MODULE1

Generali
ntr
oducti
on-Pri
nci
plesofheatt
ransfer
-Conducti
on-Convection-
Radiati
on-Four
ierl
awofheatconducti
on-Conducti
onthroughplanewall,
Newt on’
slawofcooling
-heattr
ansfert
hroughcompositecyl
i
nder-cr
iti
calt
hicknessofinsulati
on–freeandf or
cedconvect
ion,
Overallheattr
ansfercoeff
ici
ent-
simpleproblems-
Stephan
Boltzmann’
slaw,radi
ati
onshiel
d,r
efl
ect
ivi
ty,absorpt
ivi
ty,t
ransmissibi
li
ty,
Kirchhoff
’sl
aw,emissi
vepower,emissi
vit
y,Wien’sdi
splacementlaw,-Insul
ati
on-Pr
opert
ies
ofinsul
ati
on-
Gener
ali
ntr
oduct
ion-
PRI
NCI
PLESOFHEATTRANSFER
Heattransfercanbedef inedast hetr
ansmissionofheatener gyfr
om oner
egiont
oanotherasaresultoft
emper
atur
edi
ff
erence
Themodesofheatt ransfer–
Conduction, convect
ionandr adi
ati
on.
Heatconduct i
onisduet ot hevi
brat
ionofmol ecules.(
soli
ds)-conducti
on
Heatconv ect i
onisduetomov ementofmat ter.(
fl
uids)-convecti
on
Heatradiationisduet oelectr
omagneticr
adiations.(noneedofmedi um e.
g.sunt
oeart
h)–Radiation.
CONDUCTI
ON
 Heatconduct
ioni
sduet
oduet
othev
ibr
ati
onofmol
ecul
es.
(sol
i
ds)-conduct
ion
FOURI
ER’
SLAW OFHEATCONDUCTI
ON
Theti
merateofheatt r
ansferthroughamaterial
isproporti
onalt
othenegat
ivegr
adi
enti
nthetemper
atureandt
othearea,
atr
ightangl
es
tot
hatgr
adient,t
hroughwhi chtheheatf
lows.
Rat
eofheattransferduetoconduct i
oni
sdirectl
yproport
ionalt
oAreanormaltot
hesurf
aceandtemperat
uregr
adi
ent
.


 Heatf
lux=Q/
A(W/
sq.
m)

CONVECTI
ON
 Heatconv
ect
ioni
sduet
omov
ementofmat
ter
.(
fl
uids)
-conv
ect
ion
NEWTON'
SLAW OFCONVECTI
VEHEATTRANSFERORNEWTON’
SLAW OFCOOLI
NG 
Stat
esthatt
herateof
 heat
 l
ossofabodyi
spr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hedi
ff
erencei
ntemper
atur
esbet
weent
hebodyandi
tssur
roundi
ngswhi
l
e
undert
heeffect
sofabreeze.

NEWTON’
SLAW OFCONVECTI
VEHEATTRANSFER

RADI
ATI
ON
RADI
ATI
ONHEATTRANSFER-STEFAN-
BOLTZMANNLAW
 Thet
otal
ener
gyemi
tt
edbyabl
ackbodyatapar
ti
cul
art
emper
atur
eispr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hef
our
thpowerofabsol
utet
emper
atur
e.

CONDUCTI
ONOFHEATTHROUGHAPLANESLAB/
WALL
HEATCONDUCTI
ONTHROUGHACOMPOSI
TEWALL





CONDUCTI
ONOFHEATTHROUGHHOLLOW CYLI
NDER

OVERALLHEATTRANSFERCOEFFI
CIENT(
U)

 Uv
aluei
sal
soknownasTher
mal
transmi
tt
ance,
orOv
eral
lheatt
ransf
ercoef
fi
cient
.
NATURALANDFORCEDCONVECTI
ON
 Whenatemperat
uredif
fer
enceproducesadensit
ydif
fer
encewhichresul
tsi
nmassmovement,t
heprocessi
scall
edfreeornat
ural
conv
ecti
on.(
Duetotheeff
ectofbuoyancy).
 Whenthemassmot i
onofthefl
uidiscausedbyanexter
naldev
icel
ikeapump,compr
essor
,bl
owerorfan,t
heprocessiscal
l
edforced
conv
ecti
on
 
CRI
TICALTHI
CKNESSOFI
NSULATI
ON

Anelect
ri
ccableof10mm di ameteristobei
nsul
atedbyarubber(K=0.
14W/ mK).Assumecabl
esur
facet
emperatur
eis60°C.The
sur
roundi
ngairtemperatur
eis20°Candconvecti
veheatt
ransf
ercoeffi
cienti
s10W/m2Kinbothbar
eandinsul
atedcases.Fi
ndthe
mosteconomicalthi
cknessoftheinsul
ati
onandcomparetheheattr
ansfer.

Thei
nter
iort
emperatureofaref
ri
gerat
orismaint
ainedat7°C.Thewall
sareconstr
uct
edwit
ht womi
ldsteelsheet
s3mm thi
ckwi
th5cm
ofgl
asswoolinsul
ati
onbetweenthem.Theheattr
ansfercoeff
ici
ent
soninnerandout
ersur
faceofr
efr
igerat
orar m2°
e10W/ Cand12.
5
 W/m2°Cr
especti
vel
y.Findt
herateofheatleakedtheref
ri
gerat
ori
nwatt
swheniti
skepti
nakit
chenroom.
Thet
emperat
ureinki
tchenroom i
s28°C.TakeK( mil
dsteel
)=40W/m-°
CK(glasswool
)=0.04W/m-°
C.

s
Hotairat40°Cisfl
owingthroughast eelpi
peof10cm di ameter.Thepipei
scoveredwithtwolay
ersofinsul
ati
ngmat er
ial
soft hi
ckness4
cm and3cm andt hei
rcorrespondi
ngconduct i
vi
ti
esar e0.1and0. 32W/ m-
°Crespect
ivel
y.
m2-o
Theinsideandoutsi
deconv ect
iveheattransfercoeff
icientsare50and10W/ C.I
ftheatmospheri
ctemperatur
eis10°C,findtheheat
l
ossf r
om 10m lengthofpipe.Neglectthethermalresistanceofthepipemateri
al.Al
sofindt
heov er
all
heattr
ansfercoeff
ici
entbasedon
theoutersurf
aceofthecomposi t
ecy l
inder.

ABSORPTI
VITY,
REFLECTI
VITYANDTRANSMI
SSI
VITY

Absor
pti
vi
ty+ref
lect
ivi
ty+tr
ansmissi
vi
ty=1
Abodywhichabsorbsallt
heinci
dentradi
ati
oni
scal
l
ed‘
blackbody
’.

Abodywhi
cht
ransmi
tsal
lthei
nci
dentr
adi
ati
oni
scal
l
ed“
absol
utet
ranspar
ent
”or“
diat
her
manous”body
.

GREYBODY
 I
fabodyabsorbsadefi
nit
epercent
ageofi
nci
dentr
adi
ati
oni
rr
espect
iveoft
hei
rwav
elengt
hs,
theknownas“
greybody
”.
 Theabsor
pti
vi
t yoft
hegreybodyal
waysli
esbet
ween0and1.
STEFAN-
BOLTZMANNLAW
 Thet
otal
ener
gyemi
tt
edbyabl
ackbodyatapar
ti
cul
art
emper
atur
eisgi
venbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngexpr
essi
on


MONOCHROMATI
CEMI
SSI
VEPOWER
 Abodyataparti
culart
emperatureradi
atesenergyatal
lwave-
lengt
hs.Abodyatanytemperat
urer
adi
atesdi
ff
erentquant
it
iesof
ener
gyatdi
ffer
entwave-l
engths.
 Theener
gyradi
atedatapar t
icul
arwavelengthf
orthegivent
emperatur
eofthebl
ack-bodyperuni
tar
eaofthebodyandperunit
ti
meisknownas“ monochromaticemissivepower”oft
hebody.


WI
EN’
SDI
SPLACEMENTLAW
 Anothercharact
eri
sti
cofthi
sdistri
but
ionisthatt
hemaximum v
alueofmonochr
omat
icemi
ssi
vepowerofabl
ackbodyshi
ft
s
towardslowerwavelengt
hwithincr
easingtemperat
ure.


EMI
SSI
VITY


KI
RCHHOFF’
SLAW OFRADI
ATI
ON
 Therat
iooftot
alemissi
vepowert
otheabsor
pti
vi
tyi
sconst
antf
oral
lsur
faceswhi
char
eint
her
mal
equi
l
ibr
ium wi
tht
he
sur
roundi
ngs.
 emissi
vi
ty=absorpt
ivi
ty

DESI
RABLEPROPERTI
ESOFTHERMALI
NSULATOR
 Itshoul
dhaveveryl
owt
her
mal
conduct
ivi
ty
 shouldbecheap

 Av
ail
abl
einabundance.

 I
tshoul
dbewat
ermoi
stur
eresi
stant

 Thet
her
mal
expansi
onmustbeal
mostequal
wit
hthesur
facecov
ered.

 non-
toxi
c

 Fr
eef
rom v
ermi
nandf
ungusgr
owt
h.

 nobadsmel
l

 f
reef
rom f
ir
ehazar
d

 chemi
cal
l
yst
abl
e

 Goodsur
faceami
abi
l
ityt
otaker
equi
redf
ini
sh.

COMMONLYUSEDI
NSULATI
NGMATERI
AL
 1.gl
asswool
 2.pl
oysty
rene

 3.gl
assf
iber

 4.woodenmat
eri
al

 5.si
l
icaaer
ogel

Sol
arheatgai
nthr
oughgl
ass

 Doubl
epangl
assr
educest
hesol
arheatby10%t
o20%.

 Speci
alheatabsor
binggl
assr
educest
hesol
arheatby25%.

 St
ainedgl
asscanr
educei
tupt
o65%dependi
nguponi
tscol
or.

 Shadi
ngdev
icesi
nst
all
edont
heout
sideofwi
ndowsr
educesunl
oadupt
o15%.
  Vent
il
ati
onbl
i
ndsandcur
tai
nshadesr
educei
tby30%t
o35%.

MODULE2
Princi
plesofRef
ri
gerati
on-Capacit
y-Coeff
ici
entofperformance( COP)-
Carnotref
ri
gerati
oncyclevaporcompr
essionsystemsTheoret
ical
andpracti
calcy
cles
-Thermodynamicanaly
sisusingPHdi agram-Standar
dr efr
igerant
sincl
udingeco-
fri
endlyref
ri
gerant
sandthei
rpropert
ies-St
udyofr
efri
gerat
ionsy
stem
component s-
Compressors-Condensers-
Expansiondevices-ev
aporator
s-cool
i
ngtower s.
REFRI
GERATI
ON
 Processofcool i
ngofasy stem bel owt het emperatureofthesur roundings.
 Thermody namicheatpumpcy clesorr efr
igerati
oncy cl
esaret heconcept ualandmat hemat icalmodelsf orheatpumpsandr efri
ger at
or s.
Aheatpumpi samachi neordev icet hatmov esheatf r
om onel ocation(the"source")atal owert emper atur
et oanotherl ocat
ion( t
he
"si
nk"or" heatsink")atahi ghertemper atureusingmechani cal workorahi gh-temper at
ureheatsour ce.Thusaheatpumpmaybe
thoughtofasa" heater"iftheobj ecti
v eistowar mt heheatsi nk(aswhenwar mingthei nsideofahomeonacol dday ),
ora" r
efrigerator"
]
i
ft heobjectiveistocool theheatsour ce( asinthenor maloper at
ionofaf r
eezer).Ineithercase, theoper at
ingpr i
ncipl
esar eidentical
.
Heatismov edf r
om acol dpl acet oawar m place
 Accordingt othesecondl awoft her mody nami csheatcannotspont aneouslyfl
owf r
om acol derl
ocat i
ont oahot terarea;workisr equired
toachievet hi
s.Anai rcondi t
ionerr equireswor ktocool ali
vingspace, mov ingheatf r
om t hecool erint
er i
or(theheatsour ce)tothe
war merout doors(theheatsi nk).Simi l
arly,arefri
geratormov esheatf rom i
nsidet hecoldi cebox( theheatsour ce)tothewar merr oom-
temperatur eairofthekitchen( t
heheatsi nk)
COEFFI
CIENTOFPERFORMANCE(
COP)
 Theef
fi
ciencyofar
efr
iger
atororheatpumpi
sgi
venbyapar
amet
ercal
l
edt
hecoef
fi
cientofper
for
mance(
COP)
.

 Thecoeff
ici
entofperf
ormanceorCOP( sometimesCPorCop)ofaheatpump, refr
iger
atororaircondit
ioni
ngsyst
em i
sarati
oofusef
ul
heat
ingorcool
ingprovi
dedtoworkrequir
ed.HigherCOPsequatetoloweroperati
ngcosts.
 COPishighl
ydependentonoperat
ingcondit
ions,especi
all
yabsol
utetemper
atureandr el
ati
vetemper at
urebet
weensinkandsyst
em
 COP=heatextr
act
ed/Workdone
 COPi soknownase
sal ner
gyef
fi
ciencyr
ati
o(EER)
 STAR2:
2.5
 STAR3:
2.7
 STAR4:
2.9
 STAR5:
3.1

 COP=Q/
W
 Q=usefulheatsuppl
iedorremov edbyt
heconsi
der
edsystem
 W =workrequiredbythesystem
 COP=heatr emoved/workinput
 COP=QL/W
 COP=QL/ (
QH- QL)
 Foraheatpumpoper ati
ngatmaxi mum t
heor
eti
cal
eff
ici
ency(i
.e.Car
notef
fi
ciency
),i
tcanbeshownt
hat
 QL/TL=QH/ TH QL=QH*TL/TH
 COPofcooling=TL/( TH-TL)

