Aluminium and its alloys used in aircraft

This unit of work addresses aspects of the following syllabus outcome:

A student:

H 1.2. differentiates between the properties of materials and justifies the

selection of materials, components and processes in engineering.

Extract from Engineering Studies Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW 1999

By studying the following pages and visiting the web links students will learn to
analyse the structure, properties, uses and appropriateness of materials in
aeronautical engineering applications. They will also learn about the effects of heat
treatment.

Source: Corus Aluminium Walzprodukte web site . Viewed on 9 July 2003.

Introduction

Any brief history of aircraft materials must mention timber as one of the first
materials used to make a powered, manned flight. The Wright Flyer consisted mainly
of Sitka spruce and bamboo glued and screwed together to form a canvas-covered
frame. Wooden aircraft were very successful in the early years of flight but by the end
of World War I their days were numbered. Today, timber is only suitable for
comparatively small aircraft. As aircraft became larger, materials with better specific
strength (strength to weight ratios) became necessary. Today aircraft consist largely
of aluminium alloys with steel, titanium alloys and polymer composites forming the
smaller proportion. The balance of materials does depend on the type of aircraft as
military fighter planes have much higher proportions of composites and titanium
alloys.

Aircraft need to be made of lightweight materials to increase payload and save in fuel
consumption. The more passengers a plane can carry, the more profit an airline
company can make.

Whilst pure aluminium has low specific gravity, good corrosion resistance and
excellent thermal and electrical conductivity it is too weak and ductile to be used on
its own. In 1906 Dr Alfred Wilma, a German metallurgist, discovered that aluminium
alloyed with copper and heat treated correctly could be made far stronger. The alloy
of aluminium with 4% copper is called Duralumin and the heat treatment process is
called precipitation hardening. These alloys have typically low specific gravity (around
2.7) and high strength (450 MPa). They are limited by a maximum service
temperature of about 660°C. Since then, other heat treatable aluminium alloys have
been developed for aircraft use. These include a range of complex aluminium-zinc
alloys which develop the highest strength of any aluminium alloy. These alloys have
led to modern aircraft design where the skin of the fuselage and wings are stressed
aluminium alloy members which reduces the overall weight.

The aluminium alloys mentioned above have the disadvantage of not being as
corrosion resistant as pure aluminium so a thin layer of pure aluminium is often
pressure welded to both sides of the alloy. This material is called Alclad.

Titanium, though very expensive, is used where high strength is needed in load
bearing applications such as landing gear and engine mounting brackets.

Steel is used where strength is needed in restricted spaces, for example in the
carriageways. Alloy steels can be heat treated to give very high mechanical properties
and take up less volume, which is very important, as there is not very much “free
space”. It is used sparingly though as it is heavy and suffers from increased
brittleness (low energy to cause fracture) at the low temperatures found at very high
altitudes.

Lithium is also used as an alloying element for improved properties.

One property that is appropriate for selecting materials for aircraft use is their specific
strength. The following list indicates the approximate specific strength for some
materials:

 Aluminium 30 Mpa
 Mild Steel 51 MPa
 Duralumin (heat treated) 150 MPa
 Al-Zn (heat treated) 220 Mpa
 Titanium alloy (heat treated) 270 MPa

Modern aircraft are extremely efficient and fast flying machines. The advances in
materials technology accounts for the economy and reduction in weight while speed
comes from development of the aircraft's shape and its engines.

Advances in polymer composites are making them increasingly more popular. They
have very attractive low density and high mechanical properties. Composites consist
of fibres of glass, carbon, Kevlar or boron reinforced in an epoxy resin matrix. They
are replacing some of the aluminium alloys in commercial aircraft and find even
greater applications in military aircraft such as the Eurofighter.

Activity 1

Discuss why there has been a change from one material to another in aircraft
development?

Answer
Aluminium and its alloys

There is a broad range of aluminium alloys, and because of this a classification system
has been developed for wrought and cast alloys.

Wrought alloys are registered by a four-digit number, which can have a further letter
and number to indicate temper and condition. Various domestic nomenclature
schemes exist for the casting alloys.

Four-digit
Alloying element(s)
number

aluminium of 99%
1XXX
minimum purity

aluminium-copper
2XXX
alloys

aluminium-manganese
3XXX
alloys

aluminium-silicon
4XXX
alloys

aluminium-magnesium
5XXX
alloys

aluminium-magnesium-
6XXX
silicon alloys

aluminium-zinc-
7XXX
magnesium alloys

miscellaneous, e.g.
8XXX Aluminium-lithium
alloys

The following information has been provided by courtesy of Professor Alan Crosky of
the University of New South Wales.

The most commonly used aluminium alloys for airframe construction are the
precipitation hardening alloys in the 2XXX and 7XXX series, as shown below:
 Aluminium alloys used in aircraft construction.
Boeing Aircraft Co. (n.d.).Seattle

2XXX series aluminium alloys

The 2XXX series aluminium alloys are alloyed with copper from 1.9-6.8% and often
contain additions of manganese, magnesium and zinc. Their precipitation hardening
has been widely studied. They are used for applications such as, forgings, extrusions
and liquefied gas storage tanks in civil transport and supersonic aircraft. These alloys
have lower crack growth rates and thus have better fatigue performance than the
7XXX series alloys. Therefore, these are used on the lower wings and body skin (see
Figure above). The alloys used are 2224, 2324 and 2524 (both modified versions of
2224). These alloys are often clad with 99.34% pure aluminium for increased
corrosion resistance. Compositions of these alloys are included in the table
below, Aluminium airframe alloy compositions.

7XXX Series aluminium alloys

The Al-Zn-Mg system offers the greatest potential for precipitation hardening (out of
the aluminium alloys) though copper is often added to improve stress corrosion
cracking resistance (with the drawback of reducing weldability). Stress corrosion
cracking resistance decreases with increasing Zn:Mg ratio. The stress corrosion
cracking problems have been the biggest restriction upon the use of these alloys but
they have still been used in lightweight military bridges, railway carriages, military
and civil aircraft.

Table: Aluminium airframe alloy compositions

 Source: Flower, H. M. (1995) High performance materials in aerospace. Chapman
Hall: London

Activity 2

List the three main reasons why aluminium alloys are used instead of pure
aluminium?

Answer

Heat treatment of precipitation hardening alloys

Aluminium alloys are strengthened in a number of ways including: solid solution

hardening, cold working, dispersion hardening and precipitation hardening.

Precipitation hardening (otherwise known as age hardening) is a process whereby a

fine precipitate structure is formed in the alloy matrix following a heat treatment
process.

For an alloy to be precipitation hardened it requires:

 decreased solid solubility with decreasing temperature

 the ability to suppress the formation of precipitates by quenching from a solid
solution
 the formation of metastable coherent precipitates

The precipitation hardening process follows three main steps:

1. Solution treatment. The alloy is heated above the solvus temperature to

dissolve any precipitates and ensure the alloying elements are in solid
solution.
2. Quench, The alloy is quenched. The alloying elements in solution do not have
time to diffuse and form precipitates. Thus, the alloying elements remain in
solution forming what is known as a supersaturated solid solution.
3. Ageing. The alloy is heated to an intermediate temperature below the solvus
temperature. The alloying elements are able to diffuse to form coherent
precipitate clusters (known as GP zones).
 Example of age hardening 2XXX series aluminium alloy system
Source: Gibson, J. (n.d.) Equilibrium diagrams and common metal alloy systems.
Sydney: Clarendon.

The coherent precipitates increase the strength of the alloy by distorting the crystal
lattice and creating resistance to dislocation motion. The number of precipitates
increases with increasing time thus increasing the strength of the alloy. However, with
excessive time the precipitates become large and incoherent and their strengthening
effect decreases. Thus, during precipitation hardening there are four main stages:

1. solid solution strengthening in the supersaturated solid solution

2. coherency stress hardening from the coherent precipitates
3. precipitation hardening by resistance to dislocation cutting
4. hardening through resistance to dislocation between precipitates.

