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Chapter 1 - Preliminaries To Human Communication, de Vito
Chapter 1 - Preliminaries To Human Communication, de Vito
Chapter 1 - Preliminaries To Human Communication, de Vito
1
CHAPTER TOPICS
PRELIMINARIES TO HUMAN
COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Listen to Chapter 1 at
MyCommunicationLab
In this chapter you’ll explore the After reading this chapter you should
following major topics: be able to:
FORMS, BENEFITS, AND MYTHS OF 1.1 Identify the major forms of human commu-
HUMAN COMMUNICATION nication, its benefits, and its myths.
ELEMENTS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION 1.2 Define the major elements of human
communication: context, source–receiver,
messages, channels, noise, effects,
andflethics.
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION 1.3 Paraphrase the principles of human
communication.
THE COMPETENT COMMUNICATOR 1.4 Explain the characteristics of the
competent communicator.
This table identifies and arranges the forms of communication in terms of the number of persons involved, from one (in intraper-
sonal communication) to thousands and millions (in mass communication). It also offers a general preview of topics in this text. With
the exception of intrapersonal communication, all other forms can be and are likely to be intercultural, a topic considered in depth
in the next chapter.
Some Theory-Related
Forms of Communication Concerns Some Skills-Related Concerns
Intrapersonal: communication with How do self-concept and self-esteem Enhancing self-esteem, increasing self-
oneself develop? How do they effect com- awareness, improving problem solving
munication? How can problem-solving and analyzing abilities, increasing
abilities be improved? What is the self-control, managing communication
relationship between personality and apprehension, reducing stress, manag-
communication? ing intrapersonal conflict
Interviewing: communication that What are the legal issues in Phrasing questions to get the informa-
proceeds through questions and interviewing? How can interviewing tion you want, presenting your best self,
answers responses be analyzed? What is the writing résumés and cover letters
role of nonverbal communication?
Small group: communication within What roles do people play in groups? Increasing effectiveness as a group
a small group (say, 5 to 10) of people What do groups do well and what member, improving leadership abilities,
do they fail to do well? What makes using groups to achieve specific pur-
a leader? What types of leadership poses (brainstorming, problem solving)
works best?
Organizational: communication How and why do organizations grow Transmitting information; motivat-
within an organization and deteriorate? What role does ing workers; dealing with feedback,
culture play in the organization? the grapevine, and gossip; increasing
What leadership styles prove most worker satisfaction, productivity, and
productive? retention
Public: communication of speaker How can audiences be analyzed and Communicating information more
with audience adapted to? How can ideas be devel- effectively; increasing persuasive
oped and supported for presentation abilities; developing, organizing styling,
to an audience? What kinds of organi- and delivering messages effectively;
zational structures work best in infor- becoming a more critical listener
mative and persuasive speeches?
Computer-mediated: communica- Are there gender and age differences? Increasing security in e-communications,
tion between people via computers In what ways is CMC more efficient? combining CMC with face-to-face
How can the various channels be communication; networking for social
incorporated into CMC? and professional purposes; beginning
and maintaining relationships through
social media
Mass: communication addressed to What functions do media serve? How Improving abilities to use the media
an extremely large audience, mediated do media influence us? How can we to greater effectiveness, increasing
by audio and/or visual means influence the media? In what ways do ability to control the media, avoiding
the media filter the information we being taken in by the media, becoming
receive? a more media-literate consumer and
creator
4 PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication
where you may interact with people from different communication is lost in asynchronous communi-
cultures living thousands of miles away, and in social cation. You may, for example, be very enthusiastic
networking (for example, Facebook, Google+, and about a topic when you send your e-mail or post on
LinkedIn) where you learn about and communicate your blog, but practically forget it by the time some-
with others. one responds. Other forms of CMC (such as tweeting,
chatting on social network sites, interactive websites,
Organizational Communication and instant messaging) are often synchronous—they
Organizational communication is communication occur at the same time and are similar to phone com-
that takes place within an organization among mem- munication except that CMC is largely text-based
bers of the organization. Conferencing with colleagues, rather than voice-based.
working in teams, talking with a supervisor, or giving Table 1.2 presents some of the similarities and dif-
employees directions are just a few examples of organi- ferences between face-to-face and computer-mediated
zational communication. The study of organizational communication. As you review the table, you may
communication offers guidelines for improving your wish to add other similarities and differences or take
own formal and informal communication in an orga- issue with the ones identified here.
nizational setting.
Mass Communication
Public Speaking Mass communication is communication from one
Public speaking, also termed public communica- source to many receivers, who may be scattered through-
tion or presentational speaking, is communication out the world. Mass communication takes place via at
between a speaker and an audience. Audiences range least the following media outlets: newspapers, maga-
in size from several people to hundreds, thousands, zines, television, radio, film, and video. The coverage of
and even millions. Through public communication, mass communication in this book focuses on media
others inform and persuade you. And you, in turn, literacy and aims to help you to become a wiser, more
inform and persuade others—to act, to buy, or to critical user of the media. Beginning with the next chap-
think in a particular way. ter and in each subsequent chapter, Expanding Media
Much as you can address large audiences face to Literacy boxes will help you achieve this crucial skill.
face, you also can address such audiences electroni- As you can see if you glance through your college
cally and through the mass media. Through news- catalogue, each of these forms of communication
groups, blogs, or social networks, for example, you is likely to be covered in separate and more detailed
can post a “speech” for anyone to read and then read courses in public speaking, small group communica-
their reactions to your message. And with the help of tion, interpersonal communication, mass communi-
the more traditional mass media of radio and televi- cation, and so on. In this course and in this text, the
sion, you can address audiences in the hundreds of essentials of these communication forms are intro-
millions as they sit alone or in small groups scattered duced, giving you the knowledge and skills to become
throughout the world. a more effective communicator, and at the same
time giving you the background to move on to more
Computer-Mediated Communication detailed study, whether in more in-depth courses or
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is a in your own reading.
general term that includes all forms of communica-
tion between people that take place through some
computer, electronic, or Internet connection, for ex- The Benefits of Human
ample, e-mail, texting, blogging, instant messaging,
tweeting, or chatting on social network sites such Communication
as Facebook or MySpace or on your phone. All of A perfectly legitimate question to ask before begin-
these computer-mediated forms, like their face-to-face ning your study of any subject is “why?” Why should
counterparts, are used both socially and in the world I learn about human communication? What will it
of business. do for me? What will I be able to do after tak-
Some CMC (such as e-mail or blogging) is asyn- ing this course that I wasn’t able to do before? In
chronous, meaning that it does not take place in short, how will I benefit from the study of human
real time. You may send your message today, but communication presented in this course and in this
the receiver may not read it for a week and may text? Actually, you’ll benefit in lots of ways. Your
take another week to respond. Consequently, much knowledge of human communication and your mas-
of the spontaneity created by face-to-face real-time tery of many of its skills will enable you to improve
CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARIES TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 5
Throughout this text face-to-face and computer-mediated communication are discussed, compared, and contrasted. Here is a
brief summary of just some communication concepts and some of the ways in which these two forms of communication are similar
and different.