CAPACI
TYOFREFRI
GERATOR
 Iti
st herat
eatwhi chheatcanbeextr
act
edfr
om col
dbody.
TONOFREFRIGERATION
 Rat eofheatremov al
tofr
eezeonet erat00Ct
onofwat oiceat00Ci
n24hour
s.
 1t onofrefr
igerat
ion=3.5KJ/sec.
TYPESOFREFRIGERATI ONSYSTEM.
 1.ai
rref
riger
ation
 2.st
eam refr
igerati
on
 3.Vaporcompr ession
 4.Vaporabsorption.
COMPARI
SONBETWEENGASCYCLESANDVAPORCYCLES
Thermody nami ccy cl
escanbecat egori
zedi ntogascy clesandVapourcy cles.
I
nat ypicalgascy cle,t
hewor kingf l
uid(agas)doesnotunder gophasechange, consequent l
ytheoperatingcyclewillbeawayf r
om the
Vapourdome.I ngascy cl
es, heatr eject
ionandr efriger
ationtakepl aceast hegasunder goessensiblecoolingandheat i
ng.
I
naVapourcy clet heworkingf luidunder goesphasechangeandr efri
gerationeffectisduet othevaporizat
ionofr ef
ri
gerantli
quid.I
fthe
refr
igerantisapur esubstancet heni tstemper atureremai nsconst antduringthephasechangepr ocesses.
Howev er,i
fazeot ropicmixturei susedasar efr
igerant
,thent herewi l
lbeat emperatureglideduri
ngv apori
zati
onandcondensat i
on.
Sincet heref r
igerationeff
ecti spr oduceddur i
ngphasechange, l
argeamountofheat( lat
entheat)canbet r
ansferredperkil
ogram of
refr
igerantatanearconst antt emper at
ure.
Hence, t
her equiredmassf l
owr atesf oragiv enrefri
gerati
oncapaci t
ywillbemuchsmal lercomparedt oagascy cl
e.
 Vapourcyclescanbesubdiv
idedint
oVapourcompressi
onsy
stems,Vapourabsor
pti
onsy
stems,
Vapourj
etsy
stemset
c.
Amongt hesetheVapourcompressi
onref
ri
gerat
ionsyst
emsarepr
edominant.
CARNOTSREFRI
GERATI
ONCYCLE
 Carnotr efriger ati
oncy cl
ei sacompl etelyrev ersiblecy cle,hencei susedasamodel ofper f
ectionforar efrigerati
oncycleoper ati
ng
betweenaconst anttemper atureheatsour ceandsi nk.Iti
susedasr ef
erenceagai nstwhi chther ealcy clesar ecompar ed.
 Thebasi cCar notr ef
rigerat ionsy stem forpur eVapourconsi stsoff ourcomponent s: compr essor,condenser ,
turbi
neandev apor ator
.
 4-1:Refriger at i
onef fectisobt ainedatt heev apor atorast her efri
ger antundergoest hepr ocessofv apor i
zat ionandextractst hel at
ent
heatf r
om t hel owt emper at ureheatsour ce.
 1-2:Thel owt emper ature, lowpr essur eVapori st hencompr essedi sentropicall
yint hecompr essortot heheatsi nktemper atur eTh.The
refr
igerantpr essur eincreasesf rom PLt oPHdur ingt hecompr essi onprocessandt heexi tVapouri ssat ur ated.
 2-3:thehi ghpr essure, hight emper aturesat uratedr efriger
antunder goest heprocessofcondensat ioni nt hecondenserasi tr eject
sthe
heatofcondensat iont oanext ernalheatsi nkatTc.
 3-4:Thehi ghpr essuresat ur at
edl i
quidt henf lowst hrought het urbineandunder goesi sentr
opicexpansi on.Dur i
ngthi
spr ocess, t
he
pressureandt emper aturef allf
rom Ph, Tht oPi ,Tl .Sinceasat uratedl i
quidisexpandedi nthet urbi
ne, someamountofl i
quidf l
ashesint
o
Vapourandt heexi tcondi tionl i
esi nthet wo- phaser egion.
 4-1:Thisl owt emper at ur
eandl owpr essur el i
quid- Vapormi xturethenent erstheevapor atorcompl eti
ngt hecy cle

 ACar
notrefr
iger
atorext
racts400kJofheatpersecondfr
om acol
droom whi
chi
smai
ntai
nedat-
15°
Candi
tisdi
schar
gedt
o
at
mospherewhichisat30°C.Fi
ndthei
dealworkrequir
edtor
untheunit
.

 ACarnotr
efr
iger
atorr
equi
res1.
25kW perTONofr
efr
iger
ati
ont
omai
ntai
nthet
emper
atur
eof243KFi
nd(
a)C.
O.P.ofCar
notr
efr
iger
ator
,
(
b)Temperat
ureatwhichheati
srej
ect
ed

 Iti
sclearthatfr
om practicalconsider
ati
ons,theCarnotrefri
gerat
ionsystem needtobemodi fi
ed.Drycompressi
onwithasingle
compressorispossibl
ei ftheisothermalheatrej
ecti
onpr ocessisrepl
acedbyi sobar
icheatrej
ecti
onprocess.Si
mil
arl
y,t
heisentropi
c
expansionprocesscanber epl
acedbyani senthal
picthr
ot t
li
ngprocess.Arefri
gerati
onsystem,whichincor
porat
esthesetwochangesis
knownasEv ans-Perkinsorr everseRanki necy cl
e.Thi sist hetheoreticalcycleonwhi cht heactual v
aporcompr ession
r
efr
iger
ati
onsy
stemsar
ebased.
VAPOURCOMPRESSI
ONREFRI
GERATI
ONSYSTEM.(
VCRS)

 Arefri
gerat
ingmachineusingF12aswor ki
ngfl
uidworksbet
weent hetemper
atur
es18°Cand37°
C.Theenthalpyofl
iqui
dat37°
Cis72
KJ/kg.Theenthal
piesofF12enteri
ngandleav
ingthecompressorare195KJ/kgand227KJ/kgr
espect
ivel
y.Therat
eofcir
cul
ati
onof
ref
ri
geranti
s2kg/ minandeffi
ciencyofcompr
essoris85%Determine

 Capaci
tyoft
hepl
anti
nTONSofr
efr
iger
ati
on.

VCRS  Powerr
equi
redt
orunt
hepl
ant
,

 COPoft
hepl
ant
.
Process1-2: I
sentropiccompr essionof
satur
atedv aporincompr essor
Process2-3: I
sobaricheatr ejecti
oni n
condenser
Process3-4: I
senthalpicexpansi onof
satur
atedliquidinexpansi ondev ice
Process4-1: I
sobaricheatext ractionin
theevaporator
QL=Q41=m( h1−h4)
QH=Q23=m( h2−h3)
Win=W12=m( h2−h1)
COP=QL/ Wi n
1!2: I
sentropiccompr ession, Pevap=>
Pcond
2!3: I
sobaricheatr ej
ection,QH
3!4: I
senthalpicexpansi on,Pcond=>
Pevap
4!1: I
sobaricheatext racti
on, QL
PRACTI
CALVAPORCOMPRESSI
ONCYCLE.

 a-
bsuperheatingofvapori
nt heevaporat
or
 b-
cpressuredropint
hesuctionlineofthecompressorduetoairdr
awi
ng.
 c-
dpolyt
rophiccompressi
onwi thfr
ict
ionandheattransf
eri
nsteadofi
sent
ropi
ccompr
essi
on.

 d-
epr
essur
edr
opatcompr
essi
ondi
schar
geanddel
i
ver
ypi
pel
i
ne

 e-
gpr
essur
edr
opatcondenser

 g-
fheatgai
nbyr
efr
iger
antbef
oreexpansi
onf
rom pi
pel
i
ne.

 h-
bpr
essur
edr
opatev
apor
atorduet
ofr
ict
ion.

 Asev aporat
ionproceeds,
thev
olumeandhencet
hev
eloci
ty(
KE)al
soi
ncr
eases.Thi
sincr
easei
nKEcomesf
rom t
hedecr
easei
nent
hal
pyandhencet
her
eis
fur
therpressuredrop.

REFRI
GERANTS
Ty
pesofr
efr
iger
ant
 1.CFC(chl
orofluor
ocarbon)
 2.HCFCs(hydrochlor
ofluorocarbon)
 3.HFCs(orHydroflur
oCar bons)
 4.HCorHy dr
ocarbons
 5.I
norgani
crefr
iger
ants.
1.CFC(chlor
ofl
uor
ocarbon)
Example:
 R11or(CCl
3F),

 R12or(
CCI
2F2)
,

 Itisalmostoutdat
edduetohighozonedepl
eti
onpot
ent
ial
andgl
obal
war
mingpot
ent
ial
.
 
2.HCFCs(
hydr
ochlor
ofl
uorocar
bon)
,
Exampl
e:
 “ R-22”orHCFC22or( CHCIF2)

 50-
60%ofAirCondi
ti
oner
sinIndi
astil
luseHCFCs.I
tishav
inglesserhi
ghozonedepl
eti
onpot
ent
ial
andgl
obal
war
ming
pot
ent
ialt
hanCFC.St i
ll
itcont
ainchl
orine,
whi
chisharmful
for 
theenv
ironment
.

 Ref r
igerant22orHCFC22or( CHCIF2)Usedwi t
hreci
procat
ingcompr essorsi
nwindow-
typeai
rcondit
ionersandlar
geunit
ssuchas
packageuni tsandcentr
alaircondi
ti
oningplant
s.I
tisalsousedf orl
owt emper
atur
eref
ri
gerat
ionappl
icati
ons,col
dstor
ages,
food
freezingandstorage,et
c.,
withreci
procat
ingorscrewcompr essors.
3.HFCs( orHy dr ofl
uroCarbons)
Examples:
 R-410A

 R-
32(
orDi
fl
uor
omet
haneorCH2F2)
)

 R-
134aorCH2FCF3.

 Theyhavezeroozonelay
erdepl
eti
onpotent
ial
.Ther
eisnochl
orinecontenti
nHFC.About20-
30%oft
he 
aircondi
ti
oner
sinI
ndi
ause
HFCs.R-32i
sbettert
hanR-410Ainter
msofglobalwar
mingpotenti
al.
4.HCorHydrocar
bons
Ex
amples:
 “R-
290orPr
opane”

 “
R-600Aor“
Iso-
But
ane”

 emoste
Theyar nvironment-f
riendl
yr efri
gerants.Theyarecompl et
elyhal
ogenf r
ee, 
havenoozonedepl et
ionpotenti
alandare
l
owesti
ntermsofglobalwarmingpotential
.Theyal sohavehigh-ener
gyeffi
ciency
 butarehi
ghl
yflammableastheyarehydrocar
bons.
Ozonedepl
eti
onpotent
ial(
ODP)
 Ref ri
ger
antscontai
ningchl
ori
neorbromi necont r
ibutetot
hebr eakdownoftheozonel ayer
.Thereact
ioni
sasfoll
ows:

 However
,theCI
Omol
ecul
eisunst
abl
e.I
tbr
eaksdownandr
eact
swi
thozonemol
ecul
esr
epeat
edl
yunt
ilamor
est
abl
ecompoundi
s
cr
eat
ed.

 TheODPi stherati
oofthei
mpactonozoneofachemicalcomparedwit
htheimpactofasimil
armassofCFC-
11(
R11).
Gl
obal
war
mingpotent
ial
(GWP)
 TheGWPi st
her at
iooft
hewar
mingcausedbyasubstancetothewarmingcausedbyasimil
armassofcar
bondi
oxi
de.
REFRI
GERANT GLOBALWARMINGPOTENTI AL OZONEDEPLETI ONPOTENTIAL

R-
22 1810 medi
um

R-
410A 2088 zer
o

R-
32 675 zer
o

R-
134A 1430 zer
o

R-
290 3 zer
o

R-
600A 3 zer
o

Ammoni
a(NH3)
 Usedwithr
eci
procat
ingandscr
ewcompr
essor
s,i
ncol
dst
orages,
icepl
ant
s,f
oodr
efr
iger
ati
on,
etc.
 ODPiszero
 GWPi szer
o
 Toxi
c
Car
bondi
oxi
de(
CO2)
 Usedinmar
iner
efr
iger
ator
s,f
rozen-
foodt
ranspor
tref
ri
ger
ati
on
 GWPi s1
 ODP-zer
o
Pr
oper
ti
esofaGoodRef
ri
ger
ant
 Highl
atentheatofvapor
izat
ion.
 Lowboili
ngpoint.

 Lowspeci
fi
cheat
.

 Lowspeci
fi
cvol
ume.

 Shoul
dhav
ehi
ghco-
eff
ici
entofper
for
mance.

 None—expl
osi
veandnon-
Inf
lammabl
e.

 Non-
toxi
c.

 Non-
cor
rosi
ve.

 Easyt
oli
quef
y.

 Ther
mal
Conduct
ivi
tyTher
: malconduct
ivi
ty 
oft
her
efr
iger
antshoul
dbehi
ghf
orf
ast
erheatt
ransf
erdur
ingcondensat
ionandev
apor
ati
on.

 Diel
ectri
cstr
ength(
notallowi
ngt heel
ectr
icit
ytopass-
thr
ough)Inher
meti
carr
angement
s,t
hemotorwindingsar
ecool
edbyr
efr
iger
ant
s
vapor.Ther
efor
e,di
elect
ri
cstrengthofref
riger
anti
simportantpr
oper
tyi
nher
metical
l
yseal
edcompressoruni
ts.

 HighCr
it
ical
temper
ature:
Inordertohav
elar
ger
angeofi
sot
her
mal
ener
gyt
ransf
er,
ther
efr
iger
antshoul
dhav
ecr
it
ical
temper
atur
e
abovet
hecondensi
ngtemperatur
e.
COMPONENTSOFREFRI
GERATI
ONUNI
T
1. Refr
igerati
onCompr essor
s
2. Refr
igerati
onCondensers
3. Expansiondev i
ce
4. Evaporator
A.r eci
procati
ng,

B.r
otar
y

C.cent
ri
fugal
REFRI
GERATI ONCOMPRESSOR
Reci
procat
ingcompr
essor
 1. Ar
eci
procat
ingcompr
essorusest
her
eci
procat
ingact
ionofapi
stoni
nsi
deacy
li
ndert
ocompr
essr
efr
iger
ant
.

2. Ast
hepi
stonmov
esdownwar
d,av
acuum i
scr
eat
edi
nsi
det
hecy
li
nder
.

3. Becauset
hepr essur
eabov
ethei
ntakev
alv
eisgr
eat
ert
hant
hepr
essur
ebel
owi
t,t
hei
ntakev
alv
eisf
orcedopenandr
efr
iger
anti
ssucked
i
ntothecyl
inder.

4. Af
tert
hepi
stonr
eachesi
tsbot
tom posi
ti
oni
tbegi
nst
omov
eupwar
d.

5. Thei
ntakev
alv
ecl
oses,
trappi
ngt
her
efr
iger
anti
nsi
det
hecy
li
nder
.

6. Ast
hepi
stoncont
inuest
omov
eupwar
ditcompr
essest
her
efr
iger
ant
,incr
easi
ngi
tspr
essur
e.

7. Atacert
ainpointthepressureexer
tedbyther
efr
iger
antf
orcest
heexhaustv
alvetoopenandthecompressedr
efr
iger
antf
lowsoutoft
he
cyl
i
nder.
8. Oncethepist
onr eachesitt
op-mostposi
ti
on,i
tst
artsmovi
ngdownwardagainandthecycl
eisrepeat
ed.

Advant
ages
 Rel ati
v elyCheap
 Easymai ntenance
 Sui tablef orhighpressure
 Gener atehi ghpressure.
 Lowv olumet r
iceffi
ciency.
 Lowmechani caleffi
ciency
.
Di
sadvantages
 Youhavetoarrangearoom fori
torputiti
ntoisol
ati
ngbox.
 Highoutlettemper at
ureofcompr essedair
.
 Highoi
lcontenti
nairpi
ping.
Di
aphr
agm compr
essor
 Thesearesmallcapaci
tycompr essors.
 I
npistoncompressorsthelubri
catngoi
i lfr
om thepi stonswallsmaycontaminatet hecompressedair.
 Thecontami
nati
oni sundesir
ableinfood,pharmaceutical
andchemi
cal
indust
ri
es.Forsuchappl
i
cat
ionsdi
aphr
agm t
ypecompr
essorcanbeused.
 Fi
gureshowstheconstructi
onofDi aphragm compressor.

 Thepi
stonr
eci
procat
esbyamot
ordr
ivencr
ankshaf
t.

 Ast
hepi
stonmov
esdowni
tpul
l
sthehy
draul
i
cfl
uiddowncausi
ngt
hedi
aphr
agm t
omov
eal
ongandt
heai
rissuckedi
n.

