 p u

20 MW
A

MVA
L A U F6 9

80 %
23 MW
6 M v ar
22 MW
1 5 M v ar
10 MW
5 M v ar
14 MW
3 M v ar
2 M v ar

MVA
4 0 M var MVA

Allowed. 0 .9 9 p u
L A U F1 3 8

A
1 .0 0 p u BUCK Y 1 3 8
1 .0 1 p u SA V O Y 6 9
A

MVA
1 .0 2 p u
38 MW
9 M v ar
JO 1 3 8

A
JO 3 4 5

150 MW
MVA 1 .0 1 p u SA V O Y 1 3 8 MVA
A A
4 M v ar
MVA MVA

150 MW
A
4 M v ar
MVA
1 .0 3 p u
1 .0 2 p u A

MVA

22
Contingency Analysis
Contingency
analysis provides
an automatic
way of looking
at all the
statistically likely
contingencies. In
this example the
contingency set
is all the single
line/transformer
outages

23
 Power Flow And Design
• One common usage of the power flow is to
determine how the system should be modified
to remove contingencies problems or serve new
load
• In an operational context this requires working with
the existing electric grid, typically involving re-
dispatch of generation.
• In a planning context additions to the grid can be
considered as well as re-dispatch.
• In the next example we look at how to remove
the existing contingency violations while serving
new load. 16
 An Unreliable Solution:
some line outages result in overloads Met ropolis Light and Pow er Elect ric Design Ca se 2
SL A C K 3 4 5
A

MVA
A

MVA

269 MW
1 .0 2 p u RA Y 3 4 5
67 M var

Sy st em Lo sses: 1 4 .4 9 MW A A A

Case now 1 .0 2 p u

A
TI M 3 4 5

A
MVA

1 .0 1 p u
MVA

RA Y 1 3 8
A
SL A C K 1 3 8 MVA

1 .0 3 p u

has nine
MVA MVA
MVA
TIM138 33 MW A

0 .9 9 p u 1 .0 2 p u
13 M var MVA
1 5 .9 M v a r 18 MW
A 1 .0 2 p u RA Y 6 9
A 5 M var 37 MW

separate 1 .0 2 p u
MVA
MVA

TIM69
A
1 .0 1 p u
PA I 6 9

1 .0 1 p u GR O SS6 9
A

MVA

A
17 MW
3 M v ar
A

MVA
13 M var

contingencies A
23 MW
7 M v ar
A
MVA

H I SK Y 6 9
A

MVA

P ET E6 9
MVA F ER N A 6 9
12 MW
3 M v ar
1 .0 1 p u W O L EN 6 9

A
MVA A MVA

having 4 .9 M v a r
A

M O RO 1 3 8 96% 58 MW A MVA
MVA 39 MW MVA
40 Mvar 1 .0 1 p u
MVA
13 M var 1 .0 0 p u BOB1 3 8 A
12 MW
H A NNA H 6 9 2 8 .9 M v a r D EM A R 6 9

reliability
A A
5 Mvar MVA
60 MW
MVA MVA
1 9 M var
1 .0 0 p u 20 MW A
1 .0 2 p u BO B6 9
1 .0 0 p u 1 2 M var
0 .9 7 p u 1 3 .6 M v a r UI UC6 9

violations
MVA
1 .0 0 p u
1 2 .8 M v a r 124 MW 56 MW
K YL E6 9 A A

45 M var
A
MVA MVA 13 M var LY NN1 3 8
16 MW

(overloads in
MVA
A -1 4 M var
25 MW A
MVA
A
14 MW
3 6 M v ar BLT 1 3 8
MVA
1 .0 0 p u MVA 4 M var
0 .9 7 p u

post-contingency
A A A

MVA 25 MW MVA MVA SH I M K O 6 9 1 .0 2 p u

A
H O M ER 6 9 10 M var 1 .0 1 p u A
7 .4 M v a r
BLT 6 9 MVA
A M A NDA 6 9 A
1 .0 1 p u

system).
MVA
A
MVA 15 MW
20 MW
H A L E6 9 55 MW 5 Mvar
3 M var MVA A

2 8 M var A

0 .9 9 p u MVA
MVA
A
36 MW A
1 .0 1 p u
A
60 MW MVA 1 0 M v ar 7 .3 M v a r MVA A
A
MVA
1 2 M var
1 .0 0 p u 1 .0 0 p u P A T T EN 6 9 MVA

0 .0 M v a r A
MVA

45 MW 14 MW R O G ER 6 9
MVA
1 .0 1 p u W EB ER 6 9 0 M v ar
LA UF6 9 2 Mvar
1 .0 2 p u
23 MW
22 MW 10 MW
A A
6 M var 14 MW A

20 MW 1 5 M var 5 M var
MVA MVA 3 M var MVA
40 M var
1 .0 2 p u JO 1 3 8 JO 3 4 5
LA UF1 3 8 1 .0 2 p u SA V O Y 6 9 38 MW
1 .0 0 p u 4 M var
1 .0 1 p u B U CK Y 1 3 8 A

