Mathematics of paper folding

The art of origami or paper folding has received a considerable amount of mathematical study. Fields of
interest include a given paper model's flat-foldability (whether the model can be flattened without
damaging it) and the use of paper folds to solve mathematical equations.

Contents
History
Pure origami
Flat folding
Huzita–Hatori axioms
Constructions
Haga's theorems
A generalization of Haga's theorems
Doubling the cube
Trisecting an angle
Related problems
See also
Notes and references
Further reading
External links

History
In 1893, Indian civil servant T. Sundara Row published Geometric Exercises in Paper Folding which
used paper folding to demonstrate proofs of geometrical constructions.[1] This work was inspired by the
use of origami in the kindergarten system. This book had an approximate trisection of angles and implied
construction of a cube root was impossible. In 1936 Margharita P. Beloch showed that use of the 'Beloch
fold', later used in the sixth of the Huzita–Hatori axioms, allowed the general cubic equation to be solved
using origami.[2] In 1949, R C Yeates' book "Geometric Methods" described three allowed constructions
corresponding to the first, second, and fifth of the Huzita–Hatori axioms.[3][4] The axioms were
discovered by Jacques Justin in 1989.[5] but were overlooked until the first six were rediscovered by
Humiaki Huzita in 1991. The first International Meeting of Origami Science and Technology (now
known as the International Conference on Origami in Science, Math, and Education) was held in 1989 in
Ferrara, Italy.

Pure origami

Flat folding
The construction of origami models is sometimes shown as crease patterns. The
major question about such crease patterns is whether a given crease pattern can be
folded to a flat model, and if so, how to fold them; this is an NP-complete
problem.[6] Related problems when the creases are orthogonal are called map
folding problems. There are three mathematical rules for producing flat-foldable
origami crease patterns:[7]
Mountain-valley
counting
1. Maekawa's theorem: at any vertex the number of valley and mountain
folds always differ by two.

It follows from this that every vertex has an even number of

creases, and therefore also the regions between the creases can
be colored with two colors.

2. Kawasaki's theorem: at any vertex, the sum of all the odd angles adds
up to 180 degrees, as do the even.
Two-colorability
3. A sheet can never penetrate a fold.
Paper exhibits zero Gaussian curvature at all points on its surface, and only folds
naturally along lines of zero curvature. Curved surfaces that can't be flattened can be
produced using a non-folded crease in the paper, as is easily done with wet paper or
a fingernail.

Assigning a crease pattern mountain and valley folds in order to produce a flat
model has been proven by Marshall Bern and Barry Hayes to be NP-complete.[8] Angles around a
Further references and technical results are discussed in Part II of Geometric vertex
Folding Algorithms.[9]

Huzita–Hatori axioms
Some classical construction problems of geometry — namely trisecting an arbitrary angle or doubling the
cube — are proven to be unsolvable using compass and straightedge, but can be solved using only a few
paper folds.[10] Paper fold strips can be constructed to solve equations up to degree 4. The Huzita–Hatori
axioms are an important contribution to this field of study. These describe what can be constructed using
a sequence of creases with at most two point or line alignments at once. Complete methods for solving all
equations up to degree 4 by applying methods satisfying these axioms are discussed in detail in
Geometric Origami.[11]

Constructions
As a result of origami study through the application of geometric principles, methods such as Haga's
theorem have allowed paperfolders to accurately fold the side of a square into thirds, fifths, sevenths, and
ninths. Other theorems and methods have allowed paperfolders to get other shapes from a square, such as
equilateral triangles, pentagons, hexagons, and special rectangles such as the golden rectangle and the
silver rectangle. Methods for folding most regular polygons up to and including the regular 19-gon have
been developed.[11] A regular n-gon can be constructed by paper folding if and only if (n) is 3-smooth,
where is Euler's totient function.

Haga's theorems
The side of a square can be divided at an arbitrary rational fraction
in a variety of ways. Haga's theorems say that a particular set of
constructions can be used for such divisions.[12] Surprisingly few
folds are necessary to generate large odd fractions. For instance 1⁄5
can be generated with three folds; first halve a side, then use Haga's
theorem twice to produce first 2⁄3 and then 1⁄5.

The accompanying diagram shows Haga's first theorem:

BQ is always a rational if AP is.