 Whent
hepi
stonmov
esupt
hef
lui
dpushest
hedi
aphr
agm upcausi
ngt
heej
ect
ionofai
rfr
om t
heout
letpor
t.

 Si
ncet
hef
lexi
bledi
aphr
agm i
spl
acedi
nbet
weent
hepi
stonandt
heai
rnocont
ami
nat
iont
akespl
ace.

Rot
aryCompressor s
a. rol
l
ingpistont
ype
b. rot
ati
ngv anet
ype
c. scr
ewt y
pe

d. scr
oll
compr
essor
Rol
l
ingpi
ston.
 Mai nComponent s
Simi l
art oarecipr ocat i
ngr efri
ger at
ionsy stem, arotaryref r
iger at
ionsy st
em consi st
soft hef oll
owing
mai ncomponent si naddi t i
ont ot herotar ycompr essor:
Evapor ator.Adi r
ect -
expansi onorDXcoi l i
sof tenusedast heev aporator.TheDXcoi li
susual ly
madeoft ubeandcor rugat edf i
nst oimpr ov etheheatt ransf er.Coppert ubest ypicall
yof0. 5-i
n.
(13-mm)di amet erandal umi num f i
nswi that hicknessof0. 006i n.(0.15mm)ar eused.Anadequat e
cool i
ngr ateperuni tcoil facear ea,Btu/ h
ft2( W/ m2)i si
mpor tantdur i
ngt hesel ect i
onofaDXcoi l.
Condenser .Anai r-cooledcondenseri sal soof tenmadeoft ubeandcor r
ugatedf i
ns.Thedi amet er
ofthecoppert ubei susual lybet weenandi n.(6.5and19mm) .Asubcool erissomet imes
usedandi sl
ocat edbet weent hecondenserandt hecapi l
laryt ubesubmer gi
ngi nt hecondensat e.
Thecondensi ngcoi lusual l
yhasonet ot hreer owsoft ubesbecauseoft helowerai r
-sidepressur e
droppr ovi
dedbyt hepr opel l
erf an.
Rest r
ictor.Acapi llarytubei sthemostwi delyusedr estrictorbecauseofi tslowcostandr eli
abilit
y.
Permanentspl i
t-capaci tormot or.Thist ypeofmot orprov i
desadequat estar
tingt orquef orrotary
compr essorsandi mpr ov est hepowerf act orduringoper ation.
LobeTy
peAi rCompr essor
Thel obecompr essori susedwhenh ighdel iveryv olumebutl owpr essurei sneeded.I tconsistsoftwolobeswit
honebeingdri
ven
andt heot herdr i
ving.
Thisisoneoft hesi mpl ercompr essort ype.I nthistherei snocompl i
catedmov ingpar t.Therear etwolobesatt
achedtothedri
vi
ngshaf
t
byt hepr imemov er .Thesel obesar edi spl acedwi th90degr eestooneanot her.Thusi foneoft helobeisinhori
zontal
dir
ecti
ontheot
her
l
obeswi l
lbeex act lyposi tionedat90degr eei.e.inverti
cal di r
ection.

Theairget
str
appedf
rom oneendandast
hel
obesr
otat
est
heai
rget
scompr
essedasshowni
nimage.Thecompr
essedai
rist
hen
del
iv
eredtodel
iv
eryl
i
ne.

Rot
ati
ngv
anet
ype

 Arotaryvanecompr essoriswellsuitedt oel ectri

cmot ordri
v eandissignif
icantyqu
l i
eteri noper ationthant heequi val
entpist
oncompr essor
 Thisi
sanot hert
y peofr otarycompr essor.
 Thereisafixedcasi nginVanet ypecompr essorin whichar otar
yrotordiscisplacedwhi chh asslotst hatareusedf orholdingtheslidingplat
es.
 Whenev errot
orrot atesthediscalsor otates thusallowingtheslidi
ngplatestoslideast heinnersurfaceofcasingiseccent
ri
c.
 Whenev erthepl
at esmov esawayf rom thecent erahugeamountofai rgett r
appedinsideitandwi ththerotat
ionthesli
dingplatesconvergeduetoi
ts
shapeandt hetrappedai rgetcompr essed.Thi sresultsincompr essi
onofai r.
 Therotoriseccent ri
ctot hecam ring.Ast her otorrotates,
thev anesfoll
owt heinnersurfaceofthecam r i
ng.
 Thes pacebet weent hev anesdecr easesneart heout letduet otheeccent ri
city.
Advant
ages
 Ea symai nt
enance.
 Si mpleindesi
gn
Scr
ewt ype
1. Twi n-
scr
ewcompr essor
:
2. Loadingandunloadi
ngofscr
ewcompr
essor
;
 3. Suct ion-compression
Forme di
um flowandpr essur eappl
icat
ions,
screwcompr essorcanbeused
Simpleinconstructi
onwithlessnumberofmov ingpart
s
Ithastwomeshi ngscr ews.Theai rf
rom thei
nleti
strappedbetweenthemeshi
ngscrewsandiscompressed.Thecontactbet
weenthetwo
meshingsurfaceismi ni
mum, hencenocooli
ngisrequi
red.Thesesystemsar
equit
einoperat
ioncompar
edt opist
ontype.Thescrewsar
e
synchroni
zedbyusi ngexternalti
minggear
s
Rot
orst
hatar
erot
ati
ngi
nopposi
tedi
rect
ion

Advantages
 Lessnoi sy.
 Thesear ecalledthewor k-
hor sesastheysuppl ylargeamountofcompressai
r.
 Mor eener gyef f
ici
entascompar edt
opistontypecompr essors.
 Theai rsupplyisconti
nuousascomparedtor eci
procat
ingcompr essor
s.
 Rel at
iv yl
el owendt emper atureofcompressedai .
r
Disadvant
ages
 Ex pensi vet henpiston-
typecompr essor s.
 Mor ecompl exdesign.
 Themai ntenanceisv eryimpor t
ant
 Mi ni
mum onedayusei simpor t
antinaweakt oavoidr usting.
Scroll
type

 I
nascr oll compressorr efriger
antiscompr essedbyt woof fsetspi r
aldiskst hatarenest
edt ogether
.
 Theupperdi ski sst ationar ywhilethelowerdi skmov esi norbitalfashion.
 Theorbitingactionoft hel owerdiskinsi
det hestati
onarydi skcreatessealedspacesofv ar
yingvolume.
 Refri
geranti ssuckedi nt hroughinl
etportsatt heperi
met eroft hescrol
l.
 Aquantityofr ef
rigerantbecomest rappedinoneoft heseal edspaces.
 Asthedi skor bi
tstheencl osedspacecont ainingtherefr
iger antist
ransferredt
owar dtheCentreofthediskandi
tsv
olumedecr
eases.
 Asthev olumedecr eases, theref
ri
geranti
scompr essed.

 Thecompr
essedr
efr
iger
anti
sdi
schar
gedt
hroughapor
tatt
hecent
eroft
heupperdi
sk.

 Scr
oll
compr
essor equ
sar i
et,
smoot
h-oper
ati
nguni
tswi
tht
hehi
ghestef
fi
ciencyr
ati
oofal
lcompr
essort
ypes.

 Theyarecommonl na
yusedi ut
omobil
eaircondi
ti
oni
ngsy
stemsandcommer
cial
chi
l
ler
s.
Adv
antages
 Ver yquiet
.
 Thi sisverycompactinsi
ze.
 Si mpledesignwi
thnotsomanypart
s.
 Oi l
-f
reedesignandlowmai nt
enance.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
 Out putcapaci t
yislow.
 Rel at
iv ye
el xpensi
ve
 Youhav etobuyan ewscrol
lelementwi
tht
hefail
ureofol
deroneev
eni
fther
eisnotanybi
gpr
obl
em.
 Thet emper atur
eofcompr
essedai
rist
oomuchhigh.
Cent
ri
fugal
Compressor

Thi
sty
pesofcompr
essor
scomesunderdy
nami
ccompr
essor
sthatdependsont
ransf
erofener
gy 
fr
om ar
otat
ingi
mpel
l
ert
o
t
heai
r.
Acentri
fugalcompressorhasasimplerotati
ngel ement,mountedontotheshaftwhichi
susuallyconnecteddi
rect
lytot
heprime
mover.Thecompr essorisdi
vi
dedint
of ourparts.Input
,centr
if
ugalimpell
er,di
ff
userandthecoll
ector
.
Thecompr essorsuckstheai
rortheairenterthroughinputpartandthencentr
if
ugalcompressorrai
sestheenergyofworki
ng
 gases/airbyrotati
ngsetofblades.From herethevel
ocit
yoftheairi
sincr
easedbefor
emov ingt
othedif
fuser.Di
ff
userconver
tsthe
ki
neticenergyoft heairi
ntothepressureenergybygradual
l
ydecreasi
ngtheairvel
oci
ty.Andint
hiswayairiscompressedand
col
lectsfrom thecollect
or.
Oneoft heint
er esti
ngcharacter
ist
icsofthecentr
if
ugalcompressori
sthatasthespeedoft heimpell
err educesthecapacityof
t
hecompr
essori
ncr
eases.

Appl
i
cat
ions
Theset
ypesofcompr
essor
sar
eusual
l
yusedf
orgascompr
essi noi
oni lpl
atf
orms.
 
Whi
l
eLPGst
orageandt
ranspor
tinst
all
ati
ons.
Centri
fugal compr
essorsareusedinTurbochargersindieselengi
nes.Ver
ylar
gevolumeofcompressedai
risr
equi
redin
appli
cationssuchasventil
ators,
combustionsy st
em andpneumat i
cpowderblowerconv
eyor
s,t
hedy nami
ccompressorcanbe
used.
Pressureneededisverylowinsuchapplicati
ons.
Theefficiencyoft
hesecompr essor
sisbetterthanthatofrecipr
ocat
ingty
pes.
REFRI
GERATI
ONCONDENSOR

1.Ai
r-
CooledCondensers(r
adiat
ors)
2.Water
-CooledCondenser
s(double-
tube,
shel
l
-and-
tube)
3.Ev
aporati
vecondenser
Ai
r-
Cool
edCondenser
s(r
adi
ator
s)
Inai r-
cooledcondenser sairistheext ernalfluid
Insmal lunit
slikehousehol dr ef
ri
ger ators,deepf reezers,watercoolers,windowai r-
conditioners,
splitair-
conditi
oners,smal l
packagedai r
-condi ti
onerset c.Thesear eusedi npl antswher et hecool i
ngloadissmal l
andt hetotalquant i
tyofther efr
igeranti
nt herefri
gerati
on
cycl eissmal l
.Ai rcooledcondenser sar ealsocal ledcoi lcondensersast heyareusual l
ymadeofcopperoral uminum coil.Aircooled
condenser soccupyacompar ativ
elyl argerspacet hanwat ercooledcondenser s.
Aircool edcondenser sareoft wot ypes: naturalconv ecti
onandf orcedconv ection.I
nthenat ur
alconv ecti
ont ype,t
heairflowsov eritin
nat uralawaydependi ngupont hetemper atureoft hecondensercoi l.I
nt heforcedairtype, afanoper atedbyamot orblowsai roverthe
condensercoi l.
Nat
ural
conv ectiontype:
Innat uralconv ecti
ont ype,heattransf erfr
om t hecondenseri sbybuoy ancyinducednat uralconvecti
onandr adiati
on
Heatt r
ansfercoef fi
cientinthesecondenser sissmal l
Ar elativel
ylargecondensi ngsur facei srequiredtor ejectagivenamountofheat .

Thenat
uralconv
ecti
ontypecondensersareeit
herpl
atesurf
acetypeorf
innedt
ubety
pe.Inplatesurf
acetypecondenser
susedi
nsmal
l
ref
ri
ger
ator
sandf r
eezer
s,t
herefri
gerantcar
ryi
ngtubesareatt
achedtot
heouterwal
lsoftherefr
iger
ator
.

Thewhol ebodyoft herefr

igerator(exceptt hedoor)act
slikeafin.I
nsul
ati
onisprovidedbet weentheoutercoverthatactsli
kefi
nandthe
innerplast
iccov eroftherefri
gerator.Itisforthi
sreasonthatouterbodyoftheref
rigeratorisalwayswar
m.Si ncethesurfaceiswarm,
theproblem ofmoi sturecondensat i
onont hewallsoftherefr
igerat
ordoesnotari
sei nthesesy st
ems.Thesecondenser saresometimes
call
edasf latbackcondenser s.
Regardlessoft hetype,ref
rigerator
sempl oyingnat
uralconvecti
oncondensershoul
dbel ocatedinsuchawayt hataircanfl
owf r
eelyover
thecondensersur face.
For
cedconvecti
ont y
pe
Inforcedconv ecti
ont y
pecondenser s,theci r
cul
ati
onofairoverthecondensersurf
acei smai nt
ainedbyusingafanorabl ower.These
condensersnor mallyusefinsonai r-si
def orgoodheatt r
ansfer
Wat
ercool
edcondenser
1. Doubl
epipeort
ube-
in-
tubet
ype
2. Shel
l-
and-
coi
lty
pe

3. Shel
l
-and-
tubet
ype

Watercooledcondensersareusedforl
arger
efr
igerat
ingplant
s,bi
gpackagedair
-condi
tioner
s,cent
ral
air
-condit
ioni
ngplants,
etc.These
ar
eusedi nplant
swher ecooli
ngloadsar
eexcessiv
elyhighandalargequant
it
yofrefri
gerantfl
owsthr
ought hecondenser.