Receiver
■ Number ■ One or a few who are in your visual field. ■ Virtually unlimited.
■ Opportunity for interaction ■ Limited to those who have the ■ Unlimited.
■ Third parties opportunity to meet; often difficult to ■ Messages can be retrieved by others
■ Impression formation find people who share your interests. or forwarded verbatim to a third party
■ Messages can be overheard by or or to thousands.
repeated to third parties but not with ■ Impressions are based on text
complete accuracy. messages and posted photos and
■ Impressions are based on the verbal and videos.
nonverbal cues the receiver perceives.
Context
■ Physical ■ Essentially the same physical space. ■ Can be in the next cubicle or separated
■ Temporal ■ Communication is synchronous; by miles.
messages are exchanged at the same ■ Communication may be synchronous
(real) time. (as in chat rooms) or asynchronous
(where messages are exchanged at
different times, as in e-mail).
Channel ■ All senses participate in sending and ■ Visual (for text, photos, and videos)
receiving messages. and auditory.
Message
■ Verbal and nonverbal ■ Words, gestures, eye contact, accent, ■ Words, photos, videos, and audio
■ Permanence vocal cues, spatial relationships, messages.
touching, clothing, hair, etc. ■ Messages are relatively permanent.
■ Temporary unless recorded; speech
signals fade rapidly.
a variety of skills that will prove vital to your success increase your ability to distinguish between a
and that are covered throughout this text. Here are sound and valid argument and one that is filled
some of the skills you’ll acquire or improve as you with logical fallacies, and improve your ability to
study human communication to give you some idea use language to reflect reality more accurately.
of how important this study of human communica- ■ Interaction skills help you improve your commu-
tion is: critical and creative thinking skills, interaction nication in a wide range of forms, from the seem-
skills, relationship skills, leadership skills, presenta- ingly simple small talk to the employment interview
tion skills, and media literacy skills. for the job of a lifetime. Interaction skills will enable
■ Critical and creative thinking skills, emphasized you to communicate with greater ease, comfort, and
throughout this book, help you approach new situ- effectiveness whether you’re proposing a life-long
ations mindfully—with full conscious awareness, relationship or apologizing for some transgression.
6 PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication
their abilities and become more effective and activities, reexamine your beliefs about commu-
communicators. nication and consider how new beliefs would influ-
2. If you practice bad communication habits, ence the way you communicate. The theories and
you’re more likely to grow less effective than research discussed in this text will help you recon-
to become more effective; consequently, it’s sider your own beliefs about communication, and the
important to learn and follow the principles of skill activities and experiences will help you practice
effectiveness. new ways of communicating.
3. This assumption is at the heart of many
interpersonal difficulties: People aren’t mind
readers, and to assume that they are merely sets 1.2ELEMENTS OF HUMAN
up barriers to open and honest communica-
tion (see Chapters 8 and 9). COMMUNICATION
4. Although you may feel ethically obligated to be Communication occurs when one person (or more)
totally honest, this is generally not an effective sends and receives messages that are distorted by
strategy. In fact, “complete” anything is prob- noise, occur within a context, have some effect, and
ably a bad idea. provide some opportunity for feedback. Figure 1.1
5. Interpersonal conflict does not have to involve illustrates the elements present in all communication
a winner and a loser; both people can win, as acts, whether intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group,
demonstrated in Chapter 12. public speaking, or mass communication—or whether
6. Leadership, like communication and listening, face to face, by telephone, or over the Internet: (1) con-
is a learned skill that you’ll develop as you learn text, (2) sources–receivers, (3) messages, (4) channels, (5)
the principles of human communication in noise, and (6) effects.
general and of group leadership in particular
(Chapter 11).
7. Most speakers are nervous; managing, not Communication Context
eliminating, the fear will enable you to become All communication takes place in a context that has at
effective regardless of your current level of fear least four dimensions: physical, social–psychological,
(Chapter 14). temporal, and cultural.
Consider how these beliefs about communication ■ The physical context is the tangible or concrete
influence the way you communicate. Then, as you environment in which communication takes
read this book and participate in class discussions place—the room or hallway or park, for example.
Cultural Socio-Psychological
Context Context
Channels
Noise
Temporal Physical
Context Context
This physical context exerts some influence on the messages (you hear yourself, you feel your own move-
content of your messages (what you say) as well as ments, you see many of your own gestures), and you’re
on the form (how you say it). receiving the messages of the other person—visually,
■ The social–psychological context includes, aurally, or even through touch or smell.
for example, the status relationships among The act of producing messages—for example, speak-
the participants, the roles and the games that ing or writing—is called encoding. By putting your
people play, and the cultural rules of the society ideas into sound waves or into a computer program
in which people are communicating. It also you’re putting these ideas into a code, hence encoding.
includes the friendliness or unfriendliness, The act of receiving messages—for example, listening
formality or informality, and seriousness or or reading—is called decoding. By translating sound
humorousness of the situation. For example, waves or words on a screen into ideas you take them
communication that would be permitted at out of code, which is decoding. Thus, speakers or
a graduation party might not be considered writers are called encoders, and listeners or readers,
appropriate at a funeral. decoders.