A MVA A

150 MW
MVA 1 .0 1 p u SA V O Y 1 3 8 MVA
A A
1 M var
MVA MVA

150 MW
A
1 M var
MVA
1 .0 3 p u
1 .0 2 p u A

MVA

25
 A Reliable Solution:
no line outages result in overloads
Met ropolis Light and Pow er Elect ric Design Ca se 2
A
SL A C K 3 4 5
MVA
A

MVA

266 MW
1 .0 2 p u RA Y 3 4 5
5 9 M v ar

Syst em Lo sses: 1 1 .6 6 MW A A A

1 .0 2 p u MVA MVA SL A C K 1 3 8 MVA

TI M 3 4 5
1 .0 1 p u RA Y 1 3 8
A A
A
1 .0 3 p u
MVA MVA
MVA
TI M 1 3 8 33 MW A

1 .0 0 p u 1 .0 3 p u
1 3 M var MVA
1 5 .8 M v a r 18 MW
A 1 .0 2 p u RA Y 6 9
A 5 M v ar 37 MW

Previous 1 .0 2 p u
MVA
MVA

TI M 6 9
A
1 .0 1 p u
PA I 6 9

1 .0 1 p u GR O SS6 9
A

MVA

A
17 MW
3 M v ar
A

MVA
1 3 M v ar

case was A
23 MW
7 M v ar
A
MVA

H I SK Y 6 9
A

MVA

P ET E6 9
MVA FERN A 6 9
12 MW
3 M v ar
1 .0 1 p u W O L EN 6 9

A
MVA MVA

augmented
A
A
4 .9 M v a r
M O RO 1 3 8 58 MW A MVA
MVA
39 MW MVA
4 0 M var 1 .0 1 p u
MVA
1 3 M var 1 .0 0 p u BO B 1 3 8 A
12 MW
H A NNA H 6 9 2 8 .9 M v a r DEM A R 6 9

with the
A A
5 M v ar MVA
60 MW
MVA MVA
1 9 M v ar
Ky le 1 3 8 20 MW A
1 .0 2 p u BO B 6 9
0 .9 9 p u 1 2 M v ar
0 .9 9 p u 1 4 .1 M v a r UI U C 6 9

addition of a
MVA
A
1 .0 0 p u
1 2 .8 M v a r 124 MW 56 MW
M V
A

KYL E6 9 A A

4 5 M v ar
A
MVA MVA 1 3 M var L Y NN1 3 8
16 MW

138 kV
MVA
A -1 4 M v a r
25 MW A
MVA
A
14 MW
3 6 M v ar BL T 1 3 8
MVA
1 .0 0 p u MVA 4 M v ar
0 .9 9 p u A

Transmission
A A

MVA 25 MW MVA MVA SH I M K O 6 9 1 .0 2 p u

A
H O M ER 6 9 1 0 M v ar 1 .0 1 p u A
7 .4 M v a r
BL T 6 9 MVA
A M A NDA 6 9 A
1 .0 1 p u MVA

Line 20 MW
3 M v ar
1 .0 0 p u
A

MVA H A L E6 9
MVA

MVA
A 55 MW
2 9 M v ar A
15 MW
5 M v ar

MVA
A
36 MW A
1 .0 1 p u
A
60 MW MVA 1 0 M v ar 7 .3 M v a r MVA
A
A

MVA
1 2 M var P A T T EN 6 9
1 .0 0 p u 1 .0 0 p u MVA

0 .0 M v a r A
MVA

45 MW 14 MW RO GER6 9
MVA
1 .0 1 p u W EB ER 6 9 0 M v ar
L A U F6 9 2 M v ar
1 .0 2 p u
23 MW
22 MW 10 MW
A A
6 M v ar 14 MW A

20 MW 1 5 M v ar 5 M v ar
MVA MVA 3 M v ar MVA
3 8 M v ar
1 .0 2 p u JO 1 3 8 JO 3 4 5
L A U F1 3 8 1 .0 2 p u SA V O Y 6 9 38 MW
1 .0 0 p u 4 M var
1 .0 1 p u BUCK Y 1 3 8 A

A MVA A

150 MW
MVA 1 .0 1 p u SA V O Y 1 3 8 MVA
A A
1 M v ar
MVA MVA

150 MW
A
1 M v ar
MVA
1 .0 3 p u
1 .0 2 p u A

MVA

26
Generation Changes and The Slack
Bus
• The power flow is a steady-state analysis tool,
so the assumption is total load plus losses is
always equal to total generation
• Generation mismatch is made up at the slack bus
• When doing generation change power flow
studies one always needs to be cognizant of
where the generation is being made up
• Common options include “distributed slack,” where
the mismatch is distributed across multiple
generators by participation factors or by economics.
27
 Generation Change Example 1
A
SL A C K 3 4 5