Inal
lthesecondenser
sther
efr
iger
antf
lowst
hroughonesi
deoft
hepi
pingwhi
l
ethewat
erf
lowst
hrought
heot
herpi
ping,
cool
i
ngt
he
ref
ri
gerantandcondensi
ngi
t.
Shel
landcoi
lty
pe

Thewaterfl
owsthroughmul t
ipl
ecoil
s,whichmayhavefi
nst
oincr
easet
heheatt
ransf
ercoef
fici
ent
.Ther
efr
iger
antf
lowst
hrought
he
shel
l.
Insmall
ercapaci
tycondensers,
ref
ri
gerantfl
owsthr
oughcoi
l
swhil
ewaterf
lowst
hroughtheshel
l.
Shel
landt
ubetype

Themostcommont
ypeofcondenser
I
nthesecondenserstherefr
igerantfl
owst hr
ought heshellwhil
ewat
erf
lowsthr
oughthet
ubesinsi
ngl
etof
ourpasses.
Thecondensedref
riger
antcollectsatthebottom oftheshell
.
Thecol
destwatercontactstheliqui
drefri
gerantsothatsomesubcooli
ngcanalsobeobt
ained.
Ev
apor
ati
vet
ype
Bothairandwat erar eusedt oextractheatf rom t hecondensi ngr efr
igerant.
Evaporati
vecondenser scombinet hef eaturesofacool ingt owerandwat er-
cooledcondenseri nasingleunit.
Thewat eri
sspr ayedf rom toppartonabankoft ubescar ry
ingt her efri
gerantandairisinducedupwar ds.Thereisathi nwaterfi
l
m
aroundthecondensert ubesfrom whi chev apor ativecoolingt akespl ace.Theheatt r
ansfercoeffici
entforevaporat
ivecoolingisvery
l
arge.Hence, therefri
gerati
onsy st
em canbeoper atedatlowcondensi ngtemper at
ures(about11t o13Kabov ethewetbul b
temperatureofai r
).Thewat erspraycount ercurrentt otheai r
flowact sascoolingtower.Ther oleofairi
sprimari
lytoi ncr
easethe
rateofevaporationofwat er.
Evaporati
vecondenser sareusedinmedi um tol argecapaci tysy stems.Thesear enor mall
ycheapercompar edtowat ercooled
condensers,whichr equir
easepar atecool i
ngt ower .Evapor ativecondenser sareusedi nplaceswher ewaterisscarce.Sincewat er
i
susedi nacl osedl oop,onlyasmal lpar tofthewat erev aporates.
EXPANSI
ONDEVI
CES
• Expandi ngt hel i
quidrefrigerantfrom t hecondenserpr essur
et otheev apor atorpressure.
• Supplyoft hel i
quidtotheev aporat orisatt her ateatwhi chiti
sev aporated.
• Thet hrottlingv alveisfittedbet weent hecondenserandt heev aporat
or .Thet hrottl
ingorexpansi ondev i
ceisinthef orm ofasmal l or
if
ice.
Whenr efriger antpassest hr
ought hissmal lori
ficeit
spr essurereducessuddenl yduet othefricti
on.Ther ateofthef l
owofr efr
igerant
throught het hrottl
ingdev icedependsont hesizeandopeni ngoft heor if
ice.Italsodependsont hediff
erenceinpressur eonthe
evapor atorandt hecondensersi des.
1.Capi ll
aryt ubet y
pe
2.Aut omat icexpansi onv alve
3.Ther most at i
cexpansi onv alve( Automat i
c)
Capi
l
lar
ytubet ype
Acapi ll
aryt ubei salong, narrowt ubeofconst antdiamet er.
Thepr essur edr opat t
ainedt hrought hecapi ll
arydependsuponi tsdiamet erandl ength.Capil
larytubingmadeofcopperi smost
commonl yused.
Capill
ar ytubi ngi susedf orsmal lrefri
ger ati
ngandai r-condit
ioningsystemsl i
kehousehol drefrigerat
ors,watercoolers,deepfreezers,
windowai r-condi ti
oners, spl
itair-condi ti
oners,smal lpackagedai r-
condi t
ioner setc.Forsystemsi nwhichcapill
arytubingisfit
ted,
technicianshav etobev erycareful ofr efri
gerantchar gingastheov erchar gingcanl eadexcessi vehighdischargepr essuresfr
om the
compr essor , whichleadst oov erl oadingoft hecompr essorandt hechancesofr efriger
antleakagesf rom thesystem arealsoincreased.

I
tisadev
icewhi
chwor
kaut
omat
ical
l
y,mai
ntai
ningpr
oper&cor
rectl
i
qui
dfl
owsaspert
hecondi
ti
onoft
hel
oadont
heev
apor
ator
.
Aut
omat
icexpansi
onv
alv
e

Ther
most
ati
cexpansi
onv
alv
e(Aut
omat
ic)
Thethermostati
cexpansionval
veisnotcont r
oll
edbyt hetemper at
ure.I
tworksautomat i
cal
lymaintainingproperf l
owoft he
ref
ri
gerantdependingupontheheatloadintheev aporat
or.Apartfr
om reduci
ngt hepressureofther efri
gerant,thethermostat
ic
expansi
onv al
vealsokeepstheevaporatoracti
ve.Theseday sthermostat
icexpansionv al
vesusedwi t
hsol enoidvalvesaremore
common.
Thermostati
cexpansionvalv
esareusedext ensi
velyinmedium andl ar
gesizedrefri
gerati
ngandai r
-condi t
ioningsystems.Theycan
beusedf orl
argewaterchil
l
ingpl
ants,bri
nechill
ingplants,l
argepackagedair-
conditi
oners,cent
ralair-condit
ioningplantset
c.

EVAPORATOR
Anevapor
ator
,li
kecondenseri
salsoaheatexchanger
.Inanev
apor
ator
,ther
efr
iger
antboi
l
sorev
apor
atesandi
ndoi
ngsoabsor
bs
heatf
rom t
hesubstancebei
ngref
riger
ated.
COOLI
NGTOWER
 A cooli
ngt ower i
saheatr ejectiondevicethatr eject s 
wast eheat  
tothe atmospher e 
throughthecooli
ngofawat erst
ream t oalower
temperature.Coolingt ower smayei theruset he evapor ation ofwat ertoremov epr ocessheatandcool thewor kingfl
uidtoneart he wet
-
bulbairtemper at
ure or, i
nt hecaseof  
closedci rcui tdrycool ingtower s,relysolelyonai rtocooltheworkingf l
uidtoneart he dry
-bul
bair
temperature.
 Commonappl i
cati
onsi ncludecool ingtheci rculatingwat erusedi n oilr
efineries,
 petrochemical
 andother chemicalpl
ants, thermalpower
stati
ons and HVAC  systemsf orcooli
ngbui ldings.Thecl assi fi
cati
oni sbasedont hetypeofairinduct
ionint othetower:themai ntypesof
cooli
ngt owersare natur al draft 
and i
nduceddr af t
 coolingt ower s.
 Coolingtower svaryinsi zef rom smal lroof-
t opuni tst ov erylarge hyperboloidstructures
 Inareaswi thahotcl i
mat e, l
argeofficebuildings, hospi tals,andschool st ypicall
yuseoneormor ecooli
ngt owersaspar toft hei
rair
conditi
oningsy st
ems.Gener all
y,i
ndustrial
cool i
ngt ower saremuchl ar
gert hanHVACt owers.

MODULE3
Psychometry-
Psy chrometri
cpr opert
ies-
Psychr
ometri
cchar
t-
Psychr
omet
ri
cprocess-
adi
abati
cmi xi
ng-Sensi
bleheat
ingandcooli
ng-
humidif
yinganddehumidif
ying-
bypassfactor
-sensibleheatfactor-
room sensi
blef
act
or-
RSHFandGSHFli
ne.Humancomf or
t-comfortchar
t-
Eff
ecti
vetemper
ature-
Fact
orsgoverni
ngeffect
ive
temperatur
e.
PSYCHOMETRY
Thest udyofproper t
iesofmi xtur
esofai randwat erVapor.
Psychomet ryisthesciencedeal i
ngwi ththephy sicall
awsofai r–watervapourmixt
ures.
Whendesi gninganai rconditioni
ngsy stem, t
het emperatureandmoistur
econtentoftheai
rtobecondi
tioned,andt
hesamepr
oper
ti
esof
theairneededt oproducet hedesiredaircondi t
ioningeffect.
I
not herwor ds,wecansayt hatPsychomet r
yisthest udyofMOI STAIRormi xt
ureofdryai
randwaterv
apour .
Dryair–Airwi thoutmoi st
ure
Moistair-itisami xtur
eofdr yai
randwat erVapor
Dependsupon-t hetemper atureoftheai r
.
Maximum quant i
ty-saturati
oncapaci ty
.
DALTON’
SLAW OFPARTI
ALPRESSURE
Total
pressur
eofami
xtur
eofgasesi
sequal
tot
hepar
ti
alpr
essur
esexer
tedbyeachgaswheni
toccupi
esmi
xtur
evol
umeatmi
xtur
e
temperat
ure.
PROPERTI
ESOFPSYCHROMETRY
DEW POINTTEMPERATURE
RELATIVEHUMIDI
TY
HUMI DI
TYRATI
O
DRY-BULBTEMPERATURE
WETBULBTEMPERATURE
HUMI DI
TY
1. Specif
ichumidit
y
2. Absolutehumidi
ty
PSYCHROMETRICRATIO
DEW POI
NTTEMPERATURE
 Thet emper
atureatwhichmoisturestar
tst
ocondenseoutoftheairi
sknownasDEW POINT.
 Dewpoi nti
salsoknownassat urati
ontemper
atur
e.
 Dewpoi ntt
emperatur
ei sdet
erminedbymov i
ngfrom ast
atepointhor
izont
all
ytot
hel
eftal
ongl
i
nesofconst
anthumi
dit
yrat
iount
ilt
heupper
,cur
ved,
sat
urat
iont
emper
atur
eboundar
yisr
eached.
SPECI
FICHUMIDITYORHUMI DI
TYRATI O
 Itist
hemassofwat erVapourpresentperkgofdryai
r.
(kgperkgofdr
yai
r)
.
 Specifi
chumidi
tyi
sdefinedastheproporti
onofthema ssofwat erv
apourperuni
tmassoft
heai
rsampl
e(dr
yai
r)
.

Absol
uteHumi
dit
y:
 Thema ssofwat
erv
apourperuni
tvol
umeofai
rcont
aini
ngt
hewat
erv
apour
.Thi
squant
it
yisal
soknownast
hewat
erv
apour
densi
ty.
RELATI
VEHUMI
DITY

 Rel
ati
veHumi di
tyi
sther
ati
obet
weentheAmountofmoist
urethatagivenamount
 Ofai
rishol
dingtoAmountofmoi
stur
ethatagi
venamountofaircanhold.

DRYBULBTEMPERATURE
 Thedry
-bul
btemperat
ureisthetemper
aturei
ndi
cat
edbyather ere
momet xposedtotheairinaplaceshelt
eredf
rom dir
ectsol
ar
radi
ati
on.Theter
m dry-
bulbiscust
omaril
yaddedt
otemperat
uret
odi
sti
ngui
shitf
rom wet
-bul
banddewpointt
emper
atur
e.

Dr
ybul
bther
momet
er Measur
edi
ndegr
eesFahr
enhei
t(oF)
WETBULBTEMPERATURE
 Wetbulbt
emperat
ureisthet
emperatur
erecor
dedbyt her
momet
erwhenthebul
bisenvel
opedbycot
tonwi
cksat
urat
edwithwat
er.
 Theaccur
acyofasimplewet
-bul
bthermometerdependsonhowfastai
rpassesov ert
hebulbandhowwel lthether
momet eri
s
shi
eldedf
rom t
her
adi
antt
emper
atur
eofi
tssur
roundi
ngs.

Measur
edi
ndegr
eesFahr
enhei
t(oF)
PSYCHROMETRI
CPROCESSES
 I
nthedomesti
candindust
ri
alai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngappli
cat
ionssomepsychrometr
icpr
ocesseshav
et obeperf
ormedontheairt
ochanget
he
psy
chr
ometri
cproper
ti
esofairsoastoobt
aincer
tai
nv al
uesoft
emperatur
eandhumidit
yofairwit
hint
heencl
osedspace.
1. SENSIBLEHEATING
2. SENSIBLECOOLING
3. DEHUMI DI
FICATI
ON
4. HUMIDFIYING
5. ADIABATICCOOLING
6. ADIABATICMIXING(MOI
STAI
R&WATERVAPOR)
SENSI
BLEHEATI
NG
I
tisaddi
ti
onofheatt
omoi
stai
rwi
thoutt
hesubt
ract
ionofmoi
stur
e.I
tfol
l
owsaconst
anthumi
dit
yrat
iol
i
neont
hepsy
chomet
ri
cchar
t.

 Insensi bleheat i
ngpr ocesst het emperatureofai risincreasedwi thoutchangi ngitsmoi st
ur econt ent.Duringt hispr ocesst hesensi
ble
heat, DBandWBt emper atureoft heai rincreaseswhi lelatentofai r
, andt heDPpoi nttemper atur eoft heai rr emai ns
const ant.Sensi bl
eheat ingoft heairisimpor tantwhent heaircondi t
ionerisusedast heh eatpumpt oheatt heai r
.Int heheatpump
theai risheat edbypassi ngi toverthecondensercoi lort heheat i
ngcoi lthatcarr ythehight emper aturerefrigerant .Insomecasest he
heatingofai risalsodonet osuitdiff
erentindust ri
alandcomf ortair
-condi t
ioningappl i
cat
ionswher elargeai rcondi t
ioningsy stemsar e
used.I ngener al t
hesensi bleheat i
ngpr ocessiscar ri
edoutbypassi ngt heai rov ertheheat ingcoil
.Thi scoi lmaybeheat edbypassi ng
theref ri
gerant ,t
hehotwat er,t
hest eam orbyel ectr
icresistanceheat i
ngcoi l.Thehotwat erandst eam areusedf ort heindust ri
al
applications.
 Thesensi bleheat i
ngpr ocessi salsorepresent edbyas traighthor izont allineont hepsy chromet r
icchar t.Thel inest artsf r
om theinit
ial
DBt emper atureofai randendsatt hefinaltemper atureextendi ngtowar dst heright( seet
hef i
gure).Thesensi bleheat ingl ineisal
sot he
const antDPt emper atureli
ne.
SENSI
BLECOOLI
NG
 Cool i
ngoft heai risoneoft hemostcommonpsy chr ometri
cpr ocessesint heai rcondit
ioningsy stems.Thebasi cfuncti
onoft heai
r-
condi t
ioner sistocool theai rabsor bedf r
om t her oom ort heatmospher e, whi chisathi ghertemper atur es.Thesensi bl
ecoolingofairis
thepr ocessi nwhi chonlyt hes ensibl eheatoft heai risr emov edsoast or educei t
st emper ature,andt herei snochangeint he
moi sturecont ent(kg/kgofdr yair)oft heai r.
 Duringsensi blecool i
ngpr ocesst hedr ybul b(DB)t emper atureandwetbul b( WB)t emper atureoft heairr educes, whi
lethelat
entheatof
theai r,
andt hedewpoi nt(DP)t emper atureoft heai rremainsconst ant.Therei sov erallr
educt ionintheent halpyoftheair.I
nt heor
dinary
windowort hespl itai
rcondi ti
onert hecool ingofai riscarriedoutbypassi ngi tov ertheev aporatorcoil,alsocal l
edast hecooli
ngcoil.
 Intheor dinarywi ndowort hespl itaircondi ti
onert hecoolingofai riscarri
edoutbypassi ngitov ertheev apor atorcoi
l,al
socalledasthe
coolingcoi l
.
 Ther oom ai rortheat mospher i
cairpassesov erthiscoilcar r
yingtherefri
ger antatext remel ylowt emper at
ures, andgetscooledand
passest othespacewhi chi stobemai ntai
nedatt hecomf or tconditi
ons.Ingener althesensi blecoolingpr ocessi scarri
edoutbypassi ng
theai roverthecoi l.
 Intheuni taryairconditi
oner sthesecoi l
sar ecooledbyt her efri
gerantpassingt hroughthem andar ecalledalsocal ede
l vaporatorcoils.
Incent
ralai
rcondi
ti
onerst
hesecoil
sarecool
edbythechi
ll
edwater
,whi
chi
schi
ll
edbyitspassaget
hrought
he
evapor
atorofthel
argeai
rcondi
ti
oningsy
stem.I
ncert
aincasest
hecoi
li
sal
socooledbythesomegaspassi
nginsi
dei
t.
Thesensiblecool i
ngpr ocessisrepresentedbyastrai
ghthori
zontal
li
neont hepsychromet
ri
cchar t
.Thelinestart
sfrom t
heini
tialDB
temperatureoft heairandendsatt hef i
nalDBtemperatur
eoftheairextendi
ngtowardsthelef
tsidefrom hi
ght emperat
uret
ot helow
temperature(seet hefigurebel
ow) .
 Thesensiblecool i
nglineisalsotheconst antDPtemperat
ureli
nesincethemoisturecont
entoftheairremainsconstant
.Theiniti
aland
fi
nalpointsont hepsy chrometri
cchar tgi
veallt
hepropert
iesoftheair
.