The function changing the length AP to QC is self inverse. Let x be
AP then a number of other lengths are also rational functions of x.
For example:

Haga's first theorem

AP BQ QC AR PQ

1⁄ 2⁄ 1⁄ 3⁄ 5⁄
2 3 3 8 6

1⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄ 4⁄ 5⁄
3 2 2 9 6

2⁄ 4⁄ 1⁄ 5⁄ 13⁄
3 5 5 18 15

1⁄ 1⁄ 2⁄ 12⁄ 13⁄
5 3 3 25 15

A generalization of Haga's theorems

Haga's theorems are generalized as follows:

Therefore BQ:CQ=k:1 implies AP:BP=k:2 for a positive real number k. [13]

Doubling the cube

The classical problem of doubling the cube can be solved using origami. This construction is due to Peter
Messer:[14] A square of paper is first creased into three equal strips as shown in the diagram. Then the
bottom edge is positioned so the corner point P is on the top edge and the crease mark on the edge meets
the other crease mark Q. The length PB will then be the cube root of 2 times the length of AP.[15]

The edge with the crease mark is considered a marked straightedge, something which is not allowed in
compass and straightedge constructions. Using a marked straightedge in this way is called a neusis
construction in geometry.
 Doubling the cube: PB/PA = cube
root of 2

Trisecting an angle
Angle trisection is another of the classical problems that cannot be
solved using a compass and unmarked ruler but can be solved using
origami. This construction is due to Hisashi Abe.[14] The angle CAB
is trisected by making folds PP' and QQ' parallel to the base with
QQ' halfway in between. Then point P is folded over to lie on line
AC and at the same time point A is made to lie on line QQ' at A'.
The angle A'AB is one third of the original angle CAB. This is
because PAQ, A'AQ and A'AR are three congruent triangles.
Aligning the two points on the two lines is another neusis
construction as in the solution to doubling the cube.[16]
Trisecting the angle CAB

Related problems
The problem of rigid origami, treating the folds as hinges joining two flat, rigid surfaces, such as sheet
metal, has great practical importance. For example, the Miura map fold is a rigid fold that has been used
to deploy large solar panel arrays for space satellites.

The napkin folding problem is the problem of whether a square or rectangle of paper can be folded so the
perimeter of the flat figure is greater than that of the original square.

Curved origami also poses a (very different) set of mathematical challenges.[17] Curved origami allows
the paper to form developable surfaces that are not flat.

Wet-folding origami allows an even greater range of shapes.

The maximum number of times an incompressible material can be folded has been derived. With each
fold a certain amount of paper is lost to potential folding. The loss function for folding paper in half in a
single direction was given to be , where L is the minimum length of the paper
(or other material), t is the material's thickness, and n is the number of folds possible.[18] The distances L
and t must be expressed in the same units, such as inches. This result was derived by Gallivan in 2001,
who also folded a sheet of paper in half 12 times, contrary to the popular belief that paper of any size
could be folded at most eight times. She also derived the equation for folding in alternate directions.[19]

The fold-and-cut problem asks what shapes can be obtained by folding a piece of paper flat, and making
a single straight complete cut. The solution, known as the fold-and-cut theorem, states that any shape
with straight sides can be obtained.

A practical problem is how to fold a map so that it may be manipulated with minimal effort or
movements. The Miura fold is a solution to the problem, and several others have been proposed.[20]

See also
Flexagon
Lill's method
Napkin folding problem
Map folding
Regular paperfolding sequence (for example, the dragon curve)