As with sources–receivers, the compound term
■ The temporal (or time) context includes (1) the
encoding–decoding emphasizes that you perform these
time of day (for example, for some the morning
functions simultaneously, at least in face-to-face com-
is not a time for communication; for others,
munication. As you speak (encode), you also decipher
it’s ideal), (2) the time in history in which the
the responses of the listener (decode). In computer
communication takes place (for example, messages
communication this simultaneous exchange of mes-
on racial, sexual, or religious attitudes cannot be
sages occurs only sometimes. In e-mail (as well as snail
fully understood outside of their time in history),
mail) and social network sites, for example, the send-
and (3) how a message fits into the sequence of
ing and receiving may be separated by several days or
communication events (for example, the mean-
much longer. In chat groups and instant messaging,
ing of a compliment would be greatly different
on the other hand, communication takes place in real
depending on whether you said it immediately
time; the sending and receiving take place (almost)
after your friend paid you a compliment, imme-
simultaneously.
diately before you asked your friend for a favor, or
during an argument).
■ The cultural context has to do with your (and Messages
others’) culture: the beliefs, values, and ways of Communication messages take many forms. You
behaving that are shared by a group of people and send and receive messages through any one or any
passed down from one generation to the next. combination of sensory organs. Although you may
Cultural factors affect every interaction and influ- customarily think of messages as being verbal (oral
ence what you say, how you say it, and how you or written), you also communicate nonverbally.
respond to what others say. Everything about you communicates. For example,
These four dimensions of context interact with one the clothes you wear and the way you walk, shake
another (symbolized by the double-headed arrow in hands, tilt your head, comb your hair, sit, and smile
Figure 1.1). For example, arriving late for a scheduled all communicate messages.
lunch meeting (temporal context) might violate a cul- In face-to-face communication, the actual message
tural rule, which might lead to changes in the social– signals (the movements in the air) are evanescent; they
psychological context, perhaps creating tension and fade almost as they’re uttered. Some written messages,
unfriendliness, which in turn might lead to changes especially computer-mediated messages such as those
in the physical context—for example, choosing a less sent via e-mail, are unerasable. E-mails that are sent
intimate restaurant for your meeting. among employees in a large corporation, for example,
are often stored on disk or tape.
Three special types of messages include metames-
Source–Receiver sages, feedback messages, and feedforward messages.
The compound term source–receiver emphasizes that
each person involved in communication is both a Metamessages
source (or speaker) and a receiver (or listener). You A metamessage is a message that refers to another
send messages when you speak, write, gesture, or smile. message; it is communication about communica-
You receive messages in listening, reading, smelling, tion. For example, remarks such as “This statement
and so on. As you send messages, however, you’re is false” or “Do you understand what I am trying to
also receiving messages. You’re receiving your own tell you?” refer to communication and are therefore
CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARIES TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 9
Feedback Messages
Throughout the listening process, a lis-
tener gives a speaker feedback—messages
sent back to the speaker reacting to what
COMMUNICATION CHOICE POINT
is said. Feedback tells the speaker what ef-
SILENCE Your partner (who is extremely sensitive to criticism)
fect he or she is having on the listener(s).
talks constantly. There is never any silence, which you desperately crave.
This can take many forms: A frown or a You’re determined to combat this and create periods of occasional
smile, a yea or a nay, a pat on the back silence. Yet you don’t want to start an argument. What are some of
or a punch in the mouth are all types your choices for introducing the topic? What are some of the things
of feedback. Another type of feedback is you might say? What are some of the things you’d want to be sure
the feedback you get from listening to not to say?
yourself: You hear what you say, you feel
the way you move, you see what you write.
On the basis of this self-feedback you adjust
your messages; for example, you may correct a mis- signals visually (visual channel). In chat groups you
pronunciation, shorten your story, or increase your type and read words and use various symbols and
volume. abbreviations to communicate the emotional tone
of the message and, in many cases, audio and video
Feedforward Messages means as well. In addition, in face-to-face commu-
Feedforward is information you provide before nication you emit and detect odors (olfactory chan-
sending your primary messages; it reveals some- nel). Often you touch Explore the Exercise
thing about the messages to come (Richards, 1968). another person, and “Comparing Communication
Feedforward includes such diverse examples as the this too communicates Channels” at
preface or the table of contents in a book, the open- (tactile channel). MyCommunicationLab
ing paragraph of a chapter, movie previews, magazine
covers, and introductions in public speeches. Before
you open your e-mail you get feedforward that tells Noise
you the sender’s name and the subject matter. In com- Noise is anything that interferes with your receiv-
municating bad news you might give feedforward ing a message. At one extreme, noise may prevent
that aims to prepare the person to receive this news a message from getting from source to receiver. A
with something like, Explore the Exercise roaring noise or line static can easily prevent entire
“I’m sorry I have to tell “How to Give Feedforward” messages from getting through to your receiver. At
you this, but . . .” at MyCommunicationLab the other extreme, with virtually no noise interfer-
ence, the message of the source and the message
received are almost identical. Most often, however,
Channels
noise distorts some portion of the message as it
The communication channel is the medium through travels from source to receiver. Four types of noise
which the message passes. Communication rarely are especially relevant:
takes place over only one channel; you may use two,
three, or four different channels simultaneously. For ■ Physical noise is interference that is external to
example, in face-to-face interactions you speak and both speaker and listener; it interferes with the
listen (vocal channel), but you also gesture and receive physical transmission of the signal or message.
10 PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication
Examples include the screeching of passing cars, another culture, your feelings about that culture
the hum of a computer, sunglasses, illegible hand- may change. Again, the effect is largely affective
writing, blurred type or fonts that are too small or (but perhaps also intellectual).
difficult to read, misspellings and poor grammar, ■ Psychomotor effects are changes in behaviors such
and popup ads. as, for example, learning new dance movements,
■ Physiological noise is created by barriers within to throw a curve ball, to paint a room, or to use
the sender or receiver such as visual impair- different verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
ments, hearing loss, articulation problems, and
These effects are not separate; rather, they interact.
memory loss.
In many cases, a single message—say, a public speech
■ Psychological noise is mental interference in on homelessness—may inform you (intellectual effect),
speaker or listener and includes preconceived move you to feel differently (affective effect), and lead
ideas, wandering thoughts, biases and prejudices, you to be more generous when you come upon a
closed-mindedness, and extreme emotionalism. homeless person (psychomotor effect).
You’re likely to run into psychological noise when
you talk with someone who is closed-minded and
who refuses to listen to anything he or she doesn’t 1.3PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN
already believe.