ADI
ABATI
CSATURATI
ONPROCESS.(
DESERTCOOLERORADI
ABATI
CHUMI
DIFI
CATI
ON)
 Remai
nsconst
ant
.Thei
nit
ial
andf
inal
poi
ntsont
hepsy
chr
omet
ri
cchar
tgi
veal
lthepr
oper
ti
esoft
heai
r.

HUMI
DIFI
CATI
ON

Itist headdi ti
onofmoi sturet omoi stai rwi t
houtt headdi tionofheat .
Inact ual practi
cet hepur ehumi di
fi
cat ionpr ocessi snotpossi ble,sincet hehumi difi
cat i
oni salway saccompani edbycool ingorheat ing
oft heai r.Humi difi
cationpr ocessal ongwi thcool i
ngorheat ingisusedi nnumberofai rcondi ti
oningappl i
cations.
Cool
i
ngandHumi dif
icat
ionPr ocess
Cool ingandhumi difi
cat i
onpr ocessi soneoft hemostcommonl yusedai rcondit
ioningappl i
cationf orthecool i
ngpur poses.I nthi
s
processt hemoi stureisaddedt otheai rbypassi ngi tovert hest r
eam orspr ayofwat erwhi chist emper aturel owerthant hedr ybulb
temper atureoft heai r
.
Whent heor di
nar yairpassesov erthest ream ofwat er,t
hepar t i
clesofwat erpresentwi thi
nt hest ream t endt ogetev aporat edbygiving
upt heheatt othest ream.Theev apor atedwat eri sabsor bedbyt heai rsoi tsmoistur econt ent,thust hehumi dit
yincreases.
Oneoft hemostpopul arappl i
cati
onsofcool ingandhumi difi
cationi stheev aporati
v ecool er,al
socal l
edast hedeser tcooler .
Thecool i
ngandhumi dificationprocessi sal sousedi nvariousi ndust ri
esl i
ketexti
le, wherecer tainlev el
oft emper atureandmoi sture
cont enthast obemai nt ained.Insuchcasesl argequant it
yofwat erisspr ayed,andl argebl owersar eusedt obl owtheai rov erthespr ay
ofwat er.
Dur ingt hecoolingandhumi di
fi
cationpr ocesst hedr ybulboft heai rreduces, i
tswetbul bandt hedewpoi ntt emperatureincr eases,while
i
t smoi st urecont entandt hust herelat i
v ehumi dityalsoincr eases.
Also, t hesensi bleheatoft heairreduces, whil
et helatentheatoft heai rincreasesr esulti
ngi ntheov eral
l i
ncreasei ntheent halpyofthe
air.
Cool ingandhumi difi
cat i
onpr ocessi sr epresent edbyanangul arlineont hepsy chromet ricchar tstartingfrom t hegivenv alueoft hedr y
bulbt emper at
ureandt her elati
vehumi dityandext endingupwar dst owar dleft.
 Deser
tcool
er

Heat
ingandHumi
dif
icat
ionPr
ocess
I
nheatingandhumi difi
cationpsy chr omet r
icpr ocessoft heair,thedrybul
bt emperatureaswel lasthehumi dityoftheai ri
ncr eases.
Theheati
ngandhumi difi
cationprocessi scar ri
edoutbypassi ngtheairoversprayofwat er,whichismai nt
ainedatt emper atur ehigherthanthedrybulb
temperat
ureofairorbymi xingairandt hest eam.
Whentheor di
naryairispassedov ert hespr ayofwat ermaintainedattemper at
urehigherthanthedr ybulbtemper atureoft heai r,
themoi st
ureparti
clesfr
om
thespr
aytendtogetev aporatedandgetabsor bedi ntheairduet owhichthemoi stur
econt entoftheairincrease.
Atthesamet i
me, si
ncet het emper atureoft hemoi sturei
sgr eaterthant
hedr ybulbtemper at
ureoft heair,
thereisov erall
incr easeinitstemperat
ure.
Duri
ngheatingandhumi di
ficati
onpr ocessthed rybul b,wetbul b,anddewpoi ntt emper atureoft heai rincreasesal ongwi thitsrelati
vehumi dity
.
Theheati
ngandhumi difi
cationprocessi srepr esentedont hepsy chromet
ricchartbyanangul arli
net hatstart
sfrom thegi venv al
ueoft hedrybulb
temperat
ureandextendsupwar dst owar dsright( seethefi
gur ebelow).

DEHUMI
DIFI
CATI
ON
Thepr ocessinwhicht hemoistur
eorwat ervapourorthehumidit
yisremov edfr
om theai rkeepingitsdrybulb(
DB)temperat
ureconstantiscal
l
edast he
dehumi di
fi
cati
onpr ocess.
Thisprocessisrepresentedbyast r
aightvert
icall
i
neont hepsychrometr
icchartst
artingfrom theinit
ialval
ueofrel
ati
vehumidi
ty,
extendingdownwardsand
endingatthef i
nalvalueoftherel
ati
vehumi di
ty.
Inactualpract
icethepur edehumidi
fi
cationprocessi
snotpossible,si
ncethedehumi dif
icati
onisal waysaccompaniedbycooli
ngorheatingoftheai
r.
Dehumi dif
icat
ionprocessalongwithcoolingorheati
ngisusedinnumberofai rcondi
t i
oningappl i
cati
ons.
Cool
i
ngandDehumi difi
cat i
onPr ocess
Thepr ocessi nwhi cht heai riscool edsensi blyandatt hesamet imet hemoi sturei
sr emov edfrom i tiscall
edascool i
ngand
dehumi difi
cat i
onpr ocess.
Cool i
nganddehumi dif
icationpr ocessi sobt ai
nedwhent heai ratt hegi vendr ybulbanddewpoi nt( DP)t emper at
ureiscooledbel owthe
dewpoi nttemper ature.
Whent heai rcomesi ncont actwi tht hecoolingcoi lthatismai ntainedatt het emper aturebelowi tsdewpoi nttemperature,it
sDB
temper aturestar tsr educing.
Thepr ocessofcool ingcont i
nuesandatsomepoi nti treachest hev alueofdewpoi ntt emper atureoft heair.
Att hi
spoi ntthewat erv apourwi thint heairstart
sget ti
ngconv ertedi ntothedewpar ticlesduet owhi chthedewi sformedont hesur f
ace
ofthecool i
ngandt hemoi sturecont entoft heairr educest herebyr educingi tshumidi tylevel
.
Thuswhent heai riscool edbel owi tsdewpoi nttemper ature, t
her ei scool i
ngaswel lasdehumi dificat i
onofai r.
Thecool i
nganddehumi dif
icati
onpr ocessi smostwi del yusedai rcondi t
ioningapplicat i
on.Itisusedi nallt
ypesofwi ndow, spli
t,
packagedandcent ral airconditioning.
I
nt hegener althecool inganddehumi di
fi
cationpr ocessi sobt ainedbypassi ngtheai rov ercoilthroughwhi cht hecoolrefr
igerant,chi
ll
ed
wat erorcool edgasi spassed.
Dur i
ngt hecool inganddehumi dificationprocesst hedr ybul b,wetbul bandt hedewpoi nttemper atur eofairreduces.
Simi l
arl
y ,t
hesensi bleheatandt hel atentheatoft heai ral sor educel eadingt ooverallreductioni nt heent hal
pyoft heair.
Thecool i
nganddehumi dif
icati
onpr ocessi srepresent edbyast r aightangul arli
neont hepsy chromet r
icchart.Theli
nestartsfrom the
givenv alueoft heDBt emper at
ur eandext endsdownwar dst owar dsl eft
.
Heat
ingandDehumi
dif
icat
ionPr
ocess
Thepr ocessi nwhicht heairisheat edandatt hesamet i
memoi sturei sr emov edfr
om i tiscall
edasheat i
nganddehumi di
fi
cati
on
process.
Thi spr ocessi sobtainedbypassi ngtheairov ercertainchemical slikeal umi naandmol ecularsieves.Theseel ementshaveinherent
proper ti
esduet owhi cht heykeeponr el
easingt heheatandal sohav et het endencyt oabsor bthemoi stur
e.Thesear ecall
edasthe
hygroscopi cchemical s.
Inact ual pract
icethehy groscopicel ementsar eenclosedi nthelar gev essel andthehighpr essur eai
ri spassedinsi
det hevesselthrough
oneopeni ng.Whent heai rcomesi ncont actwi t
ht hechemi cal
st hemoi st urefrom theai ri
sabsor bedandsi ncethechemi cal
semi theat,
theDBt emperatureoft heairincreases.
Theheat inganddehumi dif
icati
onpr ocessiscommonl yusedf orr educi ngt hedewpoi nttemper atur
eofai r.
Theheat inganddehumi dif
icati
onpr ocessbyusi nghy gr
oscopicmat eri
alsi susedof teni ntheairdryi
nguni ts.
Dur ingt heheat i
nganddehumi di
ficati
onpr ocessdr ybulbt emper atureoft heai ri
ncreaseswhi leitsdewpoi ntandwetbul btemper atur
e
reduces.
Ont hepsy chr
omet ri
cchar t,t
hispr ocessisr epresentedbyast raightangul arl i
nestarti
ngf rom thegivenDBt emperatur
econditi
onsand
extendi ngdownwar dst owardsr i
ghtt othefinalDBt emper atur
econdi t
ions.

ADI
ABATI
CMI
XINGOFMOI
STAI
R&STREAM
Apsy
chr
omet
ri
cpr
ocesst
hati
nvol
vesnonetheatl
ossorgai
ndur
ingt
hemi
xi
ngoft
woai
rst
reams.

BYPASSFACTOR
Acool i
ngcoi l
consist
sofr owsoff i
nsandt ubeswi t
hgapsi nbetweenf orai rtopasst hrough.Whenai rpassov eracoolingcoil
,partof
theaircomesi ntodir
ectcontactwiththecoil,andpartoftheairpasst hrought hegapwi thoutget
ti
ngi ntodi rectcontactwiththecoil
.
Forai rthatcomesi nt
odi r
ectcontactwiththecoil,
itstemperat
ur edropst oalevelcl
oset othecoil
t emper atureduet othedirectheat
transferbetweent heairandcoilbyconduct i
on.Ift
hecoi l
temper atur
ei slowert hanthedewpoi nttemper atureoft heair,t
heairwill
becomesat uratedandmoi stur
egetcondenseoutont othecoil.
Theendr esultisamixtureofsaturatedairt
hathascomei ntodirectcont actwiththecoil,andundist ur
bedai rthathasnotcomei nto
directcontactwi t
hthecoil.
Thepr oport
ionofthev ol
umeofai rthathasnotcomei nt
ocont actwitht hecoiltothet otalvolumeofai ri
scal l
edcoilbypassf actor
.
 B*
Cp*
T1+(
1–B)Cp*
T2=1*
Cp*T3

B=(
T3-
T2)
/(T1-
T2)or

B*
h1+(
1–B)h2=1*
h3

B=(
h3-
h2)
/(h1-
h2)

 Fi
ndi
ngby
passf
act
orf
rom t
hepsy
chr
omet
ri
cchar
t
Ai
rcondi
ti
oni
ng
 Heat
ingandHumi
dif
icat
ion(
wint
erai
rcondi
ti
oni
ng)

Summerai
rcondi
ti
oni
ng(
Cool
i
nganddehumi
dif
icat
ion)

PSYCHROMETRI
CCHART
 Ver ticalli
nesar edry -
bulbt emperat
ur e
 Hor izontal l
inesarehumi dityr
ati
o( r
ightaxis)or
 Dewpoi nttemp( leftaxis)
 Sl antedlinesar ewet -bulbtempandent halpy
 Speci f
icvolumear ethe“ other
”slantedlines
Appl
i
cat
ionsandmet hodofusi ng
 I dent i
fypar tsoft hechar t
 Det ermi nemoi stai rpr operti
es
 Usechar ttoanal ysepr ocessesi nvolvingmoi
stai
r
HEATLOAD ESTI
MATE
Transmissi
on heat–
conducti
veheat tr
ansf
er
throughwall
sr oof
Solarheat r
adi
ati
on-
Int
ernalheatgain- f
rom
occupants,l
ights,
mot
ors
1.Room Load
(
a)Room sensi
bleheat(
RSH)
:
 Solarandtransmi
ssionheatgainthroughwalls,roof,etc.
 Solarandtransmi
ssionheatgainthroughglass.
 Transmissi
ongainthroughparti
ti
onwal ls,
ceil
ing,fl
ooretc.
 I
nfil
trat
ion.
 I
nternalheatgai
nfrom people,
power ,l
ight
s,appliancesetc.
 Supplyductheatgain,suppl
yductleakagelossandf anpower.
(
b)Room Lat
entheat(
RLH)
:
 I
nfi
ltrat
ion.
 I
nternalheatfrom peopl
e,st
eam,
appl
i
anceset
c.
 Vaportransmission.
 Supplyductleakageloss.
SENSI
BLEHEATFACTOR(
SHF)ORSENSI
BLEHEATRATI
O

RSHF(
ROOM SENSI
BLEHEATFACTOR)

AI
RCONDI
TIONI
NGPROCESSES
Room t
otalheat
ingl
oad=massofairsuppl
i
edtotheroom *(
h2–h4)
Capaci
tyofthecool
i
ngcoi
lrequi
red=massfl
owrateofai
rthr
oughcool
i
ngcoi
l
*(h3–h4)

GRANDSENSI
BLEHEATFACTOR(
GSHF)
I
ftheheatloadincl
udest
heout
doorl
oadi
naddi
ti
ont
oroom l
oad,
theai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngappar
atushast
omeett
hegr
andt
otal
heatl
oad.
(
Duetomi xingoffr
eshai
r)

ADP(
APPARATUSDEW POI
NT)
Ast
heGSHFl
i
nei
sext
ended,
itst
ri
kest
hesat
urat
ioncur
veatst
ate‘
s’
,knownasappar
atusdewpoi
nt(
ADP)
EFFECTI
VETEMPERATURE
 I
tisameasur
eoff
eel
i
ngwar
mthorcol
dtot
hehumanbodyi
nresponset
othe-
airt
emper
atur
e,moi
stur
econt
entand-
air
moti
on.
 I
tisaf
fect
edbycl
othi
ng,
age,
sexanddegr
eeofwor
k.

 I
tist
hedrybul
btemper
atur
eofasampleofsat
uratedai
rwhichwil
lgi
veapar
ti
cul
arf
eel
i
ngofcomf
ortt
othesameper
cent
ageofpeopl
easany
ot
hercombi
nati
onofdr
ybulbt
emperat
ureandrel
ativ
ehumidit
y.