Display shows
MVA
A

Slack bus
MVA

162 MW
0 .0 0 p u RA Y 3 4 5

“Difference 0 .0 0 p u MVA
A A

MVA SL A C K 1 3 8 MVA
A
3 5 M var

TI M 3 45

Flows” A

MVA
TI M 13 8
A

MVA
- 0 .0 1 p u

A
RA Y 1 3 8
A

MVA
0 .0 0 p u

0 .0 0 p u 0 MW

between A

MVA
A

MVA
0 M v ar
- 0 .1 M v a r 0 MW
0 M v ar
- 0 .0 1 p u
MVA

RA Y 6 9
0 .0 0 p u

0 MW
A
0 MW A

0 .0 0 p u TI M 69 PA I 6 9 0 M v ar

original A
0 MW
0 M v ar
MVA
A
0 .0 0 p u

0 .0 0 p u GR O SS6 9
MVA

A
0 M v ar MVA

MVA FERN A 6 9

37 bus case,
A
MVA 0 .0 0 p u W O L EN 6 9
A 0 MW
M O RO 1 3 8
H I SK Y 6 9
MVA
0 M v ar
MVA A
A
- 0 .1 M v a r

and case with

0 MW A MVA
MVA
0 M v ar 0 MW - 0 .0 1 p u
MVA
0 M var A
- 0 .0 3 p u BO B1 3 8
P ET E6 9 A

MVA DEM A R 6 9 A A
0 .0 0 p u

a BLT138
MVA
H A NNA H 6 9 0 MW
MVA MVA
0 MW 0 M v ar
0 MW
0 M v ar A
0 .0 0 p u BO B 6 9
0 M v ar
- 0 .2 M v a r

generation
MVA
UI U C 6 9 0 .0 0 p u
- 0 .1 M v a r
0 .0 0 p u A -1 5 7 M W 0 MW
- 0 .1 M v a r
-4 5 M v ar
A
MVA 0 M v ar L Y NN1 3 8
0 MW

outage;
A

A
MVA
0 M v ar
MVA
A
0 MW A
0 MW
- 0 .0 0 2 p u MVA
BL T 1 3 8
0 M v ar MVA - 0 .0 3 p u MVA 0 M v ar

note all the 0 .0 0 p u A M A NDA 6 9 A

A
A
MVA SH I M K O 6 9 0 .0 0 p u
H O M ER 6 9 0 MW A
MVA
MVA
0 .0 M v a r
0 M v ar 0 .0 0 p u A

BL T 6 9 MVA
- 0 .0 1 p u

power change
A
MVA

0 MW A
0 MW
MVA
0 M v ar H A L E6 9 A 0 MW 0 M v ar
MVA A
0 .0 0 p u 5 1 M v ar

is picked
MVA
MVA
A
A
0 MW A
0 .0 0 p u
0 MW MVA
0 M v ar 0 .0 M v a r MVA A
A

MVA
0 M v ar
0 .0 0 p u 0 .0 0 p u P A T T EN 6 9 MVA

0 .0 M v a r

up at the slack
MVA
A

0 MW 0 MW RO G ER6 9
MVA
0 .0 0 p u W EB ER 6 9 0 M v ar
LA UF6 9 0 M v ar
0 .0 0 p u
0 MW
0 MW 0 MW
A A
0 M v ar 0 MW A

0 MW 0 M v ar 0 M v ar
0 M v ar
4 M v ar MVA MVA MVA

0 .0 0 p u JO 1 3 8 JO 3 4 5
LA UF1 3 8 0 .0 0 p u SA V O Y 6 9 0 MW
0 .0 0 p u
3 M var
0 .0 0 p u BUCK Y 1 3 8 A

A MVA A

0 MW
MVA 0 .0 0 p u SA V O Y 1 3 8 MVA
A A
2 M var
MVA MVA

0 MW
A
2 M var
MVA
0 .0 0 p u
0 .0 0 p u A

MVA

28
 Generation Change Example 2
SL A C K 3 4 5
A

MVA
A

MVA

0 MW
0 .0 0 p u RA Y 3 4 5
3 7 M v ar
A A A

0 .0 0 p u SL A C K 1 3 8
TI M 3 4 5
MVA MVA MVA

- 0 .0 1 p u RA Y 1 3 8
A
A
A
0 .0 0 p u
MVA
TI M 1 3 8
M VA

0 .0 0 p u 0 MW
A MVA

0 .0 0 p u
0 M var
-0 .1 M v a r 0 MW
A MVA
A
0 .0 0 p u RA Y 6 9
MVA
0 M var 0 MW
MVA
A
0 MW A

0 .0 0 p u TI M 6 9 PA I 6 9 0 Mvar
0 .0 0 p u MVA
0 Mvar MVA
A

0 MW 0 .0 0 p u GR O SS 6 9 A
A
0 M v ar
MVA

MVA
F ER N A 6
0 .0 0 p u W O L EN 6 9
A

9
MVA
A 0 MW
M O RO 1 3 8
H I SK Y 6 9
MVA
0 M v ar
MVA
A
A
0 .0 M v a r
0 MW A MVA
MVA

0 Mvar 0 MW 0 .0 0 p u
MVA
0 M var A
-0 .0 3 p u BO B1 3 8
P ET E6 9 A

D EM A R 6 9
0 .0 0 p u
MVA A A

H A NNA H 6 9 0 MW
MVA

0 MW 0 M var
MVA MVA

0 MW
0 Mvar A
0 .0 0 p u BO B6 9
0 M var
-0 .2 M v a r
UI U C 6 9 0 .0 0 p u
MVA

- 0 .1 M v a r
0 .0 0 p u -1 5 7 M W 0 MW
- 0 .1 M v a r
A

-4 5 M v ar
A
0 Mvar LY NN1 3 8
0 MW
MVA

A
MVA
0 M v ar
MVA
A
0 MW A
0 MW
- 0 .0 0 3 p u M VA
BLT 1 3 8
0 M var MVA
-0 .0 3 p u MVA 0 Mvar
0 .0 0 p u A M A N DA 6 9 A
A