■ Semantic noise is created when the speaker
COMMUNICATION
and listener have different meaning systems; it Several principles are essential to an understanding of
includes language or dialectical differences, the human communication in all its forms. These prin-
use of jargon or overly complex terms, and ambig- ciples, as you’ll see throughout the text, have numerous
uous or overly abstract terms whose meanings can practical implications
Watch the Video
be easily misinterpreted. You see this type of noise for your own commu- “Going Up” at
regularly, for example, in the medical doctor who nication effectiveness. MyCommunicationLab
uses “medicalese” without explanation or in the
insurance salesperson who speaks in the jargon of
the insurance industry. Communication Is Purposeful
As you can see from these examples, noise is any- You communicate for a purpose; some motivation
thing that distorts your receiving the messages of leads you to communicate. When you speak or write,
others or their receiving your messages. you’re trying to send some message and trying to
All communications contain noise. Noise can’t accomplish some goal. Although different cultures
be totally eliminated, but its effects can be reduced. emphasize different purposes and motives (Rubin,
Making your language more precise, sharpening your Fernandez-Collado, & Hernandez-Sampieri, 1992),
skills for sending and receiving nonverbal messages, five general purposes seem relatively common to
adjusting your camera for greater clarity, and improv- most if not all forms of communication:
ing your listening and feedback skills are some ways ■ to learn: to acquire knowledge of others, the
to combat the influence of noise. world, and yourself
■ to relate: to form relationships with others, to
Effects interact with others as individuals
Communication always has some effect on one or ■ to help: to assist others by listening, offering
more persons involved in the communication act. For solutions
every communication act, there is some consequence. ■ to influence: to strengthen or change the
Generally three types of effects are distinguished. attitudes or behaviors of others
■ Intellectual (or cognitive) effects are changes ■ to play: to enjoy the experience of the moment
in your thinking. When you acquire information Popular belief and research findings both agree that
from a class lecture, for example, the effect is men and women use communication for different pur-
largely intellectual. poses. Generally, men seem to communicate more for
■ Affective effects are changes in your attitudes, information and women more for relationship pur-
values, beliefs, and emotions. Thus, when you poses (Dindia & Canary, 2006; Helgeson, 2009). Gender
become frightened when watching the latest hor- differences also occur in computer communication. For
ror movie, its effect is largely affective. Similarly, example, women chat more for relationship reasons;
after a great experience with, say, a person of men chat more to play and to relax (Leung, 2001).
CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARIES TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 11
In addition to the theory and research discussed in any absolute sense. Rather, theories reveal some
throughout the text, two Understanding Theory and degree of accuracy, some degree of truth. In the natural
Research boxes appear in each chapter to highlight a sciences (such as physics and chemistry), theories are
particular theory or hypothesis about communication extremely high in accuracy. The same chemicals mixed
and to focus attention on the nature and function of the- the same way will produce the same effect, with little
ory and research in the study of human communication. variation from one time to another. In social and behav-
ioral sciences such as communication, sociology, and
A theory is a generalization that explains how some-
psychology, the theories are far less accurate in describ-
thing works—for example, gravity, blood clotting, inter-
ing the way things work and in predicting how things will
personal attraction, or communication. In academic
work in the future.
writing, the term theory is usually reserved for a well-
This failure to reveal truth, however, does not mean
established system of knowledge about how things work
that theories are useless. In increasing your understand-
or how things are related. A theory is still fundamentally
ing and your ability to predict, theories are extremely
a generalization, but it’s often supported by research
helpful. Theories often have practical implications as you
findings and other well-accepted theories.
work on developing your own communication skills. For
The theories you’ll encounter in this book try to explain
example, theories of interpersonal attraction offer practi-
how communication works—for example, how you
cal insights into how to make yourself more attractive
accommodate your speaking style to your listeners, how
to others; theories of leadership offer practical advice
communication works when relationships deteriorate, how
on how you can more effectively exert your own leader-
friends self-disclose, how problem-solving groups com-
ship. This interrelationship between theories and skills is
municate, how speakers influence audiences, and how the
a theme you’ll find throughout this book. The more you
media affect people. As you can see from even these few
know about how communication works (that is, the theo-
examples, theories provide general principles that help
ries and research), the more likely you’ll be able to use it
you understand an enormous number of specific events.
effectively (that is, build your communication skills).
One great value of communication theories is that
they help you predict future events. Because theories
summarize what’s been found, they can offer reasonable
predictions for events that you’ve never encountered. Working with Theories and Research
For example, theories of persuasion will help you predict Log on to one of the academic databases to which you
what kinds of emotional appeals will be most effective have access and browse through issues of Quarterly
in persuading a specific audience. Or theories of conflict Journal of Speech, Communication Monographs, or
resolution will enable you to predict what strategies Communication Theory (or scan similar journals in your
would be effective or ineffective in resolving differences. own field of study); you’ll be amazed at the breadth and
Despite their many values, theories don’t reveal truth depth of academic research and theory.
This principle of adjustment is especially impor- that is, the message being communicated about the
tant in intercultural communication, largely be- behaviors expected is the same. But the relationship
cause people from different cultures use different dimension is very different. The first example signifies
signals—and sometimes also use the same signals to a definite superior–inferior relationship and even a
signify quite different things. Focused eye contact put-down of the worker. In the second, the employer
means honesty and openness in much of the United signals a more equal relationship and shows respect
States. But in Japan and in many Hispanic cultures, it for the worker.
may signify arrogance or disrespect if, say, engaged in Similarly, at times the content may be different but
by a youngster with someone significantly older. the relationship essentially the same. For example, a
An interesting theory revolving largely around teenager might say to his or her parents, “May I go
adjustment is communication accommodation away this weekend?” or “May I use the car tonight?”
theory. This theory holds that speakers adjust to, or The content of the two messages is clearly very differ-
accommodate to, the speaking style of their listen- ent. The relationship dimension, however, is essen-
ers in order to gain, for example, social approval and tially the same. It clearly denotes a superior–inferior
greater communication efficiency (Giles, 2008). For relationship in which permission to do certain things
example, when two people have a similar speech rate, must be secured.
they seem to be attracted more to each other than to
those with dissimilar rates (Buller, LePoire, Aune, & Ignoring Relationship Dimensions
Eloy, 1992). In interethnic interactions, people who Problems may arise when the distinction between the
saw themselves as similar in communication styles content and relationship levels of communication
were attracted to each other more than to those they is ignored. Consider a couple arguing over the fact
perceived as having different communication styles that Pat made plans to study with friends during the
(Lee & Gudykunst, 2001). weekend without first asking Chris if that would be
all right. Probably both would have agreed that to
study over the weekend was the right choice to make.