THERMALCOMFORT
Thatcondit
ionofmindthatexpr
essessat
isf
act
ionwi
tht
het
her
mal
env
ironment
.
Factorsaf
fect
ingTher
mal Comfort
• Physiol
ogi
cal
• Age,act
ivi
ty,
genderandheal
th
• Aff
ectsmetabol
icrat
e
• I
nsul
ati
ngf
act
orduet
ocl
othi
ng
• Rateofheatt
ransf
erfr
om t
hehumanbodyt
othesur
roundi
ngs
• Represent
edby“1clo”
• Env
ironment
alf
act
or
• DBT,
WBT,
rel
ati
veHumi
dit
y

FACTORGOVERNI
NGOPTI
MUM EFFECTI
VETEMPERATURE.
Cl
imaticandSeasonal Differences.
Thepeopl el i
vingi ncolderclimatesf eelcomf ortableatl oweref fecti
vethant hepeoplel
ivinginwarmerregions.
Thecomf or tchar tshowst hattheopt i
mum ef f
ectivet emper atureinwinteris19° Ci
sshiftedto22°Copti
mum ef fectivet
emperatur
ein
summer .
Cl
othi
ng.
Lightcl othi ngrequi r
esl essopt i
mum ef fecti
v etemper aturecompar edwi thheav ycl
othi
ng.
AgeandSex.
Themet abol i
cr ateofwomeni slesst hanmanbynat ureitself.Sothewomenr equi
regreateref
fect
ivet
emper ature(1°C)thantheman.
Similar,caseexi stsfory oungandol dpeopl ealso,
Thechi l
dr enrequi rehigheref f
ectivetemper aturecompar edwi thadult
s.
Act
ivi
ty
Thedanci ngpeopl erequi r
eloweref fecti
vet emper aturewher easthev i
sit
orsseat i
nginthedancingroom requir
ehi gheref
fecti
ve
temper atur ethant hedancer s.
Dur
ati
onofst ay
Forl ongerdur ationusei ndooreffectiv
et emper ature.
Shor tdur at i
on–use-out -
dooreffectiv
et emper ature.
Thet hermal shock
Ai
rveloci
ty
Higherai rv el
ocitieslessef fecti
vetemper at
ure.
COMFORTCHART
Thechar
twhi
chgi
vesdi
ff
erentper
cent
agesofpeopl
e(f
eel
i
ngcomf
ortatdi
ff
erent-ef
fect
ivet
emper
atur
es)i
sknownascomf
ortchar
t.
 MODULEI
V
Aircondit
ioni
ngsystems-Room aircondi
ti
oningsystems-windowA/ Spli
t-
packagedsystems-cent
ral
anduni tarysyst
ems-summer -
winter-y
earr oundaircondi
ti
oning
systems-Cooli
ngloadcalculati
onvari
ousheatsources.Designofaircondit
ioni
ngsystems-AHU,Ductdesign-airdi
str
ibut
ionsy
stemsdr af
t-thr
ow- ent
rai
nmentratio-
spread-
locati
onofairoutl
ets-l
ocati
onofretur
nairopenings-gener
alconsiderat
ioni
nairductdesi
gnandl ayout-noi
seandnoisecontrol.Determinati
onofductsizeusing
equalfr
icti
on(constantpressurel
oss)method
AI
RCONDI
TIONI
NGSYSTEMS
 Anai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngconsi
stsofanai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngpl
antandat
her
mal
dist
ri
but
ionsy
stem

 Ai
r,wat
erorr
efr
iger
ant
sar
eusedasf
lui
dmedi
afort
ransf
err
ingener
gyf
rom t
hepl
antt
othecondi
ti
onedspace

 At
her
mal
dist
ri
but
ionsy
stem i
srequi
redt
oci
rcul
atet
hemedi
abet
weent
hecondi
ti
onedspaceandt
hepl
ant

 Anot
herI
mpor
tantf
unct
ionoft
het
her
mal
dist
ri
but
ionsy
stem i
stoI
ntr
oducet
her
equi
redamountoff
reshai
rforVent
il
ati
on

AIR–CONDITIONINGSYSTEM CANBECLASSI EDAS:C

FI entral (stat i
on)ai r-condi tioning
1.Al
l
-ai
rsyst
ems
Allai
rsystem
 Condi tionedairi
ssuppliedbythecent
ral
airhandl
ingunit(
AHU)tovari
ouspartsofabui
lding.
 Heat i
ngoft heairi
fneededmaybeaccompl i
shedeitheri
nthecent
ral
system oratapar
ticul
arzone.
Constantairvol
ume( CAV)syst
em
 Basedont hepri
ncipl
eofsupplyi
ngaconstantvol
umeai ri
ntot
hecondit
ionedspaceandthes uppl
yairt
emper
atur
eis
v
ari
edi
nresponset
othespacel
oad.
 Si mplet odesign,i
nstal
landr ate,andhasarelati
vel
ylowiniti
alcost.
1.Si
nglezonesy stem
2.Terminalreheatsy st
em
3.Dualductsy stem
4.Multi
-zonesy stem.
Termi
nal r
eheatsy stem
 Con ditionedai ri
ssuppl iedf rom acent r
alunitatafixedcoldairtemperat
ure.
 Heat ingcoi l
s,ter
medr eheatcoils,ar
eaddedtoeachi ndi
vidualcontr
olzone.
 Thecont r
olthermost
atactivatesthereheatunitwhenthetemper at
urefal
lsbel
owt hesett
emper
atur
e.
 si mplicit
y
 Hi ghdegr eeoff l
exi
bil
it
y
 Bet
tercont
rol
oft
emper
atur
e
 Hospi taloperati
onrooms,cleanr
ooms,etc.
Doubl
e-ductsy
stem
 Suppl iesairt
ot hecondi
ti
onedspacethr
ought woparal
l
el duct
s.
 Oneductconv eyscol
dairandtheot
herhotairtoaroom unitwhi
chmi
xest
heai
r,undercommandofar
oom t
her
most
at,
int
he
 propor tionsr equi r
ed
 Ver yr esponsi vet ochangesi nl oadoft hezone.
 Thecostoft wosuppl y-airduct s
 Hi ghi nitial cost .
 I ncr easedductheatgai ns
Var i
abl eai rv olume( VAV)sy stem
 At ermi nal dev icei sempl oy edf oreachzonewhi chiscont rolledtov arythev olumeofcool airdel i
ver edt othespaceasdi ctated
byt hezonet her most at.
 Ast heVAVt ermi nal sreducet hequant ityofai rdel iv
er edtot hespace, theductpr essur ewi l
ltendt oi ncr ease.
 Theductst at icpr essur econt r
ol ler,sensi ngani ncreasei nductpr essur e,willvarythedel iveryfrom t hef antomai nt
aina
presentductpr essur e
 Loweri nitial cost
 Onl ysi ngl er unsofduct
 Ener gyef f i
ci entper formance.
 Oper atingcost sar egener allythel owest
 Lackoff reshai ratpar tloadoper ati
on,
 Poorai rbal ance( velocityofai r).
 Dampersound.
Usedi n:
 of ficebui ldi ngs
 hot el s
 apar tment s
 School s.
2.Air
-watersy stems
 Bot hai randwat erar edi st r
ibutedt oeachspacet oper formt hecool ingf unction.
 I nv irt
ual lyal l air-wat ersy stemsbot hcool ingandheat ingf unct ionsar ecar r
iedoutbychangi ngt heairorwat ert emper atures
 Lessquant ityofai rneedst obesuppl i
edcompar edt oanal l
-ai
rsy stem, whi chi sacr i
ticalfact orforhighr i
sebui ldings.
 Mi nimi zet hespacer equi red.
 Cent rally-condi ti
onedpr i
mar yairissuppl iedt otheuni tpl enum athi ghpr essur e.
 Thehi gh- pressur eai rf lowst hrought hei nduct i
onnozzl esandi nducessecondar yairfrom ther oom acrosst hesecondar ycoilthr
ough
whi chchi ll
edwat erf lows.
 Thepr imar yandsecondar yai raremi xedanddel i
v eredt ot her oom.
 Pr imar yai rtocont rol thespacehumi dity.
 I ndiv i
dual room t emper aturecont rolisobt ainedbyv aryingt hecapaci t
yoft hecoi lwit
hi nther oom byr egul ationofei t
hertheflowofwat er
throughi tort heai rf lowov er
Advantagesofcent ral a/ cov eruni tarya/ c.
 Thecapi tal costandr unni ngcostar elessperuni tofr ef ri
ger ati
on.
 I tcanbel ocat edawayf r
om t heai r
-condi tionedpl aceswhi ch-isusef ulandl esscost l
y.
 Noi seandv ibr ationt roubl esar elesst ot hepeopl el ivi
ngi nai r-
condi ti
onedpl acesast heai r
-condi ti
oningpl anti sf araway -
from ai
r-
condi tionedpl aces.
 Bet teraccessi bili
tyf ormai ntenance.
3.All
-watersy stem
 Ci rculat i
ngchi l
ledwat erf rom acent ral r
ef rigerati
onsy stem t hroughcool ingcoi lsintermi nal unitsl
ocat edi nv ariousspacesi nabuilding.
 Fancoi l uni t
sar eusedt ocondi t
iont heai r
.
 At ypical fan- coi luni t( FCU)consi stsofaf an, acool i
ngcoi l,
andaf i
lter.
 Amul ti-speedmot ori susedt ocont rol thef ancapaci t
y ,
 Fl owr ateofchi ll
edwat ercanbecont rolled
 Thef
andr
awsi
nami
xtur
eofr
oom ai
randv
ent
il
ati
onai
r,andbl
owsi
tacr
osst
hecool
i
ngcoi
li
ntot
her
oom.
 Nohumi dit
ycont r
ol.
Advant
agesanddisadv antagesofallwatersy
stem
 Lowesti nitialcost
 Occupyr elati
velyl
itt
lespace.
 Coi lsarediffi
culttoclean.
Poorhumidi
tycontrol.
4.Uni
tar
yref
ri
ger
antbasedsy
stems 
 Thesesy
stemsar
efact
oryassembl
edandar
eav
ail
abl
eint
hef
orm ofpackageuni
tsofv
ary
ingcapaci
tyandt
ype

 Eachuni
tconsi
stsofr
efr
iger
ati
onand/
orheat
inguni
tswi
thf
ans,
fil
ter
s,cont
rol
set
c

 Avai
labl
eInt
heform ofwi
ndowai
rcondi
ti
oner
s,spl
i
tai
rcondi
ti
oner
s,heatpumps,
duct
abl
esy
stemswi
thai
rcool
edorWat
ercool
ed
condensi
nguni
tset
c.

 Capaci
ti
esmayr
angef
rom f
ract
ionofTRt
oabout100TRf
orcool
i
ng.

 Wi
ndowt
ype,
room ai
rcondi
ti
oner
sar
eav
ail
abl
eincapaci
ti
esv
ary
ingf
rom about0.
3TRt
o3.
0TR.

 I
nthewi
ndowt
ype,
bot
hev
apor
atorandcondenser
sar
epl
atef
in-
and-
tube,
for
cedai
rconv
ect
iont
ypecoi
l
s.

 Lar
gerpackageuni
tsar
eav
ail
abl
eincapaci
ti
esr
angi
ngf
rom about5I
Rtoupt
oabout100TR.
 Thecondenser
sint
hesesy
stemscoul
dbeei
therai
rcool
edOrwat
ercool
ed
Advant
agesofuni t
arysy st
ems
 i ndi
vidualroom cont r
olissimpleandInexpensiv
e
 Powerconsumpt i
onoft hesystem I
sguaranteedbythemanufactur
er
 Sy stem Install
ati
oni ssimpleandtakesveryIessti
me
 Oper ati
onoft hesy st
em issimpleandthereIsnoneedforatr
ainedoper
ator
 I ni
ti
al costisnormal l
ylcompar edtocentr
alsystems
 Ret rofit
ti
ngi seasy
Di
sadvant
agesofuni tarysystems
 Thesy stem Iessflexibl
e
 Powerconsumpt i
oni snormall
yhigher

 Cl
osecont
rol
ofhumi
dit
yisgener
all
ydi
ff
icul
t

 Noi
sel
evel
coul
dbehi
gher

 Li
mit
edv
ent
il
ati
oncapabi
l
iti
es

 Thespacet
emper
atur
emayexper
ienceaswi
ngi
fon-
offcont
rol
Isusedasi
nroom ai
rcondi
ti
oner
s

 Li
mit
edopt
i orcont
onsf rol
l
ingr
oom ai
rdi
str
ibut
ion
Room ai
rcondi tioni ngsy st
ems
Window(sel
f-
cont
aineduni
ts)
 Smal lcapaci
tyuni
ts,rangi
ngfrom 1/
2tonto2tons.
 Pri
mar il
yusedinresidenti
alappl
i
cati
onsandtheyhavenoductedai
rdi
str
ibut
ion.
 window- mounted
 Rejecttheroom heatandheatofcompressi
ontooutdoorai
r.
Wi
ndowai
rCondi
ti
oni
ng(si
ngl
e–packageduni
ts)

DI
SADVANTAGES
 Noi seandvi
brati
oni
ntheroom.
 Sui t
abl
eonlyforsmal
lcapaci
ti
es.
 Abi gholet
obemadei nthewall-saf
etypr
obl
ems.
Spl
i
tsy
stem
 Compr essorandcondenserismadeasepar
ateuni
t,cankeepoutsi
det
heroom.
 Expansionvalveandevaporat
orwit
hfani
skeptanot
herunitcankeepi
nsi
dether
oom.
 Bothareconnectedwithpipeli
nes

Advant
ages
 Room i sfr
eefrom vi
brat
ionandnoiseofcompressorandcondenser
.
 Lowi nit
ial
cost,easeofi
nstal
lat
ionandremoval.
 I fbr
eakdownhappenst ooneuni t
,ot
heruni
tscantakesomeloads.
 Goodaest het
icaspects
Di
sadvant
ages.
  Sui
tabl
eforsmallcapaci
ty.
 Suppl
yprocessedairf
rom cent
ral
locat
iont
othedi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
hebui
l
ding.Ext
ensi
ve-ductwor
k.abov
e25t
onsof
,ref
ri
ger
ati
onand
2500m3/mi n.
Summerai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngsy
stems
Si
mpl
esystem wi t
h100%r e-cir
cul atedai r
:
 I nt hissi mplesy stem, ther ei snoout sideairandt hesameai risrecircul at
ed.
 I tcanbeseent hatcol danddr yairissuppliedt other oom andt heai rt hatleavesthecondit
ionspacei sassumedt obeatt hesame
condi tionsas
 t hatoft hecondi tionedspace.
 Thesuppl yaircondi ti
onshoul dbesucht hatasi tfl
owst hrought hecondi tionedspaceitcancount eractthesensibleandlatentheat
transf erstakingpl acef rom t heout sidetot heconditionedspace, sot hatt hespacecanbemai nt
ainedatr equi
redlowtemper atureand
humi dity.
 Assumi ngnoheatgai nsi nt hesuppl yandr et
urnduct sandnoener gyaddi tionduetofans,andappl yi
ngener gybalanceacrosst heroom;
theRoom Sensi bl eCool i
ngl oad( Qs, r)
,Room Lat entCool i
ngLoad( Ql ,
r)andRoom Tot alCooli
ngload( Qt,r)
1. Sy stem wi thout doorai rforv entil
ation:
Inact ual aircondi ti
oningsy st ems, someamountofout door( f
resh)ai ri saddedt otakecareofthev entil
ationr
equirements.Nor mally,
the
requi redout doorai rforv ent ilati
onpur posesi sknownf rom theoccupancydat aandthetypeofthebui ldi
ng( e.
g.operati
ont heatres
requi re100%out doorai r).Nor mallyeitherthequant i
tyofout doorai rr equiredisspecif
iedinabsolutev al
uesori ti
sspecifi
edasaf racti
on
oft her e-cir
culatedai r.
 Casei )By -
passf actoroft hecool ingcoi li
szer o:
 Casei i)coilBy-passf act or ,
X>0