Notes and references

1. T. Sundara Rao (1917). Beman, Wooster; Smith, David (eds.). Geometric Exercises in
Paper Folding (https://archive.org/details/tsundararowsgeo00rowrich/page/n103). The Open
Court Publishing Company.
2. Hull, Thomas C. (2011). "Solving cubics with creases: the work of Beloch and Lill" (http://ma
rs.wne.edu/~thull/papers/amer.math.monthly.118.04.307-hull.pdf) (PDF). American
Mathematical Monthly. 118 (4): 307–315. doi:10.4169/amer.math.monthly.118.04.307 (http
s://doi.org/10.4169%2Famer.math.monthly.118.04.307). MR 2800341 (https://www.ams.org/
mathscinet-getitem?mr=2800341).
3. George Edward Martin (1997). Geometric constructions. Springer. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-387-
98276-2.
4. Robert Carl Yeates (1949). Geometric Tools. Louisiana State University.
5. Justin, Jacques, "Resolution par le pliage de l'equation du troisieme degre et applications
geometriques", reprinted in Proceedings of the First International Meeting of Origami
Science and Technology, H. Huzita ed. (1989), pp. 251–261.
6. Thomas C. Hull (2002). "The Combinatorics of Flat Folds: a Survey". The Proceedings of
the Third International Meeting of Origami Science, Mathematics, and Education. AK
Peters. arXiv:1307.1065 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1307.1065). ISBN 978-1-56881-181-9.
7. "Robert Lang folds way-new origami" (http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/robert_lang_folds
_way_new_origami.html).
8. Bern, Marshall; Hayes, Barry (1996). "The complexity of flat origami" (http://dl.acm.org/citati
on.cfm?id=313918). Proceedings of the Seventh Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on
Discrete Algorithms (Atlanta, GA, 1996). ACM, New York. pp. 175–183. MR 1381938 (http
s://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1381938).
9. Demaine, Erik D.; O'Rourke, Joseph (2007). Geometric folding algorithms. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511735172 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2F
CBO9780511735172). ISBN 978-0-521-85757-4. MR 2354878 (https://www.ams.org/maths
cinet-getitem?mr=2354878).
10. Tom Hull. "Origami and Geometric Constructions" (http://mars.wne.edu/~thull/omfiles/geoco
nst.html).
11. Geretschläger, Robert (2008). Geometric Origami (http://www.arbelos.co.uk/GeometricOriga
mi.html). UK: Arbelos. ISBN 978-0-9555477-1-3.
12. Koshiro. "How to Divide the Side of Square Paper" (http://origami.gr.jp/Archives/People/CA
GE_/divide/02-e.html). Japan Origami Academic Society.
13. Hiroshi Okumura (2014). "A Note on Haga's theorems in paper folding" (http://forumgeom.fa
u.edu/FG2014volume14/FG201423.pdf) (PDF). Forum Geometricorum. 14: 241–242.
14. Lang, Robert J (2008). "From Flapping Birds to Space Telescopes: The Modern Science of
Origami" (http://static.usenix.org/event/usenix08/tech/slides/lang.pdf) (PDF). Usenix
Conference, Boston, MA.
15. Peter Messer (1986). "Problem 1054" (https://cms.math.ca/crux/backfile/Crux_v12n10_Dec.
pdf) (PDF). Crux Mathematicorum. 12 (10): 284–285 – via Canadian Mathematical Society.
16. Michael J Winckler; Kathrin D Wold; Hans Georg Bock (2011). "Hands-on Geometry with
Origami". Origami 5. CRC Press. p. 225. ISBN 978-1-56881-714-9.
17. Siggraph: "Curved Origami" (http://www.siggraph.org/s2008/attendees/design/22.php)
18. Korpal, Gaurish (25 November 2015). "Folding Paper in Half" (http://teachersofindia.org/en/
ebook/folding-paper-half). At Right Angles. 4 (3): 20–23.
19. Weisstein, Eric W. "Folding" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Folding.html). MathWorld.
20. Hull, Thomas (2002). "In search of a practical map fold". Math Horizons. 3 (3): 22–24.
JSTOR 25678354 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25678354).

Further reading
Demaine, Erik D., "Folding and Unfolding" (http://erikdemaine.org/papers/dthesis/), PhD
thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, 2001.
Haga, Kazuo (2008). Fonacier, Josefina C; Isoda, Masami (eds.). Origamics: Mathematical
Explorations Through Paper Folding. University of Tsukuba, Japan: World Scientific
Publishing. ISBN 978-981-283-490-4.
Lang, Robert J. (2003). Origami Design Secrets: Mathematical Methods for an Ancient Art.
A K Peters. ISBN 978-1-56881-194-9.
Dureisseix, David, "Folding optimal polygons from squares" (https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/
hal-00321386), Mathematics Magazine 79(4): 272–280, 2006. doi:10.2307/27642951 (http
s://doi.org/10.2307%2F27642951)
Dureisseix, David, "An Overview of Mechanisms and Patterns with Origami" (https://hal.arch
ives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00687311), International Journal of Space Structures 27(1): 1–14, 2012.
doi:10.1260/0266-3511.27.1.1 (https://doi.org/10.1260%2F0266-3511.27.1.1)

External links
Dr. Tom Hull. "Origami Mathematics Page" (http://mars.wne.edu/~th297133/origamimath.ht
ml).
Paper Folding Geometry (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/PaperFolding/index.shtml)
at cut-the-knot
Dividing a Segment into Equal Parts by Paper Folding (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagor
as/PaperFolding/SegmentDivision.shtml) at cut-the-knot
Britney Gallivan has solved the Paper Folding Problem (https://web.archive.org/web/200511
02085038/http://pomonahistorical.org/12times.htm)
Overview of Origami Axioms (http://plus.maths.org/content/power-origami)
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