Communication Involves Content Thus, the argument is not at all related to the content
level. The argument centers on the relationship level.
and Relationship Dimensions Chris expected to be consulted about plans for the
Communications, to a certain extent at least, refer weekend. Pat, in not doing so, rejected this definition
to the real world—to something external to both of the relationship.
speaker and listener. At the same time, however, com- Consider the following interchange:
munications also refer to the relationships between
the parties (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 1967). In Thom: I’m going bowling tomorrow. The guys at
other words, communication has both content and the plant are starting a team. [He focuses
relationship dimensions. on the content and ignores any relational
For example, an employer may say to a worker, implications of the message.]
“See me after the meeting.” This simple message has Sofia: Why can’t we ever do anything together?
a content aspect and a relational aspect. The content [She responds primarily on a relational
message refers to the behavioral response expected— level, ignoring the content implications
namely, that the worker see the employer after the of the message and expressing her dis-
meeting. The relationship message tells how the pleasure at being ignored in his decision.]
communication is to be dealt with. For example, the Thom: We can do something together anytime;
use of the simple command says that there’s a status tomorrow’s the day they’re organiz-
difference between the two parties: The employer can ing the team. [Again, he focuses almost
command the worker. This aspect is perhaps seen exclusively on the content.]
most clearly if you imagine the worker giving this
command to the employer; to do so would be awk- Recognizing Relationship Dimensions
ward and out of place because it would violate the Here’s essentially the same situation but with added
expected relationship between employer and worker. sensitivity to relationship messages:
In any communication situation, the content
dimension may stay the same but the relationship Thom: The guys at the plant are organizing a
aspect may vary. For example, the employer could bowling team. I’d sure like to be on the
say to the worker either “You had better see me after team. Do you mind if I go to the organi-
the meeting” or “May I please see you after the meet- zational meeting tomorrow? [Although
ing?” In each case, the content is essentially the same; he focuses on content, he shows
14 PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication
awareness of the relational dimensions Arguments over content are relatively easy to re-
by asking if this would be a problem. He solve. You can look something up in a book or ask
also shows this in expressing his desire someone what actually took place. Arguments on the
rather than his decision to attend this relationship level, however, are much more difficult
meeting.] to resolve, in part because you may not recognize that
Sofia: That sounds great, but I’d really like to the argument is in fact about your relationship.
do something together tomorrow. [She
focuses on the relational dimension but
Communication Is Ambiguous
also acknowledges his content message.
Note too that she does not respond as if Ambiguous messages are messages with more than
she has to defend herself or her emphasis one potential meaning. Sometimes this ambiguity
on relational aspects.] occurs because we use words that can be interpreted
differently. Informal time terms offer good examples;
Thom: How about you meet me at Luigi’s for
soon, right away, in a minute, early, late, and similar terms
dinner after the organizational meeting?
often mean different things to different people. The
[He responds to the relational aspect
terms are ambiguous. A more interesting type of am-
without abandoning his desire to join
biguity is grammatical ambiguity. You can get a feel
the bowling team—and seeks to incor-
for this type of ambiguity by trying to develop two
porate it into his communications. He
paraphrases (each with different meanings) for each
attempts to negotiate a solution that
of these sentences:
will meet both Sofia’s and his needs and
desires.] 1. What has the cat in its paws?
Sofia: Perfect. I’m dying for spaghetti and meat- 2. Visiting relatives can be boring.
balls. [She responds to both messages, 3. They are flying planes.
approving of both his joining the team One set of possible paraphrases is this:
and their dinner date.]
1. What monster has the cat in its paws? What
does the cat have in its paws?
2. To visit relatives can be boring. Relatives who
visit can be boring.
3. Those people are flying planes. Those planes
are for flying.
Although these examples are particularly striking—
and are the work of linguists who analyze language—
some degree of ambiguity exists in all communication;
all messages are ambiguous to some degree. When you
express an idea, you never communicate your mean-
ing exactly and totally; rather, you communicate your
meaning with some reasonable accuracy—enough to
give the other person a reasonably clear sense of what
you mean. Sometimes, of course, you’re less accurate
than you anticipated: Your listener “gets the wrong
idea,” or “gets offended” when you only meant to be
COMMUNICATION CHOICE POINT humorous, or “misunderstands your emotional mean-
RELATIONSHIP AMBIGUITY You’ve been dating ing.” Because of this inevitable uncertainty, you may
someone on and off for a year or so, and you’d like
qualify what you’re saying, give an example, or ask, “Do
to invite your date to meet your parents as a friendly
you know what I mean?” These tactics help the other
gesture but aren’t sure how your date will perceive
this invitation. You don’t want your partner to think
person understand your meaning and reduce uncer-
that meeting your parents means that you want a tainty (to some degree).
closer romantic bond; you’re comfortable with the Any communication situation can be ambiguous.
way things are. What are some of your choices for In small group or organizational situations, you may
reducing the ambiguity? What would you say? In what be unsure of how you or your ideas are being evalu-
context? Through what channel? ated. You may be unsure of the hierarchy in the
organization. You may be unsure of what style of
CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARIES TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 15
Communication Is Inevitable, example, the student sitting in the back of the class-
room with an expressionless face, perhaps staring out
Irreversible, and Unrepeatable
the window. Although the student might claim not
Communication is a process that is inevitable, irrevers- to be communicating with the teacher, the teacher
ible, and unrepeatable. Communication messages are may derive any of a variety of messages from this
always being sent (or almost always), can’t be reversed behavior; for example, that the student lacks inter-
or uncommunicated, and are always unique and one- est, is bored, or is worried about something. In any
time occurrences. Let’s look at these qualities in more event, the teacher is receiving messages even though
detail. the student may not intend to communicate. In an
interactional situation you can’t avoid communicat-
Inevitability ing (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 1967).
Often communication is thought of as intentional, Further, when you’re in an interactional situa-
purposeful, and consciously motivated. In many in- tion you can’t avoid responding to the messages of
stances it is. But in other instances communication others. For example, if you notice someone wink-
takes place even though one of the individuals does ing at you, you must respond in some way. Even if
not think he or she is communicating or does not you don’t respond actively or openly, that lack of
want to communicate. Put more formally, the prin- response is itself a response, and it communicates.
ciple of inevitability means that in any interactional Again, if you don’t notice the winking, then obvi-
situation communication will occur. Consider, for ously communication has not occurred.