Activity 3

Describe how an age hardening rivet could be inserted into the wing of an aeroplane
during assembly?
 Answer

Other Useful Resources

The Boeing 747 family

Studying about engineering materials
A site about how aeroplanes fly
A site about design choices for a small STOL aircraft
A manufacturer of small ultralight aircraft

Australian innovation in small aircraft design :

A case study
Outcomes:

H1.1 describes the scope of engineering and critically analyses current

innovations

H4.1 investigates the extent of technological change in engineering

Design Concept:

The following pictures present a light aircraft that is not quite in production as yet and
will be sold in "kit" form. It has been designed, modelled, wind tunnel tested and
structurally analysed all of which costs millions of dollars before it is even built.

It's innovative design includes the latest Global Positioning System (GPS) and satellite
navigation (Satnav) instrumentation and it is also far safer than any existing
equivalent aircraft. The cabin has a frame rather like a "roll cage" which will give its
occupants a better chance of survival in a crash.

Computer-generated image of the

P99L, a single-engined 4-seater aircraft currently being designed by Page Aircraft
Company for manufacturing in kit form by Australian Lightwing.
 Driven directly from a computer program
called Catia, an industry-standard computer application, the designed model is cut out
on a 3-axis milling machine to generate a scale model for use in wind tunnel testing.

Question 1.

Why is MDF craftwood being used for the model?

Answer

The NASA machine shop shows the use of an alternative modelling process and
material.

The model, after machining, is placed in the University of New South Wales
recirculating wind tunnel to measure the forces and moments generated by the
aerodynamics. The aircraft is also tufted to show the direction of air flow.

Question 2.

a. What is meant by "lift" and "drag" in aircraft design.

b. What is meant by "stall".
c. From the image above, how can you tell this aircraft has stalled?

Answers
For more information on general flight theory visit the How Things Fly .

Structural concept:

The aircraft has classical aerodynamic surfaces of aluminium alloy with:

a. composite fuselage
b. a load carrying structure of welded steel in the vicinity of the cabin, this is like
a safety cell or roll cage in a racing car
c. an aluminium alloy skin

Question 3.

a. Why is welded steel used rather than aluminium alloy?

b. How might the frame be checked for fatigue cracks? (ultrasonic, X-
ray, etc.)
c. What material would be used to "skin" this aircraft? (duralumin)

Answers

Question 4.

a. What is the difference between a monocoque, semi-monocoque and

framed structure?
b. What type of structure is the P99L aircraft and why is this innovative?

Answers

Question 5.

a. What is the difference between a strutted wing and a cantilevered

wing?
b. What purpose does the strut serve in a strutted wing?
c. What type of wing does this plane have?

Answers
Structural Analysis:

The model is broken up into a number of small parts so that the applied loads and
reactions can be examined.

Once the applied load's, reactions and displacements for each part are determined,
the induced stress and strains within each part can be calculated.
Once the maximum stress and strains have been calculated for each part the
aeronautical engineer can then use this information to determine other factors. What
are two other factors that can be decided next? (suitable materials and their minimum
physical size for a given part).

Question 6

The applied loads can be either static or dynamic. What is the difference
between these two load types?

Answer

Question 7.

After design, calculation and other factors are complete a prototype will need
to be built.What is a prototype and what purpose does this serve in the
design of a new aircraft?

Answer

The designers' dream realised:

A P99L flying over Sydney Harbour Bridge.

All pictures courtesy of Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd.

Corrosion: Public enemy #1

This unit of work addresses aspects of the following syllabus outcomes:

A student:
H 1.2. differentiates between the properties of materials and justifies the
selection of materials, components and processes in engineering.

Extract from Engineering Studies Stage 6 Syllabus © Board of Studies NSW 1999

By studying the following pages and visiting the web links students will learn to
identify the types of corrosion attacking aircraft materials, their causes, methods of
inspecting aircraft structure for corrosion damage and methods employed to protect
aircraft materials from corrosion damage.

Corrosion: the enemy (original picture by author)

Introduction
What is corrosion
Factors influencing corrosion
Common corosive agents
Identifying corrosion
Detecting corrosion
Other reference material

Introduction

Timber was one of the first materials used to make a powered, manned flying
machine. Timber presented its own problems, borers, dry rot, and changing properties
due to moisture content and of course, deterioration of the glues and adhesives of the
time. The timber framed aircraft today is solely the domain of home builders.
Although it was used in early jet fighters, the fuselage of theDeHavilland
Vampire being an example, it is rarely used today.

The Germans pioneered metal aircraft production for the huge “airships”
or Zeppelins designed to provide luxury travel in a style similar to that provided by
the ocean liners of the day. Timber was quite unsuitable as long lengths of material of
consistent quality were required to produce these huge structures.

Pure aluminium with a tensile strength of 30 MPa did not have the physical properties
necessary for the requirements of aviation. Dr Alfred Wilm, a German scientist, was
testing aluminium alloys as early as 1906 and found that introducing alloying
elements in relatively small quantities imparted superior characteristics to the metal.
The major alloying element used in those early alloys was copper, and a new term
was coined, “duralumin” or dural as it was commonly known, to describe the new
material. Duralumin should really be Düralumin, since it was originally the product of
the Dürener Metallwerke in Germany[1].

The modern material derived from the original dural is 2024 an aluminium alloy,
with copper as the major alloying element and a tensile strength of 450 MPa in its
heat treated state. Its strength compares most favourably with steel but it is 30% less
dense.

The trade off was that the introduction of an alloying element severely reduced the
corrosion resistant properties of the pure aluminium. The problem was largely
resolved by producing alclad . A thin slab of pure aluminium was placed on either
face of the alloy ingot during the rolling process The final sheet material has a thin
coating of corrosion resistant pure aluminium on each face (See figure 1). This thin
coating is impervious and provides protection to the aluminium-copper alloy as it
excludes moisture (electrolyte) from the metal it covers. An example of this protection
is the statue of Eros in Picadilly Circus in London .

Figure 1 Magnified section of alclad material (original picture by author)

Corrosion still attacks all metal structures. Engineers, however, have been able
identify the causes of corrosion, and introduce measures to control and prevent
corrosion and produce aircraft with long and safe service lives. Statistics confirm that
through preventative maintenance and rigorous inspection procedures corrosion
damage is not a significant factor in aircraft structural failure.

Activity 1

Open the Statistical Summary of Commercial Jet Airplane Accidents –

Worldwide Operations 1959 – 2002 Examine the table Accident Categories
by Airplane Generation. Compare and discuss the causes of accidents with
particular emphasis on the cause “Aircraft Structure”.

Discuss the lessons learned by earlier aircraft accidents with the De

Havilland Comet (Accident Reports).

Look at the causes of the Aloha incident (1988)

Suggested Answers

What is corrosion

Corrosion is a natural occurrence that attacks metal by chemical or electrochemical

action and converts it back to a metallic compound.

Four conditions must exist before electrochemical corrosion can occur. (See figure
2.) They are:
 1. A metal that is going to be subject to corrosion (Anode) must be present.
2. Another dissimilar conductive material (Cathode), which has less tendency to
corrode must be present.
3. There must be a continuous, conductive liquid path (Electrolyte).
4. There must be electrical contact between the anode and the cathode (usually
in the form of metal-to-metal contact such as rivets, bolts, wire, etc).

Figure 2 Corrosion cell showing conditions that must exist for electrochemical
corrosion
(original picture by author)

Elimination of any one of these conditions will stop electrochemical

corrosion. (See figure 3.)

Figure 3 Eliminating corrosion with a protective film (original picture by author)

NOTE: Paint can mask the initial stages of corrosion. Since corrosion
products occupy more volume than the original metal, painted surfaces
should be inspected often for irregularities such as blisters, flakes, chips
and lumps.