SH I M K O 6 9 0 .0 0 p u
A

H O M ER 6 9 0 MW
MVA
A
MVA
- 0 .1 M v a r
-0 .0 1 p u
MVA
0 M v ar
A

BLT6 9 MVA
A - 0 .0 1 p u MVA

0 MW A
0 MW
MVA
0 M var H A L E6 9 A
19 MW 0 Mvar
0 .0 0 p u 5 1 M var
MVA A

MVA

0 MW 0 .0 0 p u
A A MVA

0 MW MVA
0 M v ar 0 .0 M v a r MVA A
A

MVA
0 M v ar
0 .0 0 p u 0 .0 0 p u P A T T EN 6 9 MVA

0 .0 M v a r A
MVA

0 MW 0 MW R O G ER 6 9
0 .0 0 p u W EB ER 6 9 0 Mvar
MVA

L A U F6 9 0 M v ar
0 .0 0 p u
0 MW
0 MW 0 MW
A A
0 Mvar 0 MW A

99 MW 0 M v ar 0 M v ar
0 M v ar
-2 0 M v a r MVA MVA MVA

0 .0 0 p u JO 1 3 8 JO 3 4 5
L A U F1 3 8 0 .0 0 p u SA V O Y 6 9 42 MW
0 .0 0 p u
-1 4 M v a r
0 .0 0 p u B UCK Y 1 3 8 A

A M VA A

0 MW
0 .0 0 p u SA V O Y 1 3 8
0 M v ar
MVA A A MVA

MVA MVA

0 MW
A
0 M v ar
MVA
0 .0 0 p u
0 .0 0 p u A

Display repeats previous case except now the change in MVA

generation is picked up by other generators using a

“participation factor” (change is shared amongst generators) approach.
29
Voltage Regulation Example: 37 Buses
Automatic voltage regulation system controls voltages.

A
SL A C K 3 4 5
MVA
A

MVA

219 MW
1 .0 2 p u RA Y 3 4 5
5 2 M v ar
Sy st em Lo sses: 1 1 .5 1 M W A A A

1 .0 2 p u SL A C K 1 3 8
TI M 3 4 5 MVA MVA MVA

1 .0 1 p u RA Y 1 3 8
A
A
A
1 .0 3 p u
MVA

TI M1 3 8 MVA
MVA
1 .0 0 p u 33 MW A

1 .0 3 p u
A 13 Mvar 1 5 .9 M v a r 18 MW MVA
A
1 .0 2 p u RA Y 6 9
MVA 5 M var 37 MW
MVA
A
17 MW A

1 .0 2 p u TI M6 9 PA I 6 9 1 3 M var
1 .0 1 p u MVA 3 M var MVA
A

23 MW 1 .0 1 p u GR O SS6 9 A
A
7 M var
MVA
MVA
FE R N A 6
MVA
A
1 .0 1 p u W O L EN 6 9
9 21 MW
M O RO 1 3 8 A
MVA
H I SK Y 6 9 7 M var
MVA
A
A
4 .8 M v a r
12 MW A MVA
MVA
5 M var 20 MW 1 .0 0 p u
MVA
8 M var A
1 .0 0 p u BO B 1 3 8
P ET E6 9 A

M VA D EM A R 6 9
1 .0 0 p u A A
MVA
H A NNA H 6 9 58 MW
MVA M VA
51 MW 4 0 M var
45 MW
1 5 M v ar A
1 .0 2 p u BO B6 9
1 2 M v ar
2 9 .0 M v a r
UI U C 6 9 0 .9 9 p u MVA

1 4 .3 M v a r
1 .0 0 p u 15 7 MW 56 MW
1 2 .8 M v a r A

45 Mvar
A
MVA 13 Mvar L Y N N1 3 8
0 MW
A
MVA
A 0 M v aA r
A
MVA

MVA 58 MW A MVA
14 MW
0 .9 9 7 p u BLT 1 3 8 MVA
3 6 M var M VA 1 .0 0 p u 4 Mvar
0 .9 9 p u A M A NDA 6 9 A
A

A
33 MW SH I M K O 6 9 1 .0 2 p u
H O M ER 6 9 MVA
MVA
A
MVA
10 Mvar 0 .0 M v a r 1 .0 1 p u
BL T 6 9
7 .4 M v a r
MVA
A 1 .0 1 p u
15 MW
3 M var
A

H A L E6 9
MVA
92 MW
1.0 1 0 pu 15 MW
5 M var
A
MVA
1 .0 0 p u 1 0 M var
MVA
A

A
A
36 MW A
1 .0 1 p u
60 MW MVA 10 Mvar 7 .2 M v a r MVA
MVA
A
A

1 2 M var
MVA

1 .0 0 p u 1 .0 0 p u P A T T EN 6 MVA

2 0 .8 M v a r A
MVA

945 MW 14 MW R O G ER 6 9
MVA
1 .0 0 p u W EB ER 6 9 0 M var
L A U F6 9 2 Mv ar
1 .0 2 p u
23 MW
22 MW 0 MW
A A
6 Mvar 14 MW A