Research is usually conducted on the basis of some the same way at other times? If the answer to such
theory and its predictions—although sometimes the questions is yes, then the results are reliable. If the
motivation to conduct research comes from a simple answer is no, then the results may be unreliable.
desire to answer a question. Communication research is
■ Are the results valid? Validity is a measure of
a systematic search for information about communica-
the extent to which a measuring instrument mea-
tion, the very information that is discussed throughout
sures what it claims to measure. For example, does
this text; for example, information about perception and
your score on an intelligence test really measure
listening, verbal and nonverbal messages, interpersonal
what we think of as intelligence? Does your score
interactions, small group encounters, and public speak-
on a test of communication apprehension mea-
ing situations.
sure what most people think of as constituting
Some research is designed to explore what exists; for
apprehension?
example, what do people say after getting caught in a
lie? Other research is designed to describe the properties ■ Do the results justify the conclusion? Results
of some communication behavior; for example, what are and conclusions are two different things. Results
the various types of excuses? Still other research aims are objective findings such as “men scored
to predict what will happen in different situations; for higher than women on this test of romanticism.”
example, what types of excuses will work best in a busi- Conclusions are the researcher’s (or reader’s)
ness relationship? Research findings bearing on these interpretation of the results and might include, for
questions help explain how communication works and example, “Men are more romantic than women.”
suggest ways to use communication more effectively.
In evaluating communication research (or any kind of
research), ask yourself three questions: Working with Theories and Research
■ Are the results reliable? In establishing reliability, What question about communication would you like
a measure of the extent to which research find- answered? Research the question and find out if the
ings are consistent, you ask if another researcher, question has already been answered. If not, how might
using the same essential tools, would find the you go about conducting your own research to secure
same results. Would the same people respond in the answer?
CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARIES TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 17
Irreversibility
Notice that you can reverse the processes of
only some systems. For example, you can
turn water into ice and then the ice back
into water. And you can repeat this reversal
process as many times as you wish. Other
systems, however, are irreversible. You can
turn grapes into wine, but you can’t turn
the wine back into grapes—the process can
go in only one direction. Communication
is such an irreversible process. Once you say
something, once you press the send key on
your e-mail, you can’t uncommunicate it.
You can of course try to reduce the effects of
your message by saying, for example, “I really
didn’t mean what I said” or “I was so angry
I couldn’t think straight.” But regardless of COMMUNICATION CHOICE POINT
how you try to negate or reduce the effects IRREVERSIBILITY You post a really negative remark on your
of a message, the message itself, once it has friend’s Facebook wall which many of your mutual friends and work col-
leagues have seen. The next day you realize you shouldn’t have been
been sent and received, can’t be reversed.
so negative. You really want to remain friends. You need to say some-
Because of irreversibility (and unerasabil-
thing. What are your options for communicating your feelings? What
ity in the case of much electronic communica- communication channels could you use?
tion), be careful not to say things you may be
sorry for later. Especially in conflict situations,
when tempers run high, avoid saying things you
Table 1.3, on page 18, summarizes these principles,
may later wish to withdraw. Commitment messages—
basic ideas, and implications.
“I love you” messages and their variants—also need
to be monitored. And in group and public commu-
nication situations, when messages are received by
many people, it’s crucial to recognize their irrevers- 1.4 THE COMPETENT
ibility. Similarly, online messages (whether e-mail, blog COMMUNICATOR
posts, or Facebook photos) that could be interpreted
as sexist, racist, homophobic, or ageist, which you Communication competence refers both to your
thought were private or erased from your computer, knowledge and understanding of how communica-
may later be recalled and retrieved by others, creating tion works and to your ability to use communication
all sorts of problems for you and your organization. effectively (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1989, 2002, 2011).
Interestingly enough, only 55 percent of online teens Your understanding of communication would
say they do not post content that might reflect nega- include a knowledge of the elements involved in
tively on them in the future (Lenhart et al., 2011). communication, how these elements interact, and
how each communication situation is both different
Unrepeatability from and similar to other situations. Your knowl-
The reason for the unrepeatability of communica- edge would also include Explore at
tion is simple: Everyone and everything is constantly an understanding of MyCommunicationLab
changing. As a result, you can never recapture the the choices you have for Profile: “Self-Perceived
communicating in any Communication
exact same situation, frame of mind, or relationship
Competence”
dynamics that defined a previous communication given situation.
act. For example, you can never repeat meeting some- Using communication effectively would involve
one for the first time, making a first impression in an your ability to select and implement the best choices
interview, or resolving a specific group problem. You for communicating and to read and adjust to the
can, of course, try again, as when you say, “I’m sorry I ongoing feedback that you receive from your own
came off so forward, can we try again?” But even after messages and that guide the choices you make in
you say this, you have not erased the initial impres- selecting future messages.
sion. Instead you try to counteract this initial and The more you know about communication, the
perhaps negative impression by going through the more choices you’ll have available for your day-to-
motions again. day interactions. It’s like learning vocabulary. The
18 PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication
TABLE 1.3
Communication Is a Communication can take place ■ Learn the other person’s system
Process of Adjustment only to the extent that the of signaling.
communicators use the same ■ Adjust your verbal and nonverbal
system of signals. messages to the situation and
the other individuals.
Communication All messages and all relation- ■ Use clear and specific terms.
Is Ambiguous ships are potentially ambiguous. ■ Ask if you’re being understood.
■ Paraphrase complex ideas.
more vocabulary you know, the more choices you of competence, you should emerge from this course
have to express yourself. In a similar way, the aim of with a greater number of communication options
this book is to give you a broad range of options to under your control. In addition, this course and text
use in your own communications and thus increase provide you with the background—the theory and
your communicative competence. Let’s spell out the research bearing on these choices—to help you make
nature of communication competence in more detail more effective communication predictions and deci-
by discussing the major themes of competence that sions. And this course and text will provide you with
contemporary research and theory identify and that the skills enabling you to communicate your choices
are highlighted in this text. Table 1.4, on page 22, pro- effectively.
vides a summary of the characteristics of competence.