Factors influencing corrosion

Factors which influence metal corrosion and the rate of corrosion are:

1. Type of metal
2. Heat treatment and grain direction
3. Presence of a dissimilar, less corrodible metal
4. Anodic and cathodic surface areas (in galvanic corrosion)
5. Temperature
6. Presence of electrolytes (hard water, salt water, battery fluids, etc.)
7. Availability of oxygen
 8. Presence of biological organisms
9. Mechanical stress on the corroding metal
10. Time of exposure to a corrosive environment.

1. Type of metal

Most pure metals are not suitable for aircraft construction and are used only in
combination with other metals to form alloys. Most alloys are made up entirely of
small crystalline regions, called grains. Corrosion can occur on surfaces of grains
which are less resistant and also at boundaries between grains, resulting in the
formation of pits and intergranular corrosion. Metals have a wide range of corrosion
resistance. The most active metals, (those which lose electrons easily), such as
magnesium and zinc, corrode easily. The most noble metals (those which do not lose
electrons easily), such as gold and silver, do not corrode easily.

Metals can be listed in a Galvanic Series. Metals at the “Noble” end of the series (most
cathodic), in contact with another metal lower on the scale (more anodic) will cause
the more anodic metal to corrode.

Aluminium, which is an active metal, does not corrode easily due to the formation of a
natural oxide coating. This coating is hard and impermeable and chemically non-
active. Therefore it acts to reduce the action of other corrosive elements on the
aluminium itself.

Activity 2

Visit the RF Cafe Home Page and print out the Galvanic Series table. From your
study of materials used in aircraft construction, highlight those materials in the
galvanic series and provide examples of areas where dissimilar metals may need to be
joined, and possible methods of reducing galvanic action between those metals.

Fasteners used in aircraft production are made from a variety of materials. Take a
look at the HI-LokR Fastening System web site. List what coatings are placed on
their fasteners to reduce galvanic action.

2. Heat treatment and grain direction

The solution heat treatment of aluminium alloys is a critical process. If an alloy is

heated to an incorrect temperature, or allowed to cool before quenching, alloying
elements come out of the solid solution and crystallise in the grain boundaries
providing a galvanic couple for corrosion to take place.
 Figure 4 Critical heating temperature from which quenching must take place during
solution heat treatment (Source: Gibson, J (1977) Equilibrium diagrams. Clarendon:
Kensington)

Typically, aluminium alloy heat treatment furnaces are placed in an elevated position
above the quenching tank. Parts are loaded from the underside so that when opened
the hot air remains in the furnace. Hot components are then dropped from the
furnace into the quenching tank with a minimum of heat loss during transfer from
furnace to tank.

Figure 5 Critical heating temperature obtained by rapid quenching solution heat

treatment .
(original picture by author)

Rolled aluminium alloy sheet has long grains due to the elongation of the grains
during the rolling process (figure 6). A similar elongation occurs during the extrusion
process. The potential for large areas containing dissimilar metals is evident.
 Figure 6 Grains are elongated in the rolling process.
(original picture by author)

3. Presence of a dissimilar, less corrodible metal

There is a need to use dissimilar metals where specific properties are required. Typical
examples would be the leading edges of aircraft flying at speeds greater than the
speed of sound, landing gear components and structural fasteners.

4. Anodic and cathodic surface areas (in galvanic corrosion)

Surface areas on aircraft may contain quantities of the same material from a different
manufactured batch or indeed from a different supplier. Even minor differences will
produce the anodic and cathodic areas necessary to initiate corrosion in the right
circumstances.

5. Temperature

Corrosion is accelerated by high temperature environments that increase the rate of

chemical reactions and increase the concentration of water vapour in the air.

6. Presence of electrolytes (hard water, salt water, battery fluids, etc.)

Electrolytes (electrically-conducting solutions) form on surfaces when condensation,

salt spray, rain, or rinse water accumulate. Dirt, salt, acidic gases and engine exhaust
gases can dissolve on wetsurfaces, increasing the electrical conductivity of the
electrolyte, thereby increasing the rate of corrosion. Fluid spills are a particular
concern in bilge areas of commercial jet transport aircraft.

7. Availability of oxygen

When some of the electrolyte on a metal surface is partially confined, (such as

between flying surfaces or in a deep crevice) the metal around this area corrodes
more rapidly. This type of corrosion is caused by the formation of an oxygen
concentration cell. Corrosion occurs more rapidly because the reduced oxygen content
of the confined electrolyte causes the adjacent metal to become anodic to other metal
surfaces on the same part that are immersed in oxygen rich electrolyte or exposed to
air.

8. Presence of biological organisms

Slime, moulds, fungi and other living organisms (some microscopic) can grow on
damp surfaces. Once they are established, the area usually remains damp, increasing
the possibility of corrosion.
Biological organisms are a particular problem inside integral fuel cells where tanks
 have been filled or topped up with contaminated fuel. Water
contamination in fuels adds to the problem as the organisms absorb the
water and form an electrolyte against the surfaces on which they grow.

9. Mechanical stress on the corroding metal

Manufacturingprocesses such as machining, forming, welding or heat treatment can

leave residual stress in aircraft parts and can cause cracking in a corrosive
environment.
It is important to note that corrosion of a component reduces the strength of that
component, and while the stress remains constant, the component becomes weaker
thus increasing the likelihood of failure.

10. Time of exposure to a corrosive environment

Time plays an important role, particularly in the treatment of corrosion. A light aircraft
making a forced landing on a beach would become contaminated with salt water, and
a major inspection to remove all traces of the salt would be necessary.
Light aircraft complete mandatory 100 hourly inspections and the engineer completing
the inspections thoroughly inspects the aircraft for signs of corrosion, right down to
inspecting control cables for signs of corrosion between the strands.

A system of reporting is in place throughout the world where damage detected is

reported, and those reports are circulated by the aircraft manufacturer and the
airworthiness authorities to owners and operators of similar aircraft. Owners are then
required to carry out inspections on those similar aircraft for similar types of damage.

Common corrosive agents

Any substance that causes corrosion is called a corrosive agent. Common corrosive
agents are acids, alkalies, salts and organic acids. All will severely corrode metals
used in aircraft. The atmosphere, and water, may carry these as dissolved minerals.

The most destructive acid is sulfuric acid (used in lead-acid batteries).

Organic acids are found in the wastes of humans and animals and these may be
present in certain parts of an aircraft.

Aluminum and magnesium alloys are prone to corrosive attack by many alkaline
solutions such as washing soda, potash (wood ashes) and lime (cement dust).

Corrosion often results from the direct action of atmospheric oxygen and moisture on
metal. Atmospheric moisture often accelerates corrosive attack, particularly on
ferrous alloys, and often contains other corrosive contaminants, particularly industrial
pollution and marine salt spray.

Micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi are serious corrosion agents. They
become a particular problem inside aircraft fuel tanks.

Identifying corrosion
Corrosion can be categorised into groups based on the ease of identification.

1. Corrosion that is readily identifiable by visual inspection We should all

be familiar with uniform corrosion (direct chemical attack). A typical
example is surface rust on steel left exposed to the atmosphere. Aluminium is
highly resistant to most forms of corrosion. The metal's natural coating of
aluminium oxide provides a highly effective barrier to the ravages of air,
temperature, moisture and chemical attack.

Additional information on uniform corrosion

Localised damage to the protective coating on a surface, combined with water

chemistry factors cause pitting corrosion, a form of corrosion where holes or
cavities are eroded into the material.

Poor application of a protective coating or contamination of the coating

product may also cause pitting corrosion.

Pitting is harder to detect than uniform corrosion, and may remain in a metal
beneath an area from which uniform corrosion has been removed. Subsequent
growth of the corrosion beneath the metal surface reduces the strength of the
component forming stress risers. Fatigue and stress corrosion cracking often
begins at the base of corrosion pits.