20 MW 15 Mvar 0 M var
MVA MVA 3 M var MVA
9 M var
1 .0 2 p u JO 1 3 8 JO 3 4 5
L A U F1 3 8 1 .0 2 p u SA V O Y 6 9 38 MW
1 .0 0 p u
3 M var
1 .0 1 p u BUCK Y 1 3 8 A

A MVA A

150 MW
MVA 1 .0 1 p u SA V O Y 1 3 8 MVA
A A
0 M var
MVA MVA

150 MW
A
0 M var
MVA
1 .0 3 p u
1 .0 2 p u A

MVA

Display shows voltage contour of the power system

30
 Real-sized Power Flow Cases
• Real power flow studies are usually done with
cases with many thousands of buses
• Outside of ERCOT, buses are usually grouped into
various balancing authority areas, with each area
doing its own interchange control.
• Cases also model a variety of different
automatic control devices, such as generator
reactive power limits, load tap changing
transformers, phase shifting transformers,
switched capacitors, HVDC transmission lines,
and (potentially) FACTS devices. 23
Sparse Matrices and Large Systems
• Since for realistic power systems the model
sizes are quite large, this means the Ybus and
Jacobian matrices are also large.
• However, most elements in these matrices are
zero, therefore special techniques, sparse
matrix/vector methods, are used to store the
values and solve the power flow:
• Without these techniques large systems would be
essentially unsolvable.

24
 Interconnected Operation
 Power systems are interconnected across
large distances.
 For example most of North America east of
the Rockies is one system, most of North
America west of the Rockies is another.
 Most of Texas and Quebec are each
interconnected systems.

33
 Balancing Authority Areas
 A “balancing authority area” (previously called a
“control area”) has traditionally represented the
portion of the interconnected electric grid
operated by a single utility or transmission
entity.
 Transmission lines that join two areas are
known as tie-lines.
 T h e net power out of an area is the sum of
the flow on its tie-lines.
 T h e flow out of an area is equal to
total gen - total load - total losses = tie-line flow
28
 Area Control Error (ACE)
 T h e area control error is a combination
of:
 the deviation of frequency from nominal, and
 the difference between the actual flow out of an
area and the scheduled (agreed) flow.
 T h a t is, the area control error (ACE) is
the difference between the actual flow out
of an area minus the scheduled flow, plus a
ACE  deviation
frequency flow  Psched 10 f
Pactual tie-linecomponent:
 ACE provides a measure of whether an area
is producing more or less than it should to
satisfy schedules and to contribute to
controlling frequency. 29
 Area Control Error (ACE)
 T h e ideal is for ACE to be zero.
 Because the load is constantly changing,
each area must constantly change its
generation to drive the ACE towards zero.
 For ERCOT, the historical ten control areas
were amalgamated into one in 2001, so the
actual and scheduled interchange are
essentially the same (both small compared
to total demand in ERCOT).
 In ERCOT, ACE is predominantly due to
frequency deviations from nominal since
there is very little scheduled flow to or from
other areas. 30
 Automatic Generation Control
 Most systems use automatic generation
control (AGC) to automatically change
generation to keep their ACE close to zero.
 U s u ally the control center (either ISO
or utility) calculates ACE based upon tie-
line flows and frequency; then the AGC
module sends control signals out to the
generators every four seconds or so.

31
 Power Transactions
 Power transactions are contracts between
generators and (representatives of) loads.
 Contracts can be for any amount of time at
any price for any amount of power.
 S c heduled power transactions between
balancing areas are called “interchange” and
implemented by setting the value of Pschedused
in the ACE calculation:
 ACE = Pactual tie-lineflow– Psched+ 10β Δf
 …and then controlling the generation to bring
32
ACE towards zero.
 “Physical” power Transactions
• For ERCOT, interchange is only relevant over
asynchronous connections between ERCOT
and Eastern Interconnection or Mexico.
• In Eastern and Western Interconnection,
interchange occurs between areas connected
by AC lines.

39
 Three Bus Case on AGC:
no interchange.
-40 MW 40 MW
Bus 2 8 MVR -8 MVR Bus 1
1.00 PU
266 MW
133 MVR
1.00 PU
101 MW
5 MVR
-77 MW -39 MW
150 MW AGC ON
25 MVR 12 MVR 100 MW
166 MVR AVR ON
78 MW 39 MW
-21 MVR -11 MVR
Bus 3 1.00 PU
Home Area
133 MW
Generation 67 MVR
250 MW AGC ON
is automatically 34 MVR AVR ON

changed to match Net tie-line flow is

change in load close to zero
40
 100 MW Transaction between
areas in Eastern or Western
8 MW -8 MW
Bus 2 -2 MVR 2 MVR Bus 1
1.00 PU
225 MW
113 MVR
1.00 PU
0 MW
32 MVR
-84 MW -92 MW
150 MW AGC ON
27 MVR 30 MVR 100 MW
138 MVR AVR ON
85 MW 93 MW
-23 MVR -25 MVR
Bus 3 1.00 PU
Home Area
113 MW
Scheduled Transactions 56 MVR
100.0 MW 291 MW AGC ON
8 MVR AVR ON
Scheduled Net tie-line
100 MW flow is now
Transaction from Left to Right 100 MW
41
 PTDFs
 Power transfer distribution factors (PTDFs)
show the linearized impact of a transfer of
power.
 P T D F s calculated using the fast
decoupled power flow B matrix:
θ  B1P
Once we know θ we can derive the change in
the transmission line flows to evaluate PTDFs.
Note that we can modify several elements in P,
in proportion to how the specified generators would
participate in the power transfer. 36
 Nine Bus PTDF Example
Figure shows initial flows for a nine bus power system