The Competent Communicator
The Competent Communicator Thinks Critically and Mindfully
Makes Reasoned Choices An essential communication skill is the ability to think
Throughout your communication life and in each critically about the communication situations you face
communication interaction you’re presented with and the options for communicating that you have avail-
choice points—moments when you have to make a able; this is crucial to your success and effectiveness.
choice as to with whom you communicate, what you Without critical thinking there can be no compe-
say, what you don’t say, how you phrase what you tent exchange of ideas. Critical thinking is logical
want to say, and so on. Competence in communica- thinking; it’s thinking that is well reasoned, un-
tion choice-making can be viewed as a series of four biased, and clear. It involves thinking intelligently,
interrelated characteristics. carefully, and with as much clarity as possible. It’s the
opposite of what you’d call sloppy, illogical, or care-
1. The competent communication choice maker
less thinking.
realizes that each communication situation can
A special kind of critical thinking is mindfulness.
be approached in different ways. For example,
Mindfulness is a state of awareness in which you’re
there are lots of ways to offer an apology; there
conscious of your reasons for thinking or behaving.
are lots of ways to lead a group; there are lots of
In its opposite, mindlessness, you lack conscious
ways to introduce a speech.
awareness of what or how you’re thinking (Langer,
2. The competent communication choice maker
1989). To apply interpersonal skills effectively in
has a large arsenal of available choices. For
conversation, you need to be mindful of the unique
example, the competent communicator would
communication situation you’re in, of your available
know the characteristics of an effective apology,
communication options, and of the reasons why one
the varied leadership styles, and the numerous
option is likely to be better than the others (Burgoon,
ways in which a speech can be introduced.
Berger, & Waldron, 2000; Elmes & Gemmill, 1990).
3. Because each communication situation is
As you progress through your study of human
different from every other communication
communication, actively increase your own mindful-
situation, the competent choice maker can
ness (Langer, 1989):
effectively evaluate the available choices based
on knowledge of the research and theory in ■ Create and re-create categories. Group things
human communication and can make rea- in different ways; remember that people are con-
sonable predictions as to what choices will stantly changing, so the categories into which you
work and what choices won’t. For example, may group them also should change. Learn to
the competent communicator would have the see objects, events, and people as belonging to a
knowledge of human communication that wide variety of categories. Try to see, for example,
would enable him or her to evaluate the type of your prospective romantic partner in a variety of
apology, the style of leadership, or the specific roles—child, parent, employee, neighbor, friend,
introduction that would work best for this financial contributor, and so on.
unique communication situation.
■ Be open to new information and points of
4. The competent communication choice maker
view. This is perhaps especially important when
has the interpersonal, small group, and pub-
these contradict your most firmly held beliefs.
lic speaking skills for executing these choices
New information forces you to reconsider what
effectively.
might be outmoded ways of thinking and can
This course and this text aim to enlarge your com- help you challenge long-held but now inappropri-
munication options; regardless of your present level ate beliefs and attitudes.
20 PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication
■ Beware of relying too heavily on first impres- different nonverbal messages from facial expressions,
sions. Treat first impressions as tentative, as colors, touch, silence, and time; in approaches to small
hypotheses that need further investigation. Be group communication and leadership; and in their
prepared to revise, reject, or accept these initial evaluation of different approaches in public speak-
impressions. ing (for example, some cultures appreciate directness
■ Think before you act. Especially in delicate situa- and a fully confident speaker, while others may prefer
tions such as anger or commitment messages, it’s one who is indirect and modest).Because culture is so
wise to pause and think over the situation mind- important in all forms of communication, the next
fully. In this way you’ll stand a better chance of chapter is devoted to culture in human communica-
acting and reacting appropriately. tion and intercultural communication.
them that they look great or that they’ll get well soon. proven to be extremely immoral. The burning
In a subjective view a good end would often justify of people supposed to be witches or of those
the use of means that would in other situations be who spoke out against majority opinion (as in
considered unethical. the Inquisition) are good examples.
5. Statement 5 is false because immoral acts
Beliefs about Ethics frequently benefit the majority and harm the
minority. The burning of witches, for example,
As a preface to these future discussions, consider
was in the interest of the majority as were
some of the popular beliefs about ethics—perhaps
slavery and discrimination against gay men
one or more of which you hold personally. For each
and lesbians, certain religions, or different
of the following statements place a T (for True)
races. But, despite this majority interest, we’d
if you feel the statement accurately explains what
readily recognize these actions as immoral.
ethical behavior is and an F (for False) if you feel the
statement does not accurately explain what ethical In addition to this introductory discussion, ethical
behavior is. dimensions of human communication are presented
1. _____ My behavior is ethical when I feel (in my in each of the remaining chapters in the Making
heart) that I’m doing the right thing. Ethical Choices boxes. As a kind of preview, here are
2. _____ My behavior is ethical when it is consis- just a few of the ethical issues raised in these boxes.
tent with my religious beliefs. As you read these questions, think about your own
3. _____ My behavior is ethical when it is legal. ethical beliefs and how these beliefs influence the way
4. _____ My behavior is ethical when the majority you’d answer the questions.
of reasonable people would consider it ethical.
■ What are your ethical obligations as a listener?
5. _____ My behavior is ethical when the effect of
See Ethics box, Chapter 4.
the behavior benefits more people than it harms.
■ When is it unethical to remain silent? See Ethics
These statements are based on responses given to box, Chapter 6.
the question “What does ethics mean to you?” on the
■ When is gossiping ethical, and when is it unethi-
Santa Clara University website on Ethical Decision
cal? See Ethics box, Chapter 8.
Making and are presented here to stimulate thinking
and discussion about what is and what is not a useful ■ At what point in a relationship do you have an
ethical theory. All five of these statements are false; obligation to reveal intimate details of your life?
none of them states a useful explanation of what is See Ethics box, Chapter 9.
and what is not ethical. ■ Are there ethical and unethical ways to engage in
conflict and conflict resolution? See Ethics box,
1. Statement 1 is false simply because people often
Chapter 11.