Wi
nterAi
rCondi
ti
oni
ngSy
stems
 Inwi ntert heout si
decondi ti
onsar ecol danddr y.Asar esul t,therewill beacont i
nuoust ransf erofsensi bleheataswel lasmoi sture
(latentheat )from thebui l
dingst ot heout side.
 Hence, inordert omai ntainrequiredcomf or tcondi t
ionsi nt heoccupi edspaceanai rcondi ti
oningsy stem isr equiredwhi chcanof fsetthe
sensi bleandl atentheatl ossesf rom t hebui lding.
 Ai rsuppl i
edt othecondi ti
onedspacei sheat edandhumi difiedi nthewi nteraircondi tioningsy stem t other equi r
edl evel oft emperat ur
e
andmoi sturecontentdependi ngupont hesensi bleandl atentheatl ossesf rom thebui lding.
 I nwi ntert heheatl ossesf r
om t hecondi ti
onedspacear epar tiall
yoffsetbysol arandi nter nal heatgai ns.Thusi naconser vativ
edesi gnof
wi nterA/ Csy stems, theef fectsofsol arr adiat i
onandi nternal heatgainar enotconsi dered.
Thehumi dificat ionofai rcanbeachi evedi nsev eral way s,e.g.bybr i
ngi ngt heairincont actwi thawet tedsur face, orwi thdropl etsofwat erasi nan
airwasher , byaddi ngaer osol sizedwat erdropl etsdi rect l
yt oairorbydi rectadditionofdr ysat ur atedorsuper heat edst eam.Humi dificati
onby
directcontactwi thawet tedsur faceorbyusi nganai rwasherar enotr ecommendedf orcomf ortappl i
cat i
onsorf orot herappl icationswher epeople
arepr esenti nt hecondi ti
onedspaceduet opot ent i
al heal thhazar dsbyt hepr esenceofmi cro-or gani smsi nwat er.Themostcommonmet hodof
humi dify
ingai rf ortheseappl icat i
onsi sbydi rectaddi t
ionofdr ysteam t oai r
.Whenai ri
shumi di fi
edbycont actwi t
hwet tedsur faceasi nanai r
washer ,thent emper atureofai rdecr easesasi tshumi dityincreasesduet osimul taneoust ransf erofsensi bleandl atentheat .I
ft heai rwasher
functionsasanadi abati
csat urat or,t
henhumi difi
cat ionpr oceedsal ongt heconst antwetbul bt emper atureline.Howev er,whenai rishumi difiedby
directl
yaddi ngdr y,saturatedst eam, t
hent hehumi dificationpr oceedscl oset ot heconst antdr ybul bt emper at ureline.Thef inal stateofai ris
alway sobt ainedbyappl yingconser vationofmass( wat er)andconser v at i
onofener gyequat ionst ot hehumi dificati
onpr ocess.

Al
lyear(
compl
ete)ai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngsy
stems
 i
.e.
,dur
ingsummeraswellaswint
er.Asshowni nthefi
gure,t
hesy st
em consi
stsofaf
il
ter
,aheati
ngcoil
,acool
i
ng&dehumi di
fyingcoi
l
,
are-
heati
ngcoil
,ahumi
dif
ierandablower.
 I
nadditi
ontothese,
act
ualsyst
emsconsistofseveral
otheraccessori
essuchasdampersforcont
rol
l
ingfl
owratesofr
e-ci
rcul
atedand
 outdoor(OD)air,contr
olsy stemsf orcont rol
li
ngt hespacecondi ti
ons,safetydev i
ceset c.
 Largeaircondit
ioningsystemsusebl owersi nther etur
nairstr
eam also.Gener all
y,duri
ngsummert heheatingandhumi dif
yingcoil
s
remaininacti
ve,whileduri
ngwi nterthecool i
nganddehumi di
fyi
ngcoilremai nsinacti
ve.
 Howev er,
insomeappl i
cationsf orprecisecont rolofcondit
ionsinthecondi ti
onedspaceal lthecoilsmayhav et obemadeact iv
e.The
blowerswill
remai nacti
vet hroughoutt hey ear,asai rhastobecircul
ateddur ingsummeraswel lasduri
ngwi nter.
 Whent heoutdoorcondi t
ionsar ef av
our able,i
tispossi bl
etomai ntai
ncomf ortcondit
ionsbyusi ngfi
lter
edout doorai
ralone,i
nwhich
caseonlytheblower swillber unningandal l
thecoi lswil
lbeinacti
veleadingt osignif
icantsavingsinenergyconsumpt i
on.Acont r
ol
system i
srequiredwhichchanges- overt hesy st
em f rom wi
nteroperati
ont osummeroper ationorv i
ceversadependingupont heoutdoor
condit
ions.

COOLI
NGLOADCALCULATI
ON
 Forest imat i
ngcool ingl oads, onehast oconsi dert heunst eadyst at epr ocesses, ast hepeakcool i
ngl oadoccur sdur ingt hedayt imeand
theout sidecondi t
ionsal sov arysi gni ficant l
yt hroughoutt hedayduet osol arr adiation.
 I naddi ti
on, allinter nal sour cesaddont ot hecool i
ngl oadsandnegl ectingt hem woul dleadt ounder est imat ionoft her equi redcool ing
capaci tyandt hepossi bilit
yofnotbei ngabl et omai nt aint her equi redi ndoorcondi ti
ons.
 Cool ingl oadcal cul ationsar emor ecompl icatedasi tinv olv essol v ingunst eadyequat i
onswi t
hunst eadyboundar ycondi tionsandi nternal
heatsour ces.
Met hodsofest imat ingcool i
ngandheat ingl oads:
 Heat i
ngandcool ingl oadcal cul ationsi nv ol veasy st emat ic, stepwi sepr ocedur e,usi ngwhi chonecanar r
iv eatt her equi r
edsy stem
capaci tybyt akingi ntoaccountal l thebui l
di ngener gyf lows.I npr act i
ce, av arietyofmet hodsr angi ngf rom si mpl er ules- of -
thumbt o
compl exTr ansf erFunct i
onMet hodsar eusedi npr act icet oar ri
veatt hebui ldingl oads.Forexampl e, ty pical rul es-of -
thumbmet hodsf or
cool ingl oadsspeci fyt her equi redcool ingcapaci tybasedont hef loorar eaoroccupancy .Tabl e35. 1showst y pical dat aonr equired
cool ingcapaci tiesbasedont hef loorar eaorappl i
cat i
on.Suchr ules- of-thumbar eusef ul inpr eli
mi nar yest i
mat ionoft heequi pmentsi ze
andcost .Themai nconcept ual drawbackofr ules-of -thumbmet hodsi st hepr esumpt i
ont hatt hebui ldingdesi gnwi ll notmakeany
dif
f er ence.Thust her ul esf orabadl ydesi gnedbui ldi ngar et ypical l
yt hesameasf oragooddesi gn.
Mor eaccur atel oadest imat i
onmet hodsi nvol v eacombi nat i
onofanal y t
ical met hodsandempi rical resultsobt ai nedf rom act ual dat a, f
orexampl e
theuseofCool ingLoadTemper at ureDi fference( CLTD)f orest imat i
ngf abricheatgai nandt heuseofSol arHeatGai nFact or( SHGF)f orest i
mat i
ng
heattransf ert hr oughf enest rat i
on.Thesemet hodsar ev erywi del yusedbyai rcondi tioningengi neer sast heyy ieldr easonabl yaccur ater esultsand
estimationscanbecar riedoutmanual lyi nar el at i
v elyshor ttime.Ov ert hey ear s, mor eaccur atemet hodst hatr equi ret heuseofcomput ershav e
beendev el
opedf orest imat i
ngcool ingl oads, e. g.t heTr ansf erFunct i
onMet hod( TFM) .Sincet hesemet hodsar eexpensi veandt i
meconsumi ng
theyar egener allyusedf orest imat ingcool ingl oadsofl argecommer cial ori nstitutional buildings.ASHRAEsuggest sdi ff erentmet hodsf or
estimatingcool i
ngandheat ingl oadsbasedonappl i
cat ions, suchasf orr esi dences, forcommer cial buil
dingset c.
Cool i
ngloadcal cul at i
ons:
Asment ionedbef ore, loadcal culat i
onsi nv olv easy st emat icandst epwi sepr ocedur et hattakesi ntoaccountal lther elev antbui ldingener gyflows.
Thecool ingl oadexper iencedbyabui ldingv ar iesi nmagni tudef rom zer o( nocool ingr equired)t oamaxi mum v alue.Thedesi gncool i
ngl oadi sa
l
oadneart hemaxi mum magni t
ude, buti snotnor mal lythemaxi mum.Desi gncool i
ngl oadt akesi ntoaccountal lthel oadsexper iencedbyabui l
ding
underaspeci f i
csetofassumedcondi ti
ons.
Theassumpt ionsbehi nddesi gncool ingl oadar easf oll
ows:
1. Desi gnout sidecondi tionsar esel ect edf rom al ong- t erm st atistical database.Thecondi ti
onswi llnotnecessar ilyrepr esentanyact ual
year ,butar er epr esent ativeoft hel ocat i
onoft hebui lding.Desi gndat af orout sidecondi ti
onsf orv ar iousl ocat ionsoft hewor l
dhav ebeen
collect edandar eav ailabl ei nt abul arf or mi nv arioushandbooks.
2. Thel oadont hebui ldingduet osol arr adi at i
oni sest imat edf orcl earskycondi ti
ons.
3. Thebui l
dingoccupancyi sassumedt obeatf ulldesi gncapaci ty.
4. Al lbui ldingequi pmentandappl iancesar econsi der edt obeoper at ingatar easonabl yr epresent ativecapaci ty .
Thet otalbuildi ngcool ingl oadconsi st sofheatt ransf erredt hr ought hebui ldi ngenv elope( wal ls,roof ,fl
oor ,wi ndows, door set c.)andheatgener ated
byoccupant s, equi pment ,andl i
ght s.Thel oadduet oheatt ransf ert hr ought heenv elopei scal ledasext ernal load, whi l
eal lotherl oadsar ecalledas
i
nternal l
oads.Theper cent ageofext ernal ver susi nter nalloadv arieswi thbui ldi
ngt ype,sitecl imat e, andbui ldi ngdesi gn.Thet otal cool ingl oadon
anybui l
dingconsi stsofbot hsensi bleaswel l asl atentl oadcomponent s.Thesensi bleloadaf fect sdr ybul bt emper atur e, whilet hel atentl oad
affectsthemoi st urecont entoft hecondi ti
onedspace.
VARI
OUSHEATSOURCES
 Buildi
ngsmaybecl assifi
edasext ernall
yloadedandi nt
ernallyloaded.
 Inexter nall
yloadedbuildi
ngsthecool ingl oadont hebuildi
ngi smai nlyduet oheattransferbet weenthesur roundingsandt heint
ernal
conditionedspace.Theext er
nalloadsconsi stofheattransferbyconduct i
onthrought hebuildingwalls,roof,fl
oor,doorsetc.,
heat
transferbyr adiati
onthroughfenest r
ationsuchaswi ndowsandsky lights.Inadditi
ont otheset heexternalloadalsoconsi st
sofheat
transferduet oi nf
il
tr
ati
on
 Ininternallyl
oadedbui l
dingsthecool i
ngl oadi smainlyduet oi nt
ernal heatgener at
ingsour cessuchasoccupant sorappl i
ancesor
processes.
 Ingener alt
heheatgener ati
onduet ointernalheatsourcesmayr emai nfair
lyconstant,andsi ncetheheatt ransferfrom thevari
abl
e
surroundi ngsismuchl esscompar edtot heinternal
heatsour ces,thecool i
ngloadofani nternall
yloadedbui ldi
ngr emainsfair
lyconst
ant
.
 Theheatt ransferduetov ent
il
ati
oni snotal oadont hebuildingbutal oadont hesy stem.
Est
imati
onofext ernal l
oads:
1. Heatt ransf erthr oughopaquesur faces:Thi sisasensi bleheattransf
erpr ocess.Theheatt ransferr atet hr
oughopaquesur facessuchas
walls,roof ,fl
oor ,door set c.
2. Heatt ransf erthr oughf enest r
ation:Heatt ransferthrought r
ansparentsurfacesuchasawi ndow, includesheatt ransferbyconduct iondue
totemper aturedi fferenceacr osst hewi ndowandheatt r
ansferduetosol arradiati
ont hrought hewi ndow.Theheatt r
ansf ert hrought he
windowbyconv ect ioniscal culatedusingEq. (35.3),withCLTDbei ngequal tothetemper aturedifferenceacr osst hewi ndowandAequal
tothet otal areaoft hewi ndow.
3. Heatt ransf erduet oi nf
iltration: Heatt r
ansf erduet oinfil
tr
ati
onconsistsofbot hsensi bleaswel lasl atentcomponent s.
4. Mi scel l
aneousext ernal loads: Inaddi t
iont otheabov el oads,i
fthecoolingcoi lhasaposi tiveby -
passf actor(BPF>0) , t
hensomeamount
ofvent i
lationai rdi rect l
yent er sthecondi tionedspace, i
nwhichcasei tbecomesapar toft hebui l
dingcool i
ngl oad.
Est
imati
onofi nternal loads:
1. Loadduet ooccupant s:Thei nternalcoolingloadduet ooccupant sconsistsofbot hsensi bleandl at entheatcomponent s.Ther at
eat
whicht hesensi bl eandl at entheatt ransfertakepl acedependsmai nl
yont hepopul ati
onandact ivi
tyl eveloftheoccupant s.Si ncea
portionoft heheatt ransf erredbyt heoccupant sisint heform ofradi
ation, aCoolingLoadFact or( CLF)shoul dbeusedsi mi lart othat
usedf orr adiationheatt ransf erthroughf enestration.
2. Loadduet olight ing: Light ingaddssensi bleheatt othecondi ti
onedspace.Si ncet heheatt ransferredf rom thel i
ghtingsy stem consi st
sof
bothr adiationandconv ect ion, aCool i
ngLoadFact orisusedt oaccountfort het i
mel ag.
3. Internal loadsduet oequi pmentandappl iances:Theequi pmentandappl iancesusedi nthecondi t i
onedspacemayaddbot hsensi bleas
wellasl atentl oadst othecondi t
ionedspace.Agai n,thesensi bl
eloadmaybei nt hef orm ofr adiationand/ orconv ecti
on
Capaci
tyofr
efr
iger
ator
.
 (TONofr ef
ri
gerat
ion)
 theheatremovalrat
erequi
redt
oproduce1t
onofi
ceat00f
rom 00wat
eri
noneday
.
 =3.5KW.
 Capacit
y=massf lowrateofai
r(h3-h4)

 Fi ndt het otal areaandv ol umeoft heroom.