Pitting corrosion is one of the most common forms of corrosion seen on

stainless steel. Iron particles deposited on the surface of stainless steel
through mechanical contact with, usually carbon steels, quickly corrode and
form a rust stain. If chloride ions are present this can increase an environment
likely to cause pitting. Tools used when working on carbon steels should not
be used on stainless steels. A common mistake, particularly in the home, is to
use steel wool to clean the kitchen sink, or on light aircraft to clean exhaust
fittings. Inclusion of fine steel particles of steel in the stainless steel can cause
it to rust.

Additional information on pitting

Crevice corrosion is a localised form of corrosion and tend to occur in

crevices, typically lap joints, under gaskets, washers, fastener heads etc. It is
usually associated with a stagnant solution on the micro-environmental level
and changes in local chemistry within the crevice. The stages of crevice
corrosion are shown on the Corrosion Doctors website

An advanced form of crevice corrosion is called pillowing . Notice how the

rivet heads appear to be lower than the surrounding skin surface.

Additional information on crevice corrosion

Filiform corrosion occurs under surface layers such as paint. The corrosion
product leaves a bubbled trail that looks like a worm has burrowed under the
paint layer. The mode of attack is similar to pitting corrosion in that the front
of the attack is supported by moisture which penetrates the surface layer and
becomes depleted of oxygen making the area anodic. It depends on the
relative moisture of the air and the quality of the surface treatment
preparation prior to coating.

Galvanic corrosion occurs when dissimilar metals are in contact in the

presence of an electrolyte. One of the metals becomes the anode, and
 corrodes faster than it would all by itself, the other becomes the cathode.
Either metal may not readily corrode on its own, and galvanic corrosion will
not take place without an electrolyte.

The difference (and similarity) between the metals is shown on a galvanic

series and metals close to one another on the scale such as aluminium and
cadmium present less of a problem than would aluminium and low alloy steel.
Steel fasteners used in aircraft are usually cadmium plated.

Larger problems occur in avionic equipment where gold, copper, silver and a
variety of other metals are in contact.

2. Corrosion that may require a supplementary means of identification

Erosion corrosion is an acceleration in the rate of corrosion attack in metal

due to the relative motion of a corrosive fluid and a metal surface. This type of
corrosion is usually associated with fluid carrying pipe lines but can take place
anywhere a fluid flows over a surface.

The type and purity of a fluid influences this type of corrosion and it may also
be influenced by faulty workmanship such as burrs left at cut tube ends, or on
the surfaces of sea plane floats. Spray from the undercarriage of aircraft
taking off and landing contains such impurities as concrete dust, salt, rubber
compounds and other pollutants and is particularly corrosive and erosive in
wheel wells.

The increased turbulence caused by pitting on the internal surfaces of a tube

can result in rapidly increasing erosion rates and eventually a leak. Erosion
corrosion can also cause localised turbulence and high flow velocities, resulting
in erosion corrosion. A combination of erosion and corrosion can lead to
extremely high pitting rates.

Additional information on erosion corrosion

Ever had trouble with your car door closing? You’ve probably been the victim
of fretting corrosion.

Where two surfaces are joined and a small amount of oxide is locked in the
joint, the oxide compound forms an abrasive which, with even slight
movement, perhaps caused by vibration, abrades the surface protection from
the components of the joint, and corrosion escalates. With aluminium
components fretting corrosion is typified by white powder in the vicinity of the
joint.

Additional information on fretting corrosion

Intergranular corrosion is corrosion at microscopic levels. When aluminium

alloys are heat treated by solution heat treatment, the alloying elements go
into a solid solution with the aluminium. Over time with natural ageing, or by
further artificial ageing by precipitation heat treatment some of the alloying
elements precipitate from the solid solution and form a compound in the grain
boundaries, reducing corrosion resistance at that point.

Incorrect heat treatment, or quenching from below the critical area shown in
figure 4 increases the likelihood of the formation of intergranular corrosion.
 Once corrosion starts, the corrosion product further dislocates or distorts the
adjacent grains and initiates cracking as indicated in the diagram. For a larger
view and complete information click on the diagram.

3. Corrosion where verification is usually required by microscopy

(optical, electron microscopy etc.)

Today’s aircraft are mostly built using semi monocoque principles. Commercial
aircraft are monstrous structures, the Boeing 747-400 for example has six
million parts, half of which are fasteners, 274 km of wiring and 8 km of tubing.

Lift is generated for flight from its 524.9 m2 of wing area (an area large
enough to hold 45 medium-sized cars) to lift a fuselage structure 6.1 metres
wide which when fully loaded, weights 394 tonnes, 173 tonnes of which is fuel
(216,319 Ltr). The wing tips move up and down through 5 metres with the
varying loads applied to the aircraft during flight. While jacked for
maintenance, one can stand on the scaffolding and easily move them up and
down through 300 mm. But in testing they are really bent. Photograph by
Craig Murray of wings bending on take off

It is powered by four Rolls-Royce RB211-524H2-T engines rated at 264 Km/h

which accelerate it to 250 Km/h to get it off the ground then to a cruise speed
of 912 km/h (Mach 0.855)

When flying at its cruise altitude 10 600 m the pressure differential between
the cabin and the ambient pressure is 51.4 kPa, causing the fuselage to
expand approximately 300 mm in circumference.

Departing from a tropical port where the temperature could be as high as

48.50 C it ascends to an environment where the ambient temperature is –
51.3420 C. What sort of thermal expansion and contraction occurs?

Suggested Answers

Concorde flew at almost twice the altitude of the 747, 18 200 m at a speed
of Mach 2.04 (2200 km/h). The differential pressure between the cabin
pressure and ambient would have been greater. Flying in the troposphere,
ambient air temperature is constant at –570 C. Heat generated by flight
speeds heats the fuselage from between 910 and 970C causing it to expand in
length by almost 300 mm. Wing temperatures range from 1050C at the leading
edges down to the fuselage temperature.
Concorde’s 358.25 square metres of wing area lifts 186 880 kgs (including 9
5680 kg of fuel). While undergoing the transition between subsonic and
supersonic flight, the aircraft’s centre of lift moves backward 1.8m. To
maintain balance about 19.7 tonnes is transferred from forward tanks to tanks
in the tail.

Stress corrosion is classified as a catastrophic form of corrosion, as it can be

very difficult to detect and the damage not easily predicted. Stress
corrosion or stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is cracking induced from the
combined influence of tensile stress and a corrosive environment.

An example of stress corrosion cracking.

Stresses are not only those applied through flight, as we have just illustrated,
but include residual stresses from manufacturing processes such as cold
deformation and forming, welding, heat treatment, machining and grinding.
They are further compounded by the build up of corrosion products in confined
spaces.

With a stress corrosion attack, fine cracks penetrate the material, while most
of the surface remains apparently free from corrosion. There is then a further
build up of corrosion, weakening of the material and an escalation of the
cracking.

Additional information on stress corrosion

Stress corrosion cracking may be reduced by redesigning the part with a

bigger radius in the cracked corner. The larger radius distributes the stress
rather than concentrating it at the corner thus reducing this type of cracking.

Fatigue corrosion is a result of the combined action of a cyclic stress and a

corrosive environment. A cyclic stress could be likened to bending a coat
hanger repeatedly in alternating directions. The wire will eventually fail. The
theory of fatigue corrosion is that if we bend the coat hanger in a corrosive
environment failure will occur earlier.

Of course with aircraft materials, the number of cycles is measured in the

millions, and a safety factor, usually 2:1 is factored into component design.
 Components susceptible to fatigue are given a “service life” and are changed
after a predetermined number of cycles.

In most cases, the fatigue process is thought to cause a break down of the
protective passive film allowing corrosion to accelerate.