300.0 MW
400.0 MW 300.0 MW

A B 250.0 MW D

10% 71%
71.1 MW C
60% 57%
92% 0.00 deg 64%
55%
11%
G F E
150.0 MW

74% 250.0 MW 250.0 MW 44% 32%

24%
H I

200.0 MW
150.0 MW

37
Nine Bus PTDF Example, cont'd
Figure now shows percentage PTDF flows for a change in transaction from A to I

300.0 MW
400.0 MW 300.0 MW

A B 250.0 MW D

43% 30%
71.1 MW C
57% 10%
13% 0.00 deg 20%
35%
2%
G F E
150.0 MW

34% 250.0 MW 250.0 MW 34% 32%

34%
H I

200.0 MW
150.0 MW

38
Nine Bus PTDF Example, cont'd
Figure now shows percentage PTDF flows for a change in transaction from G to F

300.0 MW
400.0 MW 300.0 MW

A B 250.0 MW D

6% 18%
71.1 MW C
6% 6%
12% 0.00 deg 12%
61%
19%
G F E
150.0 MW

21% 250.0 MW 250.0 MW 20%

21%
H I

200.0 MW
150.0 MW

3
 Line Outage Distribution Factors
(LODFs)
• LODFs are used to approximate the change in
the flow on one line caused by the outage of a
second line
– typically they are only used to determine the
change in the MW flow compared to the pre-
contingency flow if a contingency were to occur,
– LODFs are used extensively in real-time
operations,
– LODFs are approximately independent of flows but
do depend on the assumed network topology.
46
Line Outage Distribution Factors
(LODFs)
Pl  change in flow on line l,
due to outage of line k.
Pk  pre-contingency flow on line k
Pl  LODFl,k Pk ,
Estimates change in flow on line l
if outage on line k were to occur.
47
 Line Outage Distribution Factors
(LODFs)
If line k initially had Pk  100 MW of flow on it,
and line l initially had Pl  50 MW flow on it,
and then there was an outage of line k,
if LODFl,k =0.1 then the increase in flow

on line l after a contingency of line k would be:

Pl  LODFl,k Pk  0.1 100  10 MW
from 50 MW to 60 MW. 48
 UNIT 3 & UNIT 4

BALANCED AND UNBALANCED

FAULT ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION

A fault calculation is the analysis of the power system electrical behaviour under
fault conditions, with particular reference to the effects on the system currents
and voltages. Accurate fault calculations are essential for proper system design.
The analysis of fault conditions and their effects on the power system is of
particular relevance to such conditions as:
a the choice of a suitable power system arrangement, with particular
. reference to the configuration of the transmission or distribution
b network.
. the determination of the required load and short-circuit ratings of the
c power system plant.
.switchgear
theand
determination of the breaking capacity required of the power system
fusegear.
d the design and application of equipment for the control and protection
. of the power system.
e the operation of the system, with particular reference to security of
. supply and economic considerations.
f. the investigation of unsatisfactory performance of the power system or of
individual items of power system
plant.
SLID 5
TypesofFault
In the context of electrical fault calculations, a power system fault
may be defined as any condition or abnormality of the system
which involves the electrical failure of primary equipment, i.e.
generators, transformers, busbars, overhead lines and cables and
all other items of plant which operate at power system voltage.

Electrical failure generally implies one of two conditions or types

of failure (sometimes both), namely insulation failure resulting in
a short-circuit condition or a conducting path failure resulting in
an open-circuit condition, the former being by far the more
common type of failure.

SLID 5
a) Short-circuitedphases
Faults of this type are caused by insulation failure between phase conductors or between
phase conductors and earth, or both. Figure 1 gives details of the various short-
circuited-phase faults.

The three-phase fault, which may or may not be to earth, is the only balanced short-
circuit condition and is the one used as the standard in determining the system fault
levels or ratings.

SLID 5
c) Simultaneousfaults
A simultaneous fault condition, or a multiple fault condition, is
defined as the simultaneous presence of two or more faults which
may be of similar or dissimilar types and may be at the same or
different points in the power system.
The most common simultaneous fault condition is undoubtedly
the double-circuit overhead line fault in which a common
cause, i.e. lightning or clashing conductors, results in a fault on
each of the two circuits concerned.
Another simultaneous fault condition is known as the cross-
country earth-fault, in which a single-phase to earth fault at one
point occurs coincidentally with a second such fault on another
phase at some other point in the system.
SLID 5
d)
Windi
ngfaults
This type of fault, which can occur in machine or transformer windings, is detailed in
Figure 3, and consists mainly of short circuits, from one phase to earth, or from phase to
phase, or from one point
to another on the same phase winding. The last fault condition is known as the short-
circuited
turns fault. This condition can pose special problems from a protection point of view
because the current in the shorted turns can be very large, while that in the remainder of
the winding may be quite small.