do unethical things they feel are morally justi-
fied. Jack the Ripper killing prostitutes is a good
historical example, but there are many current The Competent Communicator Is an
ones such as stalking (I’m so in love I need to be
with this person) or insurance scams (My family Effective Listener
needs the money more than the insurance company). Often we tend to think of competence in interpersonal
Even though Jack, the stalker, and the scam communication as “speaking effectiveness,” paying
artist may feel justified in their own minds, it little attention to listening. But listening is an integral
doesn’t make their behavior moral or ethical. part of interpersonal communication; you cannot be a
2. Statement 2 must be false when you realize competent communicator if you’re a poor listener.
that different religions advocate very different If you measured importance by the time you spend
kinds of behavior, often behaviors that contra- on an activity, then—according to the research studies
dict one another. Examples abound in almost available—listening would be your most important
every issue of a daily newspaper. communication activity. Studies conducted from 1929
3. Statement 3 must be false when you realize so to 1980 show that listening was the most often used
much discrimination against certain people is form of communication. For example, in a study of
perfectly legal in many parts of the world, and, college students conducted in 1980 (Barker, Edwards,
in many countries, war (even preemptive war) Gaines, Gladney, & Holley, 1980), listening also oc-
is legal. cupied the most time: 53 percent compared to reading
4. Statement 4 is false because the thinking of the (17 percent), speaking (16 percent), and writing (14
majority changes with the times and has often percent). In a more recent survey (Watkins, 2010), the
22 PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication
figures for the four communication activities were: crucial that you learn how this influence is exerted so
listening (40 percent), talking (35 percent), reading that you, rather than the media, can determine what
(16 percent), and writing (9 percent). Again, listening influences you and what doesn’t. Looked at in this way,
is the most often used of all communication activities. media literacy is a form of empowerment. It can help
Because of the importance of listening, Chapter 4 is you to use the media more intelligently: (1) to under-
devoted exclusively to listening and covers the nature stand, analyze, and evaluate media messages more effec-
and importance of listening, the steps you go through tively; (2) to influence the messages that the media send
in listening, the role of culture and gender in listening, out; and (3) to create your own mediated messages. Let’s
and ways to increase your listening effectiveness. look at these three interrelated skills a bit more.
TABLE 1.4
■ Media literacy aims to empower you to interact messages. Blogs, Twitter, websites, and social net-
with the media, to talk back to the media, and to work sites are making this function relatively easy.
provide the skills for your influencing the media At the same time, many media are inviting readers
rather than only the other way around. This func- and reviewers to comment on their articles and in
tion is addressed throughout the book; the skills most cases posting your comments along with the
of human communication are the skills you need original articles.
to influence —whether it’s your friend, a small
Media literacy, then, may be defined as the ability
group, a public speaking audience, or the media.
to understand, analyze, and evaluate media messages,
■ Media literacy aims to educate you to use the to interact with the media, and to use the available
available resources to create your own media resources to create your own media messages.
Margo, a student mentor at an entertainment magazine publisher, wants to say the right thing in
her mentoring discussions with a group of interns. She’s just learned that they’ve done question-
able things on Facebook—posted inappropriate pictures, used biased language, and in general
portrayed themselves as not serious enough. She wants to make them aware of how damaging
this could be in their eventual pursuit of a career, but wonders how she should communicate it
to them. She considers the topics covered in this chapter as she contemplates her communica-
tion choices. What options do Margo have in determining the form of communication (say, the
difference among face-to-face one-on-one, face-to-face group, or online), and what are the likely
Watch the Video advantages and disadvantages of each? What options does she have for expressing her mes-
“Summer Internship” at sage in terms, say, of formality–informality or friendly–businesslike, and what differences will
MyCommunicationLab these choices play in her effectiveness? Log on to mycommunicationlab.com to view this
video, to see how Margo’s choices play out, and to answer the related discussion questions.
1.1 FORMS, BENEFITS, AND MYTHS OF HUMAN organizational, public, computer-mediated, and mass
COMMUNICATION communication.
1. Communication is the act, by one or more persons, of 3. Communication study will enable you to improve your
sending and receiving messages that occur within a presentation skills, relationship skills, interaction
context, are distorted by noise, have some effect (and skills, thinking skills, and leadership skills.
some ethical dimension), and provide some opportu-
4. Among the major myths about communication are that
nity for feedback.
more communication is necessarily better communica-
2. The major types of human communication tion and that fear of public speaking is necessarily
are intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, detrimental.
24 PART 1 Foundations of Human Communication
12. Communication is multi-purposeful; we use communi- 21. The competent communicator is defined as one who
cation to discover, to relate, to help, to persuade, and makes effective choices, thinks critically and mind-
to play. fully, understands the role of power, is culturally sen-
sitive, is ethical, is an effective listener, and is media
13. Communication is a transactional process in which each
literate.
person simultaneously sends and receives messages.
KEY TERMS
Here are the essential terms used in this chapter and the pages on which they are introduced. Study and Review
Many of these terms are also defined in the glossary at the end of the text. In addition, flash the Flashcards at
cards are available online at MyCommunicationLab (www.mycommunicationlab.com) to help MyCommunicationLab
you further master the vocabulary of human communication.
adjustment 12 content message 13 interpersonal communication 4
ambiguity 14 context 7 communication 2 public speaking 4
asynchronous 4 critical thinking 19 interviewing 2 punctuation 15
channel 9 culture 20 intrapersonal receiver 8
code 8 decoder 8 communication 2 relationship
communication 2 decoding 8 irreversibility 17 message 13
communication effect 10 mass communication 4 responses 8
accommodation encoder 8 media literacy 23 small group
theory 13 encoding 8 messages 8 communication 2
communication ethics 20 metacommunication 9 source 8
competence 17 feedback 9 metamessages 8 subjective view 20
computer-mediated feedforward 9 mindfulness 19 synchronous 4
communication 4 inevitability 16 noise 9 theory 11
content and relationship intercultural objective view 20 transactional 11
dimensions 13 communication 13 organizational unrepeatability 17
CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARIES TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 25
items on this list have changed since 2005? How 1.9 Inevitability, Irreversibility, and Unrepeatability.
will they change over the next 5 years? Over the next Identify one or two guidelines that the concepts of
20 years? inevitability, irreversibility, and unrepeatability would
1.8 Synchronous and Asynchronous Messaging. In suggest for any two or three of the following situa-
face-to-face and chat room communication, messages tions: (a) the first day at a new job, (b) asking for a
are exchanged with virtually no delay; communication date, (c) a face-to-face job interview, (d) chatting in an
is synchronous. In other forms of communication— online group, (e) posting party photos on some social
for example, snail or e-mail and blog posts—the network site, (f) introducing yourself in class, (g) argu-
messages may be exchanged with considerable ing with your romantic partner, (h) seeing an old friend
delay; communication here is asynchronous. What after many years, (i) leading a group of colleagues in
differences does this lead to in the way you communi- a brainstorming session, and (j) giving a speech to
cate in these various forms? regain the goodwill of the people.