Fatigue is a concern in airframe repair as the tendency is to repair a cracked

member with a “stronger” repair. This however results in stress, formerly
being evenly distributed along the member, being concentrated at the
boundaries of the repair and actually weakening the structure. Manufacturers
dictate repair schemes in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual to minimise such
possibilities.

Suggested Answers

Detecting corrosion

Corrosion of the first group is detected by visual inspection. Armed with the
knowledge of the tell tale signs of corrosion and of the aircraft, necessary cleaning
equipment, an inspection mirror and flashlight, the aircraft engineer can readily
identify any corrosion damage from this group. The engineer also uses Airworthiness
Directives (AD) and Manufacturer’s Service Bulletins issued to alert aircraft operators
of any maintenance requirements to their aircraft.

Supplementary equipment used in the detection of the other two groups similarly
requires an intimate knowledge of the aircraft maintenance documents, and that
knowledge is tested before a license to certify that appropriate maintenance has been
performed is issued by CASA.

A variety of different methods for the Non-destructive Testing (NDT) of components to

detect corrosion are used by the aeronautical industry. Some of these may be found
at Engineering Application Modules > Personal and Public Transport > Destructive
testing.

Other reference material

Helicopter Rotor Blade corrosion damage Introduction to corrosion, presentation by

Carl Locke, Professor of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas.
Boeing design for corrosion control
Stainless steel corrosion
Key to metals corrosion of metals and their alloys
Heat treatable aluminium alloys
Engineers Edge Galvanic Compatability Corrosion
Corrosion Doctors
[1] In 1906 Dr Alfred Wilma, a German metallurgist, discovered that
aluminium alloyed with copper and heat treated correctly could be made far
stronger. The alloy of aluminium with 4% copper is called Duralumin and the
heat treatment process is called precipitation hardening. These alloys have
typically low specific gravity (around 2.7) and high strength (450 MPa). They
are limited by a maximum service temperature of about 660°C. Since then,
other heat treatable aluminium alloys have been developed for aircraft use.
These include a range of complex aluminium-zinc alloys which develop the
highest strength of any aluminium alloy.

[2] A similar corrosion defect was discovered by the author of this document
and reported to the Airworthiness Authority. The aircraft with the defect had
been removed from the Register and was being used for maintenance
training only. As a result of the report a similar Airworthiness Directive to
that used in the text was issued by CASA.

[3] Aircraft operating in Australia require a “Certificate of Airworthiness”

(CofA) issued by CASA. A CofA will not be issued unless the owner of the
aircraft subscribes to the aircraft Manufacturer’s Maintenance Manual,
regularly updated, and receives Service Bulletins. The aircraft MUST be
maintained in accordance with those documents and any AD issued by CASA.

Polymer Composites
This unit of work addresses aspects of the following syllabus outcomes:

A student:

H 1.2. differentiates between properties of materials and justifies the

selection of materials, components and processes in engineering.

Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, © Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.

By studying the following unit and visiting the links, students will learn to analyse
some of the structure, properties, uses and appropriateness of materials in
aeronautical engineering applications.

The assistance of Professor A Crosky, Aeronautical Engineering Department,

University of New South Wales in the preparation of this unit is gratefully
acknowledged.

Polymers

Polymers can be thermoplastics or thermosetting resins (thermosets). Thermoplastics

are fully polymerised materials that are solid at room temperature but soften at high
temperature. Thermosetting resins are partially polymerised resins that are cured by
heat or by using a curing agent (catalyst). When cured they form a heavily cross-
linked solid resin that cannot be reshaped.

In modern aircraft polymers are used for:

 parts of the airframe

 window protection
 lightly stressed parts
 interior trim
 electrical insulators.

Aircraft windows require both transparency and acceptable mechanical properties due
to the pressurised nature of the aircraft. Usually the window consists of three layers:

1. a glass load bearing layer

2. a back-up glass load carrying layer in case the first layer cracks
3. a plastic shield on the inside to prevent scratching by passengers.

These plastic shields are often acrylics, e.g. perspex, although polycarbonates are also
used.

Activity 1

Describe why it is important to protect the glass window layers in an aircraft

from scratching.

Answer

Composites
Polymer components subject to reasonably low loads are commonly made from
polyethylene or polypropylene mouldings or extrusions. However, where the loads are
more significant it is necessary to use composites of various types.

Composite Materials In Aircraft - Source: FireNet International web site,

http://www.fire.org.uk/aviation/library/comp.htm, viewed 18 July 2003

Composites consist of two or more materials combined to give a material with

properties distinct from the original constituents. They may be naturally occurring, or
they may be synthetic.

Activity 2

Why does a composite have more desirable properties than either of its
constituent materials on their own?

Answer

Activity 3

Select six examples of composites and divide them into natural and synthetic
composites. List them in the table below. An example of a natural composite
is timber which contains cellulose and lignin. One common synthetic
composite is glass reinforced polymer (GRP).

Natural composites Synthetic composites

 Answer

A very significant proportion of polymers are used as composites.

Composites can be designed to produce a material with desired combinations of

properties such as stiffness, strength and density. It is this flexibility to ”tailor-make”
a material with desired properties that makes polymer composites so important to the
aircraft industry.

Typically, composites consist of a matrix material and a reinforcing material. The

matrix and reinforcing materials may be metals, ceramics or polymers, but the
composites used in airframe components are fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) matrix
composites.

Airframe composites have the advantages of:

 high specific strength and stiffness

 tailored directional properties
 non-corroding in salt environments
 excellent fatigue resistance
 dimensional stability
 reduced number of parts required (compared to metal components).

However, these composites are susceptible to:

 impact damage
 moisture pick-up
 lightning strikes
 extremes of temperature.

irframe composites also have a relatively high cost, do not yield plastically in regions
of high stress concentration and are subject to random property variation due to the
nature of composite manufacturing processes.

The use of advanced composites in airframe construction has increased substantially

over the past few decades. They are used as floor beams, doors, aerodynamic fairings
and for control surfaces, such as rudders, elevators and ailerons, due to their low
weight and high stiffness. The drawing below gives some examples of the use of
polymers in aircraft construction.
 Source: Boeing Aircraft Company (n.d.) Seattle.

Reinforcing material (fibres)

Reinforcing materials for polymer matrix composites are often referred to as fibres
and they include (in order of increasing cost):

 E-glass
 aramid, e.g. Kevlar, see Figure 1
 carbon
 alumina
 silicon carbide
 boron.

The properties of the fibres are shown in Figure 2. These fibre materials all have high
specific strength and stiffness imparting high strength and stiffness to the composite.

Figure 1 Structure of aramid (Kevlar)

Source: Middleton, D.H. (1990) Composite materials in aircraft structures.
Longman scientific and technical: London.
 Figure 2 Properties of common reinforcing fibres.
Source: Middleton, D.H. (1990) Composite materials in aircraft structures.
Longman Scientific and Technical: London.

The matrix

The purpose of the matrix in a polymer composite is to:

 support the reinforcing fibres in the required position

 transfer load between the fibres
 increase the toughness of the composite
 protect the fibres from damage.

While the longitudinal tensile properties are dominated by the fibres, the properties of
shear, compression and transverse tension are dominated by the matrix properties.

Matrix polymers can be thermoplastics or thermosets. Thermoplastics are fully

polymerised materials that are solid at room temperature but may be melted and
shaped at higher temperatures (100-300°C).

Thermosetting resins consist of a base resin and a catalyst (curing) agent. When the
resin and catalyst are mixed together they react to form a heavily cross-linked solid
resin that cannot be reshaped once set.

Activity 4

1. Go to Azom The A to Z of Materials Search for the article Aircraft

Composites - Damage Through Rain Erosion and then answer the following:
a. What areas of the aircraft are prone to airborne erosion?
b. What two factors influence the rate of erosion?
c. In the case of laminates, the interface of the layers can be subject to
shear stresses. What problem does erosion rain cause here?