Phase-to-earth Phase-to-phase Figure 3. Winding

fault fault
faults

Short-circuited turns Open-circuited winding

The open-circuited winding condition is quite rare in practice and is usually the result of
damage to the winding as a consequence of a preceding winding short circuit at or near the
point of fault. Open circuits in transformers may also occur as a result of failure of tap-
changing equipment.
SLID 5
FactorsAffectingFaultSeverity
The severity of a power system fault condition may be assessed in terms
of the disturbance produced and the fault damage caused, the magnitude
of the fault current and its duration being of particular interest, especially
in relation to the design and application of the power system protection.
The main factors which affect the severity of a fault are:

a) Sourceconditions
These relate to the amount and location of all connected generation
equipment - including the ties or interconnections with other systems, the
two extremes of minimum and maximum connected plant being of
particular interest. The minimum and maximum plant conditions are
normally those corresponding to the conditions of minimum and maximum
connected load.
SLID 5
b) Powersystemconfiguration
This is determined by the items of plant, i.e. generators, transformers,
overhead lines and cable circuits, etc., assumed to be in service for the
particular condition being investigated and by other such factors as may have a
bearing on the make-up of the equivalent circuit of the system. The system
configuration may change during the course of a fault with consequent changes
in the magnitude and distribution of the fault currents. Typical causes of the
above changes being the sequential tripping of the circuit-breakers at the two
ends of the faulted transmission line and the sequential clearance of multiple
fault conditions.

SLID 5
c) Neutralearthing
Faults which involve the flow of earth current, i.e. phase faults to
earth, may be influenced considerably by the system neutral earthing
arrangements, particularly by the number of neutral earthing points
and the presence or absence of neutral earthing impedance. The
power system may be single-point or multiple-point earthed and such
earthing may be direct, i.e. solid earthing, or via a neutral impedance.
The 132kV, 275kV and the 400kV systems employ direct multiple
earthing while the 66kV and below generally employ single-point,
sometimes multiple, resistance earthing.

SLID 5
d) Natureandtypeoffault

From what has been said already, it is evident that the type
and location of a fault will have a significant effect on the
magnitude and distribution of the system fault currents.
Likewise, the
effect of a given fault condition may be considerably modified
by the simultaneous presence of one or more other fault
conditions, for example, the combination of a short circuit and
an open-circuited phase condition.

SLID 5
The wide range of possible system fault conditions and the
many factors which influence them result in a wide range of
possible fault severity, ranging from very low levels up to the
maximum level possible for the system. It is of value to
consider a standard fault condition when discussing systems
and the three-phase fault level may be expressed in amperes
but it is usually expressed in MVA, corresponding to the rated
system voltage and the current for a symmetrical three-phase
fault. This three-phase fault level normally
determines the required short-circuit rating of the power
system switchgear. A factor which may also have to be taken
into account is the maximum value of the one-phase to earth
fault current which, in a solidly earthed system, may exceed
the maximum three-phase fault current.

SLID 5
 MethodsofFault
Calculation
♦ The information normally required from a fault calculation is
that the values of the currents and voltages at stated points in
which gives
the power system when a given fault condition is imposed on the
s
ystem.
♦ A fault calculation is therefore, essentially a matter of
analysisnetwork
and can be achieved by a number of methods, i.e. current
mesh-
nodal-voltage methods, network reduction or using
simulation
techniques or network analyser. a

♦ The choice of method depends on the size and complexity

of the and the availability of computing
circuit model
facilities.

SLID 6
 MethodsofFaultCalculation

♦ An essential part of power system analysis and fault

calculation is that which concerns the determination of the
equivalent system network for the system operating
conditions
conditions under and the fault
consideration.
♦ As stated earlier, faults can be subdivided into either
balanced (symmetrical) or unbalanced (unsymmetrical)
thi fault conditions, latter case being analysed, traditionally,
ssymmetrical
by the method of
components.
♦ Both classes of fault are analysed by reducing the power
system, with its fault condition, to an equivalent single-
phase network.

SLID 6
BalancedFaults
The balanced fault is often the severest and is the simplest to determine.
Hence, this is the one normally used to determine the 'duty' of the system
switchgear and busbars

FaultCalculationProcedure
a. the system
The analysis with its
of a 3-phase fault condition
balanced is represented
fault condition consists,byinits positiveof three
general,
networ sequence
parts:
k, b. the network is solved in terms of per-unit quantities,
c. the resulting per-unit quantities are converted to actual
values.
Component
Representation
Overhead lines and cables are normally represented by their series impedance
on the basis that the shunt impedance is high. Transformers and synchronous
machines are normally represented by their reactances as the resistance values
are relatively small. Load impedances are normally much larger than the other
network impedances and
hence, they are normally neglected in fault
calculations. SLID 6
THREEPHASEFAULTS
The following example is presented to illustrate the methods employed
for the case which induces positive sequence components only. The
system shown represents a power station connected to the grid, together
with its auxiliary systems. The principle circuit and plant parameters
are given in Table 1.