 Fi ndt het otal numberofpeopl egoi ngtouset her oom andt heiract i
vi
ti
es.
 Fi ndt heheatsour ceswi thint her oom likef an,li
ght,heater,projectoretc.
 Fi ndt hequant i
tyofi n-f i
lteredai r
 Fi ndt heout si
deai rcondi tion.
 Fi ndoutt hei nsidedesi r
edcomf ortcondi t
ion.
 Fi ndt hedi rect i
onoft hebui l
dingandcheckf oranyar eadirectlyexposedt osunlight.
 Fi ndt het otal airf l
owr equi red.
 Fi ndt heper cent agev ent ilationai rtobemi xedwi thr ecir
culatedai r.
 Sor toutsensi bleandl at entheatandt otal i
tsepar ately
.
 Fi ndr oom sensi bl eheatf act or .
 Locat einsi de( 2)andout sideai rcondi t
ions( 1)ont hePsy chromet ricchart.
 Dr awl i
neconnect i
ngt het wo.
 Mar kt hest ateofai raf termi xingf reshairandr ecircul
atedairont hePsy chromet r
icchart(
3).
 Dr awt heRSHl inet hr ough( 2)i nsider oom desi redcondi t
ion.
 Dr awGSHFl i
neconnect i
ngpoi nt( 3)andcoi lADP.
 Mar kt hei ntersect ingpoi ntas( 4) .
 Capaci ty=massf l
owr at eofai r (
h3–h4)
Solarheatgainthr oughgl ass
 : (i
)Doubl epangl assr educest hesol arheatby10%t o20%.
 ( ii
)Speci al heatabsor bi nggl assr educest hesol arheatby25%.
 ( ii
i)Stainedgl asscanr educei tupt o65%dependi nguponi tscol our.
 ( iv)Shadi ngdev icesi nst alledont heout sideofwi ndowsr educesunl oadupt o15%.
 ( v)Vent ilati
onbl indsandcur tainshadesr educei tby30%t o35%.Leakageofout sideai
rint
othebui
l
dingthroughcr
acksandopeni
ngs.
Calcul
ati
onofi nfil
tration
1.Airchangemet hod-t hei nfiltrationi sbasedont hev olumeoft her oom andi sgiv
enbyt henumberoft i
mesairchangestof
il
lthev
olumeofthe
room.
2.Cracklengthmet hod.
Air
-handli
ngSy st
em
Theairhandl i
ngsy stem consist
sof :
1.Air
-di
stributi
onsy stem.Itcompr i
sesvar
iousi
nlet
sforrecal
culat
edairandduct
sf ort
hesupplyai
r.
2.Ductsy stem.Itincludestheretur
nduct,
supplyductandair
-condi
ti
oningappar
atuscompri
singdamper
s,f
il
ter
s,coi
lorai
rwasher
.
3.Fan.Itprovidesnecessaryener gytomovetheair
.–

Ai
r-
dist
ri
but
ionsy
stems
 I ntake.Anopeni ngt hroughwhi chai ri
sr eturnedorexhaust edf rom thespace.
 Out let.Anopeni ngt hroughwhi chai ri
ssuppl i
edt othet reatedspace.
 Gr il
le.Af unct i
onal ordecor at i
v ecov eri
ngf oranout letorintake.
 Resi ster .Agr il
leprov idedwi thadamper .
 Di ff
user .Anout l
etgr i
lledesi gnedt oguidet hedi r
ect i
onoft heai r.
 Thr ow: thehor izontal orv er ti
cal distancet hatanai rst r
eam t ravelsonl eavingtheout let.
Pri
nciplesofAi r-dist ri
but i
on
1.Airshoul dbedi stributedint her oom sot hatther equiredt emper ature,humi dityandai rvel
oci tyaremai nt
ainedi ntheoccupi
edzoneofabout1.8
m abov et hef loor .
2.Airstrat i
fication, temper atur edif f
er ence, deadpocket s,
highdr aft
s,stagnat i
onl ayers,convect i
oncur r
entsandspotcool ingorheati
ngmustbe
avoi
ded.
3.Ther eshoul dbet hor oughmi xingoft hecondi tionedai rdischar gedint other oom throughout l
etswiththeai rinsi
detheroom.
4.Thet emper at ur edi fferenti
al inther oom shoul dnotbel argert han1° C.
5.Thev elocityshoul dbei nther angeof7m/ minutet o17m/ minut etoav oidloworhi ghdrafts.Downf l
owandf lowdirect
edtothefacesofpeople
i
spr eferredt ot heupwar df l
owandf lowdi rectedt obacksorsi desofpeopl e.
6.Freshai risav ai lablei nallpar tsoft her oom.
7.Locat ionofr etur nai r-openings:
 Ther eshoul dnotbeshor t-circui tingofsuppl yairandr eturnai r.
 Ther et urnai rcont ainingdi rt
, gasesorodor sshoul dber emov edwi thoutcausi ngstratif
icat
ioninthecondi ti
onedspace.
 Ther ecommendedv elocityofai ratt hei nl
etoft her eturnair-openingshoul dnotexceed80m/ minut e.Whereasthevel
ocit
yofairatthe
out l
etoft hesuppl ygr il
lesl iesbet ween180t o240m/ mi nute.
 Thewal lreturnneart hef loori sconsi der edbest .
 Acei lingr eturnshoul dbeav oi dedast her eispossi bil
ityofshor tcircuiti
ng
 Floorr etur nsshoul dal sobeav oidedast heyactasdustcol l
ector.

I
nduct
ionRat
ioorEnt
rai
nmentRat
io
 Theai
rleavi
ngtheout l
etispr
imaryair
 Suppl
yairent
rai
nssomer oom ai
r,cal
ledthesecondaryair
.
 Thesum ofpri
mar yandsecondaryairiscal
ledtot
al ai
r.
 Theentr
ainmentrati
oRi sdef
inedast herat
iooftotalai
rtopr
imar
yai
r.Thei
nduct
ioni
sgov
ernedbyt
hemoment
um equat
ion.
Spr
ead
 Spr
eadist
heangl
eofdiv
ergenceofanai
rstream af
teri
tleav
est
heoutl
et.
 Thespr
eadcanbebot
hhorizont
alandv
ert
ical.
Shor
tCi
rcui
ti
ng

Ty
pesofAi
r-
dist
ri
but
ionSy
stems

Ty
pesofsuppl
yai
rout
let
s
 1.Gri
l
leout l
ets.
 2.Sl
otdiff
userout l
ets.
 3.Cei
li
ngdi f
fuseroutlet
s.
 4.Per
foratedceil
ingpanels.
Di
ff
user
s

Per
for
atedcei
l
ingdi
ff
user Jetnozzl
edi
ff
user Roundconi
cal
cei
l
ingdi
ff
userSquar
econi
cal
cei
l
ingdi
ff
user Wal
ldi
ff
useruni
t
AnAirHandli
ngUnit(
AHU)i
susedt
ocondi
ti
onandci
rcul
ateai
raspar
tofaheat
ing,
vent
il
ati
ng,
andair
-condi
ti
oni
ngsyst
em.
 AnAi rHandl ingUni t( AHU)i susedt ocondi t
ionandci rculateairaspar tofaheating,v enti
lating,andai
r-condit
ioningsy stem.
 Thebasi cfunctionoft heAHUi st akei noutsideai r,condi ti
onitandsuppl yf
reshairtoabui lding.Al
lexhaustairisdi scharged,which
securesanaccept ablei ndoorai rqual i
ty.Dependi ngont herequiredtemper atur
eoft hecondi ti
onedair,t
hef r
eshai riseitherheatedbya
recover yunitorheat ingcoi l,orcool edbyacool ingcoi l.
 Inbuildings,wher et hehy gi
enicr equirementsf orai rqual ityar
el ower,someoft heai rfrom ther oomscanber e-circulat
edbyami xing
chamber ,andr esultinsi gnif
icantener gysavings.Ami xingchamberhasdamper sforcont rolli
ngtheratiobetweent heretur
n,outside,
andexhaustai r.
 TheAHUi sal argemet al boxcont ainingsepar at ev entilatorsforsupplyandexhaust ,heatingcoi l
,cool
ingcoil,heating/cooli
ngrecov er
y
system, ai
rfil
terracksorchamber s, soundatt enuat or
s, mi xi
ngchamber ,anddamper s.AHUsconnectt oduct workt hatdistri
butesthe
conditionedai rthrought hebui l
ding, andreturnsi ttot heAHU.
 Aheat /coolingr ecov eryexchangeri snor mallyf ittedtot heAHUf orenergysav i
ngsandi ncreasingcapaci t
y.
 AnAHUdesi gnedf orout dooruse, t
y pical
lyonr oof s,i
sal soknownasar ooft
opunit( RTU) .
Ductdesi
gn–f
act
ors
 Mustabl
etoensuresuffi
ci
entfl
owr at
eofai
r.
 Mi
nimum pressur
eloss-
fri
cti
on.
 Dynamicl
ossesduet osuddenchangesi
nthedi
rect
ionofai
rfl
ow,
inv
eloci
tyet
cmustbemi
nimum.
  Pr
essurelossesduet oabruptchangesi ndimensionsmustbeav oi
ded.
 Abl etoaccommodat ewithintheav ai
labl
e-space.
ShapeandSi
ze
Rectangul
ar
 wi dth-
to-
heightrati
o(aspectr ati
o)prefer
ablynotexceedi
ng1:4
 Lowert heaspectr at
ioheatl ossismi ni
mum
 Rect angul
arduct sareverycommon.
 Di f
fi
culttoaccommodat ether oundductsintheavail
ablespace.
 Round
 Ov al

Mat
eri
alsf
orduct
 Gal vani
zedi r
onsheet.
 Al uminium sheet
 St ai
nlesssteelsheet
 Wood
 PVC
 Fi breglass
 f lexi
bleplastic

Vi
brat
ioni
solators
 Aductsy stem beginswi t
haai rhandli
ngunit.TheblowerintheAHUcancr eatesubst
ant
ial
 vi
brati
onandthelar
geareaoft heduct
system woul dtr
ansmi tt
his noi
seandv ibr
ati
ont otheinhabi
tant
softhebui l
ding.
 Toav oidt hi
s, vi
brat
ionisolator
s(fl
exibl
esections)arenormall
yinser
tedintotheductimmediatelybef
oreandaft
ertheairhandl
er.
 Ther ubberizedcanv as-
li
kemat eri
alofthesesectionsall
owstheairhandlertovibr
atewi
thouttransmit
ti
ngmuchv i
brat
iont ot
he
att
achedduct s.

Ot
hernoi
sereducti
on
 UseofSoundabsor bingmateri
al-Glasswool
,fi
bergl
ass,
miner
alwool
,pol
yur
ethl
i
nef
oam
 Pr oper l
ydesignedAcousti
calbaffl
es
 Ducti susuall
ycoveredwith
 gy psum,
 i sowallbox
 Ther malinsul
ator(
toav oi
dcondensat i
on)
  Acoust i
cinsulator
(toreducesound)
Ther
malinsulat
orscommonl yusedar e
 gl asswool (Fibergl
ass) ,
 blackniger,
 polyfor
m
ARRANGEMENTOFDUCTS
1. Loopper imeterductsy stem.

2. Radi
alductper
imet
ersy
stem

3. Ext
ernal
plenum ductsy
stem

Ductsi
ze
Deter
minationofductsi z
e
 Af t
erdeter mini
ngt helayoutandcalculati
ngt heairf
lowquanti
ti
esatvar
iousoutl
etsthesi
zeoft
heductmaybedet
ermi
nedbyusi
ng
foll
owi ngmet hods
 Equal fri
ctionmet hod(Constantpressureloss)
 St aticregainmet hod
 Vel ocityreductionmet hod
1.Equalf
ri
ct i
onmet hod( constantpressureloss)
 Thesi zeoft heducti sdesignedtogiveequal f
ri
cti
onall
osspermeterl
engthofduct.
 Sui tableforlowv elocit
yductsy st
em
Pr
ocedur
eequal
fri
cti
onmet
hod
 Est
abli
shadesi gnfri
cti
onlossbyselectingav el
ocityi
nthemai nduct
.
 Theknownf lowratethenestabl
ishestheductsizeandt hepressur
eloss/uni
tlengt
hfrom t
heductfr
icti
onlosschart
.
 Thi
spressureloss/unitl
engthisusedt hroughoutthesystem.
 Aft
ersi
zingthesy st
em thepressurelossoft hei
ndexcircuit(
cir
cui
thavi
nglar
gestpressur
eloss)i
scalcul
atedincl
udi
ngt
hatoff
it
ti
ngs
andtr
ansiti
ons.
 Thedif
ferencesinpressur
elossesbet weenductr unsmustbecompensat edbydamping
Ex
ample
 Apackagedai rconditionerser
v esfourroomsinanapar tment
.Theschemat i
clayoutoft
heductsyst em toget
herwitht
hev ol
umef l
ow
ratetoeachroom, isshowni nFi gure.Theductshal
lbeofstandardroundsecti
ons.Theairv
elocit
yi nthefir
stsect
ioni
snott oexceed
25m/ s.Thereisapr essuredropof5Paateachoft heoutl
etgri
ll
esatF,H,
M andK.Assumet heresistanceduetothefi
tti
ngsasbel ow.
 El bow2pa, Teejoint=1Pa
 Det erminethesizeoft heductsy stem usi
ngtheequal-f
ri
cti
onmet hod.
 Est imatethestati
cpr essuredropi neachli
ne

 Pl
otti
ngtheinit
ialv
eloci
tyof25m/ sandfl
owrat
eof6+4+3+2=15m3/
s.Thei
nter
sect
iont
heset
wol
i
nesi
sthr
oughf
ri
cti
onl
ossof7
Pa/
m, whichwillr
emainconst antf
orai
rfl
owi
nallt
hesect
ions.
Sect
ion Vol
umef low(cu.m/sec)Di a(m)
XY 15 0.9
CY 10 0. 75
CGH 4 0. 5
CDF 6 0.6
BI 5 0.55
I
JK 3 0.45
I
LM 2 0.
4
Conv
ert
ingci
rcul
arductt
orect
angul
arduct

Advantage
 I ftheductl ay outi ssy mmet ri
cal givingthesamel engthineachr un,thennodamper sarerequi
redtobal ancethesystem asthismethod
givesequal pr essur elossi nvariousbr anches.
 Sui tablef orl owv elocityduct s
Di
sadvant age
 I fther unsar eofdi fferentlengths, thent heshort
estrunwi l
lhav etheminimum dropandairwillcomeoutwi thhigherpressur
e-damper s
arer equi r
ed-cr eat ehigherl evelofnoi se.
Probl
em- Equal fricti
onmet hod
 Apackagedai rcondi tionerser vesf ourroomsi nanapartment .Theschemat i
clayoutoftheductsy st
em togetherwit
ht hevol
umef low
ratet oeachr oom, isshowni nFi gure.Theductshal lbeofst andardroundsecti
ons.Theairvel
ocityinthefir
stsecti
oni snottoexceed8
m/ s.Ther ei sapr essur edropof25Paateachoft heoutletgril
l
esatE, F,GandH.Assumet heresist
anceduet othef i
tt
ingsasone-
four t
ht hatoft heductl ength.
 Det ermi nethesi zeoft heductsy stem usi ngtheequal-
fr
icti
onmet hod.
 Est imat et hest aticpr essuredr opi neachl i
ne
 Est imat et hest aticpr essuredr opt heindexr un(l
ongestpat h)oftheductnetwork.