Answer

Further relevant information on this topic:

A to Z of Materials - Azom.com

A worldwide composite search engine

Another site on composite materials

New materials for next generation commercial transports, (par

Propulsion systems
Outcomes

his unit of work addresses aspects of the following syllabus outcomes:

A student:

H1.2 Differentiates between properties of materials and justifies the

selection of materials, components and processes in engineering.

H4.1 Investigates the extent of technological change in engineering.

Source: Board of Studies (1999) Stage 6 engineering studies, preliminary and HSC
courses.Sydney, Board of Studies

Introduction

What is propulsion? The word comes from the Latin words "pro" meaning before or
forwards and "pellere" meaning to drive. There are four principal propulsion systems
in aircraft:

 propeller
 jet or turbine
 ram jet
 rocket.

This unit of work focuses only on the jet, or turbine engine.

Turbines have existed historically for many years. People in ancient times used water
driven turbines as a primitive power source to grind grain and to power simple
machines. Water turbines are used in modern hydro-electricity plants to generate
electricity. Other types of electricity plants use coal, oil or a nuclear reactor to
produce steam which is then used to drive turbines. The turbines drive generators
which produce electricity. Another type of turbine, known as a windmill, uses the
power of the wind to generate electricity.

Modern aeroplanes use gas turbines which create a stream or “jet” of hot air and
gases to provide thrust for the aircraft. It is this “jet” of hot gas from which these
engines get their common name.

Turbines are another form of internal combustion engine. They operate on a four
stroke “cycle”: induction, compression, ignition, exhaust, but unlike piston engines
they have no reciprocating parts. Thrust may come from the jet stream of the exhaust
or from a propeller driven by the turbine mainshaft.
For more information visit:

 NASA and
 How Stuff Works

Reciprocating engines, as used in the automobile, are limited by their maximum

power and speed (limited to below 20 000 rpm). Consequently a vehicle’s
performance is also restricted. Also, their power to weight ratio is poor compared to
the turbine.

The turbine engine has many advantages over a reciprocating combustion engine. The
foremost of these is its ability to reach higher speeds and to work efficiently at greater
altitudes. Other advantages of the turbine include reduced vibration stresses due to a
lack of reciprocating masses, less complex cooling systems and increased simplicity of
controls.

Disadvantages of the turbine engine include cost, high fuel consumption and poor
performance at low altitude and slow speeds.

Go to How Stuff Works and read How Gas Turbine Engines Work.

1. Turbojet
A typical turbojet engine has three stages: the compressor stage, the
combustion stage and the turbine stage.

A series of fan-like compressor blades draw air into the engine. In this initial
compressor section, the air moves through a series of rotor and stator blades.
As the air continues to travel through this stage, it moves from low to high
pressure.

The air is next propelled into the combustion chamber, in which fuel is mixed
and then burnt. This burning has the effect of increasing the temperature and
speeding up the gases.

From the combustion stage the high speed gases pass into the turbine stage.
Here the gases first hit and turn turbine blades which power the compressor
fans. The hot gases are then straightened and streamlined into a concentrated
path before being exhausted to the atmosphere creating thrust.

Turbojets are mostly used in air force fighter aircraft, or as the basis for
turboprop engines.

2. Turbofan
A significant problem with the turbojet engine is the noise created by the high
velocity, high temperature exhaust gases. This led to the development of the
turbofan engine.

Of the air that enters the turbofan engine, a small proportion passes into the
turbine. The turbine is used to drive the engine compressor blades as well as a
series of large fan blades. These fan blades accelerate the remaining air over
the engine. The total thrust is made up of thrust from the fan, and thrust from
the jet exhaust. The fan thrust accounts for up to 80% of the total thrust.

This second type of gas turbine engine has the advantage that it is much
quieter than the turbojet engine.

After many years of development turbofans have largely replaced turbojets in

commercial passenger and freight aircraft.
 Today, turbofans are used in most commercial passenger aircraft and they
have been manufactured to provide up to 40 000 kg of thrust, capable of
pulling the world’s biggest aircraft, such as the massive 500 seater Airbus
A380 (yet to produced).

The general arrangement for a turbofan engine can be found in the

article How Gas Turbine Engines Workon How Stuff Works .

Source: Rolls Royce Education and Training.

3. Turboprop
The third type of turbine engine combines the best features of the turbojet
with propeller driven aircraft. The turboprop has improved abilities in its
capacity to carry greater loads at slower speeds and lower altitudes.

The turboprop uses a second turbine in the turbine stage to turn a propeller.
In doing so, it uses almost all available energy to turn both its compressor and
the propeller.

The notable difference between the other turbines and the turboprop is that
the aircraft depends on the propeller for thrust, rather than the high velocity
gases being exhausted. The speed of the turbine is reduced by a gearbox to
drive the propeller.

Conclusion

In the foreseeable future, the turbofan and turboprop engines will meet the needs of a
civilisation that is constantly demanding shorter travelling times over greater
distances. Once these engines reach their design limit, it will open the way for
"rocket" or even "ramjet" travel.

The ramjet is the simplest of all jet engines as it has no moving parts, however it is
still in development. The major flaw in its design is its inability to function at low
speeds. It needs to be travelling very fast through the air before being started but it
does show a lot of promise for the future.

Activity 1

By what two factors is the efficiency of a gas turbine engine governed?

Answer
Activity 2

What are the differences between how an internal combustion piston engine works
compared to a turboprop engine?

Answer

For more pictures of jet engines go to Aircraft Engine Design.

Additional resources

For a video of a Rolls Royce Blade Failure test go to VideoSift .

Engineering Studies
Aeronautical Engineering

Testing for lift

This unit of work addresses aspects related to the following syllabus outcomes:

H2.2: Analyses and synthesises engineering applications in specific fields

and reports on the importance of these to society.

H6.2: Demonstrates skills in analysis, synthesis and experimentation

related to engineering.

Source: Board of Studies (1999) Stage 6 syllabus, engineering studies, preliminary

and HSC courses. Board of Studies: Sydney

The Wind tunnel

Wind tunnel materials
Wind tunnel construction
Test stand
Test wing
A wind tunnel test
Aerodynamic forces
Revision Questions

The Wind tunnel

Wind tunnels have been used for many years as a means of studying the behaviour of
shapes exposed to low, and high, speed airflow. The most logical application of the
wind tunnel is for improving aircraft performance, but wind tunnels are widely used to
study efficient aerodynamic shapes for motor vehicles, road transports and high-
speed trains. They are also used to study the effects of high-rise buildings on the
natural airflow of a city landscape.

Wind tunnels have been built to study aircraft shapes in both sub-sonic and super-
sonic airflow.
The basic principle of a wind tunnel is to produce a uniform flow of air in a chamber of
a size suitable for a model to be placed in. This is achieved by the use of an artificial
means of producing an airflow (wind) using a fan, an area within the tunnel designed
to even out the flow, a test zone where models can be mounted, and an exhaust
zone. Most modern wind tunnels recirculate the airflow by feeding the exhaust back to
the fan stage.

Simple, low speed, wind tunnels use manometers placed on the model to measure
changes in air pressure over the surface of the model. Telltale streamers on the
surface of the model can also be used to indicate linear and turbulent flow. Modern
sophisticated wind tunnels use complex computerised systems to measure pressure
changes, air velocity and the forces generated.

It is possible to build a simple model as follows:

Wind tunnel materials

Collect three clean cardboard boxes of the same size (approx. 307 x 208 x 208 mm),
with top and bottom flaps still intact. The ones used for this experiment were wine
bottle boxes with internal cardboard bottle separators. These are shown in the
photograph below.

You will also need a

 Rule, pencil, scissors, masking tape, paper knife.