SLID 6
 G
Inf
G2/ bus
Exampl
3 e
T2/T 
3
Bus A fault is assumed to
1 occur first on busbar
T MCC1 and secondly on
1 
busbar MCC2. The
T G
5  1 fault level quoted on
T  Bus 1 is 2500 MVA.
03 4 Bus 2

A 03
B
M M
1 T  T  2
6 7

MCC Bus Bus MCC

2 3 4 1

L L
M M
3 4

SLID 6
G2/ 71 MVA, X = 263 pu on 100
3 MVA
T2/T 71 MVA, Xl = Table
3 009pu
G (2500-147-
1
71)MVA
G 147 MVA, Xd = 1867
1 pu
T 150 MVA, Xl = 013
1 pu
T 16 MVA, Xl = 01
4 pu
T 16 MVA, Xl = 009
5 pu
T 2 MVA, Xl = 006
6 pu
T 4 MVA, Xl - 006
7 pu
M 88
1 MVA
M 806
2 MVA
M 1247
3 MVA
M 0977
4 MVA
S 0918 MW, 09
L p.f.

SLID 6
 2

147 71 MVA grid Base 100

MVA generation infeed MVA
generator
100  1 2·63
 1 (given) 10
86714
27
7 (2500 
0 147 
71)
100  =
100 
 0971 ·438
 13 127
08
150

Normalised system reactances

100 
116
 100
on equivalent circuit

625  09
16 5625

03 03
B A
1
100 06 100 06 N.B. 2x2 MVA

 32 154 in
Transformers
parallel

MCC MCC
2 1

SLID 6
The resolution of the problem into sequence components results in
considerable simplification of all problems involving asymmetry such as that
introduced by short- circuiting conductors of a system either together or to
earth, singly or in pairs, or by the open circuiting of a conductor. The
resolution of the problem into sequence components has the further advantage
in that it isolates the quantities into components which represent a better
criteria of the controlling factor or factors in certain phenomena.

Consider the following system of vectors shown below.

SLID 6
Rewriting equation (1), and for convenience neglecting the bar denoting vector
quantities
Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0
Vb = λ2Va1 + λVa2 + (2
Va0 Vc = λVa1 + λ2Va2 )
+ Va0
and Va0, Va1 and Va2 may now be written as V0, V1 and V2

where λ is an operator which moves a vector 120°

anticlockwise, i.e.
λ = 0.5 +
0.886j λ2 = - 0.5 (3
– 0.886j λ3 = 1 )

Other useful identities in are given in the following

Table 1.

Table 1

SLID 7
The transformation of phase quantities to sequence and reverse is
given by [Vph] = [T] [Vseq]

an [Vseq] = [T] -1
d [Vph]

wher [T] (4
e = )

an [T] -1 (5
d = )

SLID 7
An untransposed transmission line gives rise to 3 per cent negative sequence
voltage. Show approximately how this affects the magnitudes of the terminal
voltages of the generator supplying the system.

No zero sequences voltage; let V2 = 003 V1

Va = V1 + 003V1 = (1 + 003)V1

Vb = 2V1 + 003V1 = (2 +

003)V1 Vc = V1 + 2003V1 =

( + 0032)V1

SLID 8
Components of
voltage

VA = 0 and since the generator is only able to generate positive sequence

components, E0 = E2 = 0

Also, since IB = IC = 0, I0 = I2 = 0

E
I1
Z1  1Z2  0
 Z

SLID 8
PRACTICALFAULT
STUDIES

As previously stated, power systems are subject to excessive damage when

high magnitude currents are flowing due to system short circuit. The
analysis so far has been confined to steady-state conditions arising
subsequent to fault incidence. The initial transient condition has been
neglected which, for many practical situations, is considered to be
satisfactory. However, the instant of initiation of the short circuit relative to
the voltage waveform, has a marked effect upon the maximum peak value of
the short-circuit current which may be important from the point of view of
fast acting fault clearance devices, i.e. does the circuit breaker operate prior
to the decay of the transient component of the current.

SLID 8
The total current is obtained by adding the steady-state and the transient
components.

SLIDE 83
In practice, the time variation of the short circuit current is dependent
on the actual characteristic of the generator. To a close approximation,
the short circuit current can be allocated to the following categories:
1 the continuous
. component the transient
2 component the
. subtransient component
3
These categories are determined by the electromagnetic process that
.
occurs in the generator. For most fault studies, the representation and
calculation of the short circuit characteristics are based on a constant
voltage and on the assumption that the decay of the ac short-circuit
current is due to an increase in the generator reactances from

(1) the subtransient Xd

reactance "
to (2) the transient reactance Xd'
and finally (3) the synchronous Xd
reactance

SLID 8
SynchronousandInductionMotorLoads

For a short-circuit period of T ≤ 0·2s, synchronous motors can be

treated in the same manner as synchronous generators. In a larger
short-circuit period, the machine is subjected to a speed drop and is
then operating in an assynchronous mode. High and low voltage
motors similarly make a contribution to the short-circuit current.
However, due to differences in their construction, this contribution
decays very rapidly.
Short-circuit analysis is generally preceded by data collection and
the preparation of a one-line diagram, followed by the
determination of the exact objectives of the study. Table 2 gives
an indication of parameter values to be used under certain
circumstances.

SLID 8
 Table
2

SLID 8