 Domestic fan, approximately 355 mm diameter, single or multi-speed.
 Electronic scale, Sartorius (500g max). (Try the school science department.)
 Optional: Wind speed indicator, Davis Instruments, Turbometer.

Wind tunnel construction

The most difficult task in the construction was to create the transition piece between
the circular fan safety screen and the rectangular tunnel shroud. Students should be
able to do this, as it is a part of the requirements for Engineering Studies Civil
Structures (syllabus, p. 32).
The flaps of the lid were used as a starting point, and triangulated to form the
transition shape. They were then taped together to form a sealed interface between
the fan and the rectangular shroud.

The next task is to provide a means of making the airflow as uniform as possible.
Tape a small length (70 mm) of tissue strip (1.5 mm wide) on the end of a skewer
and hold the strip in the airstream just in front of the fan. You will soon find that the
airstream flows in different directions in different places. This is caused by the
inefficient blade shape and the blade rotation. To improve the flow, a network of
rectangular tubes can be made from the cardboard bottle separators that came in the
boxes. In this model these were about 80 mm square, but it is suggested that 50 mm
square would be better. These were inserted into the shroud and fixed flush with the
original bottom of the box.

A test of the airflow at this stage showed some dead air spots on the sides and
bottom of the airstream, and so these passages were blocked off at the end away
from the fan itself.

The bottom flaps for the first box and the top flaps of the second box were then folded
outwards. These were taped together and an extension added to one flap to produce a
support which holds the tunnel shroud in line with the fan axis. The extension used
was 50 mm.
The bottom flaps of the second box were lined up with the sides of the box to extend
the tunnel shape to 700 mm. A slot was cut in the bottom flap (30 x 150 mm) to
allow the test mounting stand to sit in the airstream about 100 mm from the end of
the tunnel shroud.

Test stand

The test stand is made from two parts, the base and the upright. The base is a piece
of MDF 125 sq x 12 mm with a 12 mm hole in its centre. The upright is a piece of 12
mm dowel, 250 mm long. This is glued into the base, and slotted at the top to take
the protractor shaped addition on the wing section.
Construction time

This simple wind tunnel was built in two and one half hours.

The model wing, and its stand were constructed in about six hours.

Setting up

The general set-up can be seen in the photographs. The transition piece is taped to
the fan safety screen to stop it falling off. The tunnel axis must be in line with the fan
axis. The test wing should be in the centre of the airflow (on the axis of the fan). It
can be adjusted in height with suitable spacers under the base of the test stand.

Before testing any wing sections, check that the airflow at the shroud exit is
reasonably straight and even. To do this use a tissue streamer taped to a skewer, and
move it around in the airstream. Dead areas within the airstream will show up with
the streamer hanging down limply.

If you have access to a wind speed indicator you can use this to determine the
uniformity of airflow. Turn the indicator on and place it in the exhaust airflow without
obstructing or deflecting any of the exhaust, i.e. don’t stand in front of the exhaust
such that a back pressure will be set up to cause false readings (stand well to the
side). Take readings from a number of places in the airstream after waiting for the
Turbometer to stabilise its reading.

The fan used in this experiment was a three speed version. Nine readings were taken
with a wind speed indicator, at each of the fan speeds. The following table
summarises the results.

Fan Lowest Highest Average

speed airflow airflow airflow

Low 1.0 m/s 2.2 m/s 1.6 m/s

Medium 1.3 m/s 2.7 m/s 1.9 m/s

High 1.5 m/s 3.0 m/s 2.2 m/s

It is interesting to note, but not unexpected, that the highest figure for each speed
was in the top middle section, and the lowest speed in the bottom middle section of
the shroud. The variation in speed across the section where the test wing is placed is
not too bad for a simple model wind tunnel such as this. It could be improved by
making the rectangular sections about 50 mm square rather than 80 mm square.

Test wing

The test wing used in this experiment was a 310 mm portion of the wing from a
model glider. The commercial glider kit (Flight Path Condor) was designed and made
in Australia featuring laser cut parts and all accessories (except glue), with a wing
span of 870 mm. The wing section was constructed as per the kit instructions, but
portion of the spars and only seven ribs were used. The tail can also be made up and
tested in the wind tunnel.
A piece of balsa sheet was cut to a semicircular (protractor) shape and glued to the
underside centre of the wing section to mount the wing to the test stand. A pivot hole
was drilled and a scale in 5 degree increments was added from –10 to +30 degrees of
angle. Zero degrees was equal to the bottom of the wing section being horizontal.

Any commercial model wing could be adapted to fit the tunnel, and you can design
your own as well.

A fundamental question that could be tested is whether, or not, a flat sheet of balsa
creates lift. Another test could try the effects of different cross sectional shapes of
wing; symmetrical orasymmetrical, and different aerofoil thicknesses.

thickness ratio (t) = 100 x thickness/chord

The aerofoil thickness ratio of the model test wing used (12 mm thick and 109 mm
wide) is,

t = 100 x 12 ÷ 109 = 11%

Angle of attack
One of the prime factors that determines the amount of lift and drag produced by an
airfoil is the angle of attack. The angle of attack is the angle measured between the
direction of the airflow (thefree stream) and the chord line of the wing cross
section. The chord line in a simple airfoil can be considered to be the line drawn
between the leading edge of the airfoil and its trailing edge. A symmetrical airfoil is
the same shape on each side of the chord line, whereas an asymmetrical airfoil is not.
In modern aircraft the airfoil thickness and shape (cross-section) changes between
the fuselage and the wingtip. In the wing section used here the chord line is 3 degrees
off the rather flat bottom of the airfoil. So, with the bottom of the airfoil horizontal the
angle of attack is 3 degrees. The test stand allows the angle of attack to be varied
from minus 12 degrees to plus 23 degrees

A wind tunnel test

To carry out a test, first place the wing and stand on the scales. The scales are then
turned on and zeroed. Turn the fan on and allow it to run for 10 minutes, or so, to
warm up and run at a constant speed. Adjust the wing to a given angle of attack, place
it and the stand onto the scales facing the airflow. The reading on the scales will
change. Allow a minute for the wing to stabilise in the airflow and then record the
upward (lift) force, or downward force as changes in the mass reading on the scales.
Take a series of readings for different angles of attack, and at different fan speeds.
Make sure that the wing and stand are placed in the same location in the wind tunnel
each time, and that the wingtips do not touch the sides.

Results:

The following table shows the results of tests done at the three fan speeds. The lift is
measured in mass units (grams). The force equivalent of these measurements will be
0.0098 times the mass value in Newtons.

of Airspeed Airspeed Airspeed

Attack 1.3 m/s 1.7 m/s 1.8 m/s

-12 +4.2 +6.2 +7.6

-7 +1.8 + 2.6 +3.3

-2 -0.3 -0.5 -0.5

+3 -2.6 -4.8 -5.0

+8 -4.6 -7.5 -9.0

 +13 -6.7 -10.0 -11.8

+18 -8.4 -12.1 -14.4

+23 -8.7 -13.2 -15.8

In the range –2 to +13 degrees angle of attack this wing approximated the statement
that lift varies to the square of airspeed:

L = (S/s)2 x l
where S & s are wind velocities (m/s)
and L & l = lifts (N)

Now try some other wing section shapes and thickness ratios.

Draw a graph of angle of attack to lift. Place the angle of attack along the X axis
with the lift force on the vertical axis. When complete, answer the following:

At what angle of attack is lift zero?

The lift curves are relatively linear up to a particular angle of attack, but then lift
drops off with further increase in the angle.

In this experiment this occurred at about +10 degrees.

What happens to cause this reduction of lift?

Aerodynamic forces

A good description of the aerodynamic forces set up on an aerofoil can be found by

studying the site at:

http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoil

Revision Questions

Can you answer the following questions from this site?

1. What is the point of impact?

2. What causes the upward force on the lower surface of an airfoil?
3. What principle leads to the low pressure area on top of the airfoil?
4. What are the components of the total aerodynamic force?
5. What three factors affect the amount of lift set up on a given airfoil
section?
6. What happens as the angle of attack increases?
7. The wing section tested weighed 10.8g. What are the minimum
conditions for it to fly?

Answers
Resources:

Copeland, P. (2001) Engineering studies – the definitive guide. vol 2. Anno Domini
2000: Allawah. pp168 – 174

Other Websites relating to the Aeronautical Engineering module:

http://www.corrosion-doctors.org

For information about building a model wind tunnel, try these links:

http://www.faa.gov/education/educator_resources/educators_corner/grades_9_12/wi
nd_tunnel/

Using graphs in Aeronautical Engineering

Outcomes

This unit of work addresses aspects of the following syllabus outcomes

The Student:

H1.2 differentiates between properties of materials and justifies the

selection of materials, components and processes in engineering

H2.2 analyses and synthesises engineering applications in specific fields

and reports on the importance of these to society.

Like to Fly one like this at Mach 3.2?

Movies, description and more pictures
on http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Movie/SR-71/index.html

Then you have to know how to read one of these:

Pic from http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/SR-71/HTML/EC94-42883-2.html

 SR – 71A Flight Envelope Diagram

The design of many items from an engineering point of view need to take into
consideration the application of loads and forces (such as acceleration forces) and the
reaction of the materials that the item is made from to these forces. Most of the
analysis of the effect of forces and the consequent reaction to these forces is carried
out using mathematical formulae. Often these formulae are very complex, or there
may be a need to analyse the outcome of several formulae applying to a particular
situation. Producing a graph representing the formulae allows the relationship
between these formulae to be shown visually.

Graphs can therefore be used to solve problems relating to engineering mechanics,

and they can be used to determine operating parameters set up by the interaction of
a number of mechanical systems.

Learn how to read Graphs.

The diagram above is very complex, so lets start with a light aircraft flight envelope

Flight Envelope Diagram

The diagram shows the load limits for this aircraft which the pilot must be familiar
with to be able to fly the aircraft safely. Here they are, all in one place, on one graph.

The horizontal line at 0 on the graph represents the aircraft’s air speed. The unshaded
section in the centre represents the flight conditions that should NOT be exceeded to
ensure the aircraft structure is not overstressed.

Where does it all come from?

It starts with this graph, the result of experimental testing on engineering materials;
 Stress Strain diagram courtesy of Industrial Heating

This is a Stress – Strain diagram which is used by engineers to interpret material

strength. To obtain this type of graph it is necessary to carry out a tensile test on a
ductile material such as a piece of mild steel. A test piece of known dimensions is
placed in the testing machine known as a Tensometer. To determine its strength, a
load is applied to “stretch” the test piece. The size of the load is measured and the
stress induced in the piece is calculated by dividing the applied load by the cross
sectional area of the test piece. The calculated value – stress - is represented on the
vertical axis of the graph.

As the load increases the material “stretches”, it elongates. The elongation is

measured and converted to strain by dividing the change in length by the original
length of the test piece. The calculated value - strain - is represented on the
horizontal axis of the graph.

Following the green line on the graph starting at 0: As the stress increases, the
material stretches. Initially it is “elastic”. That is, if the load is removed the test piece
will return to its original length. This occurs until the material reaches its “proportional
limit” shown on the graph as point A. This part of the graph (O to A) is a straight line.
This deformation is called “elastic deformation” and the ratio of stress to strain is a
constant known as “ Young’s Modulus”.

Between A and B on the graph many materials show a definite ‘yield point’ and this is
often used as a basis for design calculations. For materials without a definite yield
point (many brittle materials) an offset method is used to calculate a ‘theoretical’ yield
which is used for design calculations. The offset yield is often calculated for 0.01%
strain (X on this graph).

As we follow the green line from A to D, the material continues to stretch, but the
elongation is now permanent. This is called “plastic deformation”, and if the load is
removed the material will NOT return to its original length.
Point D on the graph represents the material’s greatest ability to support a load. It is
termed the “Ultimate tensile stress” (UTS) and is the figure quoted when we compare
the strengths of different materials. Once the UTS has been reached the cross
sectional area of the test piece reduces (a process known as necking) and the applied
load drops accordingly. Failure occurs at the end of the green line at X.

When aircraft are designed the size of the parts is determined by the loads those
parts have to withstand. Other factors such as the cyclic nature of the loads is also
considered.

Depending on the design process being applied a ‘factor of safety’ can be applied to
either the ‘UTS’ or the ‘yield strength’ to provide a ‘maximum allowable stress’ from
which the minimum safe size of components can be calculated.

Back to the Flight envelope diagram

The axes of this graph show the load factor (vertical) and indicated air speed
(horizontal). The coloured areas represent certain limits for other flight parameters
such as structural failure, and calm air flight.

Using this type of graph enables to pilot to quickly ascertain whether conditions
require a change in flight functions to ensure safe flight conditions. A large amount of
data can be analysed without the need for mathematical formulae, calculators or data
books.

The border between the red and yellow sections on the flight envelope diagram is the
point where 100% load limit is reached for the aircraft!

But why the rest of the Flight envelope diagram?

Activity 1:
Go to http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/vel.html and use the simulator
to determine the effect of airspeed on lift. When you double the airspeed, what
happens to lift.

Answer

Activity 2:
Go to http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/incline.html and use the
simulator to determine the effect of angle of attack on lift. When you increase the
angle of attack, what happens to lift.

Answer

Activity 3:
Go to http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/factord.html Briefely state the
effect of angle of attack on induced drag. When you increase the angle of attack, what
happens to induced drag.

Answer

Activity 4:
Go to http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12//airplane/atmosi.html and use the
simulator to determine the effect of altitude and combined factors on lift. When you
increase the altitude, what happens to lift.

Answer

The green shaded area on the Flight Envelope Diagram is an area where the aircraft
may be flown in calm air. Engineers calculate the additional loads that may be
experienced due to wind gusts and turbulence. If an aircraft is flown at speeds below
the green zone on the graph, and it flies into a wind gust, the additional forces caused
by the gust (a sudden increase in airspeed) should not cause the aircraft to exceed its
load limit.

The yellow shaded area on the Flight Envelope Diagram provides a margin of safety so
that the aircraft’s structure is not jeopardized in the event of an unexpected event.

You will note that there is a possible negative load permissible on the aircraft.
Negative loads are sometimes applied during maneuvers. The aircraft for which this
diagram was drawn would not be able to do aerobatics. An aerobatic aircraft would
necessarily allow negative loads similar to the positive ones. The aerobatic limits to
this aircraft would be described in the flight manual.

Further explanation: http://www.faatest.com/books/FLT/Chapter17/VgDiagram.htm

We’re ready to start interpreting the Blackbird Diagram

On the left of the graph is a small section terminating at .....................Feet

Blank to be 25,000

The note on this area states “Normal speed range for take off and landing only”

The abbreviation KEAS stands for Knots equivalent airspeed - the Ground equivalent
airspeed measured in Knots. 145 Knots is approx 268Kph, 250 Knots is approx
463Kph.

Activity 5:
What happens during take off and landing that would change the flight characteristics
of the aircraft such that different maximum speeds would be specified?

Answer

Activity 6:
Why does the minimum air speed increase from 300 to 310KEAS?

Answer

Activity 7:
The pilot is flying the aircraft at 73,000 feet and wishes to bank the aircraft to turn.
He is traveling at the maximum airspeed. What must he do before turning.

Answer

Activity 8:
During subsonic flight what is the maximum angle of attack below 25,000 feet?

Answer
For those that have Microsoft’s ® Flight simulator, a free download is available

Useful links

Glossary of aircraft terms

Flight envelope and structural design
NASA Aerodynamics Index